Zionism

Theodor Herzl, father of political Zionism.

Zionism is an ideology and a nationalist political movement that proposed from its inception the establishment of a State for the Jewish people, preferably in the ancient Land of Israel (Eretz Israel). . This movement was the promoter and largely responsible for the founding of the State of Israel.

Zionism appeared in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 19th century. Its founder as an organized movement was the Austro-Hungarian journalist of Jewish origin Theodor Herzl in response to the anti-Semitic wave that swept through Europe in those years, one of whose exponents was the Dreyfus affair. The movement's objective was to encourage Jewish emigration to Palestine and achieved its main goal with the founding of the State of Israel in 1948.

Zionism constitutes an offshoot of the broader phenomenon of modern nationalism. Described as "nationalism in the diaspora," Zionism describes itself as a national liberation movement, whose goal is the free self-determination of the Jewish people.

Terminology

The term Zionism derives from the word Zion (Hebrew: ציון, one of the Biblical names for Jerusalem). This name initially refers to Mount Zion, a mountain near Jerusalem, and Zion's stronghold on it. Later, during the reign of King David, the term "Zion" it became a synecdoche to refer to the entire city of Jerusalem and the Land of Israel. In many Bible verses, the Israelites were called the people, sons or daughters of Zion.

"Zionism" was coined as a term by the Austrian publisher of Jewish origin Nathan Birnbaum, founder of the Jewish student movement Kadima , in his diary Selbstemanzipation (Self-emancipation) in 1890.

According to historians Walter Laqueur, Howard Sachar, and Jack Fischel, among others, the label "Zionist" it is also used as a euphemism for Jews, in general, by apologists for antisemitism.

History

Since the first century AD. C. Jews have lived in exile, although there has been a constant presence of Jews in the Land of Israel ("Eretz Israel"). According to Judaism and the Bible, the Land of Israel or Zion is the Land Promised by God to the Jews. Following the Bar Kochba rebellion (132–135), the Jews were expelled from the Land of Israel, forming the Jewish Diaspora. For centuries there existed among the Jews of the Diaspora a great nostalgia of religious origin to return to the historic homeland of the Jewish people – "next year, in Jerusalem..." – which, in the middle of the century XIX, began to secularize when it came into contact with the great European ideological currents of the time (liberalism, socialism, nationalism).

The birth of Zionism is linked to the emergence of nationalisms in the European 19th century, which had as their common banner the idea of "one people, one State" and which is at the origin of the concept of nation-state. In the heat of this idea, different European States were formed, arising from the dismemberment of empires or through the unification of States with similar culture and language (such as Italy and Germany). Parallel to this nationalist development, crossing it on many occasions, modern anti-Semitism developed.

Zionism held that Jews were primarily a national group (like the Poles or Germans) and not a religious group (like Muslims or Catholics) and that, as such, they had the right to create their own state in their own right. historical territory. The classic formulation of the idea is the one made by Theodor Herzl in his booklet Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State, published in Berlin and Vienna in 1896), which has doctrinal precedents the work of Moses Hess Rome and Jerusalem (1860) and that of the Russian Jewish doctor Leo Pinsker Self-Emancipation (1882), which already contains the slogan «Help yourselves, God will help you ».

Zionism set as its primary objective the creation of a modern Jewish state, considering that this would return to the Jewish people its status as a nation and would put an end to two millennia of life in exile. Given the great difficulties that the Jews faced to establish themselves in the ancient Land of Israel, some temporary alternatives were considered, with no intention of establishing a national State, only as a refuge from the wave of pogroms and persecutions in Tsarist Russia, such as Argentina —in which numerous colonies of European Jewish immigrants were created—, and even in a portion of British East Africa (known as the Uganda Plan), offered by the London government; These were studied (Herzl himself studies in his work the comparative advantages of Argentina and Palestine) and in the end they were rejected by the Zionist leadership, and the establishment of the future State in Palestine was preferred, a region in the hands of the Turkish Empire and which was not it corresponded to no administrative division, so its limits were not established.

In parallel to these ideas, there were successive waves of migration (called Aliyah) of many young workers and students, mostly escaping from the anti-Semitic Russian environment and willing to raise the old Jewish homeland. based on two axes: agricultural work and the resurrection of the Hebrew language, which stopped being spoken around the I century B.C. C., although it continued to be used in literature and, above all, in the liturgy and for academic purposes.

Jewish immigration to Eretz Yisrael began in 1882. The so-called First Aliyah saw the arrival of around 35,000 Jews in the term of about twenty years. Most of the immigrants came from Russia, where anti-Semitism was rampant. They founded a series of agricultural settlements with the financial support of Western European Jewish philanthropists.

The Second Aliyah began in 1904. Other Aliyots, each time with more immigrants, followed one another between the two world wars, prompted in the 1930s by Nazi persecution. Immigrants continue to arrive in Israel, especially from the former Soviet Union.

The Balfour Declaration of 1917 supported the creation of a Jewish Homeland in the British Mandate of Palestine. In 1922, the League of Nations endorsed the statement made in its mandate to Great Britain:

The Mandate (...) shall guarantee the establishment of the Jewish National Home, as set out in the preamble, as well as the development of autonomous institutions, and also the safeguarding of the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine, regardless of their race and religion.

Throughout the 20th century Zionism gradually gained adherents, and after the Holocaust it became the predominant movement within the Jewish world. On the other hand, the appearance of an initially similar project for a territorialized nation, launched in 1928 by the Soviet regime, the Autonomous Hebrew Republic, which ended in failure in the mid-1930s, turned out not to be attractive enough to provoke a massive or stable emigration.

The project of a new Israel in Palestine was fruitful due to several factors:

• Despite the passing of the centuries, the Jews never stopped longing for the return to Jerusalem, a longing reflected in the desire expressed in many Jewish festivities, Leshanah Haba`a Birushalayim (“Next year, in Jerusalem”), or in the millennial habit of breaking a cup in every Jewish marriage, reminiscing the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem and the consequent dispersion. The idea gained popularity at the end of the centuryXIX, being the emotional component of nascent Zionism. There was a need for labour and a lot of money, the projects in Uganda or Argentina were not so attractive. The land purchased from Turkish landowners was pedregals, lodazales, swamps and a great transformation was required. By the beginning of the centuryXX., 6% of the lands of Eretz Israel were of the Jews.

• Little Jewish communities had been inhabiting the area for centuries. As for example, in Safed the cabalistic community from which Isaac Luria arose, formed mainly by Sephardicians expelled in 1492, hosted by the Ottoman Empire, but previously Saladin claimed the entrance of Jews when he decided to rebuild Jerusalem, there is a family that never left the city.
• The Dreyfus case, which negatively affected the hopes of equal rights and opportunities that Illuminism had awakened in the European Jewish community.
• The sympathy of the Turkish landowners, who found in the money and Jewish push a way of lifting an area they considered to be a motto;^{[chuckles]required]}, an opinion that lasted until the early 1930s in which the Mufti of Jerusalem began to express his filonazi tale (he was living in Germany, he was a personal friend of several of the Nazi hierarchs, led the Bosnian Filonazi Muslims who dragged the area and fled before being arrested to be judged).
• The situation of the Jews in Eastern Europe. In tsarist Russia they passed to a fanatical anti-Semite Zar, which entailed strongly restrictive legislation. Jewish children were abducted before they reached the age of thirteen for their entry into a russification programme, children up to eight years of age entering compulsory military service. Or continued attacks on Russian villages, prohibitions of entry into certain major cities, lack of freedom of movement... That made Zionism go deeper into Jewish society of the time.
• The progressive advance of fascism, which was accompanied by a cutback of certain newly achieved freedoms and the reopening of old restrictions.

Objectives

The objectives of Zionism were put into practice by the World Zionist Organization (political body of the Zionist Movement), founded in 1897 in Basel by Theodor Herzl, considered the father of Zionism in general and of the political branch in particular (other branches They are: socialist Zionism, revisionist Zionism, religious Zionism, etc.).

Until the Holocaust, the Zionist idea competed with another equally widespread current, especially in the United States and Western Europe, which did not consider the Jews as a people, but as a religious minority that should integrate and fight for their full equality in the societies in which they lived. An extreme form of this last idea even advocated renouncing the Jewish religion.

Zionism combines two elements: independence and sovereignty, on the one hand, and the centrality of Israel in Jewish identity, on the other. The goals of the Zionist movement are outlined in the 2004 Jerusalem Program:

The goals of Zionism are:

1. The unity of the Jewish people, their bond with their historical homeland (the Land of Israel) and the centrality of the State of Israel and Jerusalem their capital, in the life of the people.
2. It assists Israel from all countries and its integration into Israeli society.
3. The strengthening of Israel as a Jewish-Zionist and democratic State and its modeling as an exemplary society, possessing a unique moral and spiritual character, based on mutual respect for the multifaceted Jewish people and the prophetic vision that aspires to peace and contributes to the improvement of the world.
4. The guarantee of the future and distinction of the Jewish people through the promotion of Jewish, Hebrew and Zionist education, the cultivation of Jewish cultural and spiritual values, and the institution of the Hebrew language as their national language.
5. The cultivation of Jewish mutual responsibility, the defence of the rights of Jews, both individual and national, the representation of the Zionist national interests of the Jewish people and the fight against all forms of anti-Semitic expression.
6. The population of the country as a practical expression of the Zionist realization.

Types of Zionism

Over the years a variety of schools of thought have evolved with different schools prevailing at different times. In addition, Zionists came from a wide variety of backgrounds, and at times different national groups—such as Russian, German, Polish, British, or American Jews—have exerted great influence.

Zionism has several ideologies and some of them today make up political parties in the State of Israel:

Socialist Zionism

Around 1900 the main rival to Zionism among young Jews in Eastern Europe was the Socialist Movement. Many Jews were abandoning Judaism in favor of communism or in support of Bundism, a socialist Jewish movement that called for Jewish autonomy in Eastern Europe and for Yiddish to be promoted as the official Jewish language.

Many Socialist Zionists were originally from Russia. After centuries of being oppressed by anti-Semitic societies, the Jews had been reduced to obedience, a vulnerable, desperate existence in which they were invited to follow anti-Semitism. They held that Jews could escape their situation by becoming farmers, workers, and soldiers in their own country. Most socialists refused to perpetuate religion as a "diaspora mentality" among the Jewish people and established rural communes in Israel called kibbutz (voice with invariable plural). Leading theorists of Socialist Zionism include Moses Hess, Nahum Syrkin, Dov Ber Borojov, and Aaron David Gordon, and leading figures of the movement David Ben-Gurion and Berl Katznelson are counted.

Most Socialist Zionists considered Yiddish as the language of exile, adopting Hebrew as the common language among Jews in Israel. Socialism and Labor Zionism were ardently secularist with many atheist Zionists opposing religion. Consequently, the movement often had an antagonistic relationship with Orthodox Judaism.

Socialist Zionism sought to establish a Jewish State in which Judaism was considered a nationality, and that the bases of the State were identified with socialism, that is, communal work. They had great strength since the Second Aliyah, today they make up the Avodá party or Labor Party.

Socialist Zionism became the dominant force in the political and economic life of the Yishuv during the British Mandate - partly as a consequence of its role in organizing Jewish economic life through the Histadrut - and was the ideology dominant part of the political class in Israel until the 1977 elections, when the Avodah party was defeated.

Fundamental in the expansion of socialist Zionism was the work of youth movements in the Diaspora, which educated Jewish youth in the values of the movement, also training them for their future life on kibbutz in Israel. Some of these movements continue to exist to this day, such as Hashomer Hatzair and Habonim Dror.

Revisionist Zionism

Revisionist Zionism was a group founded and led by Zeev Jabotinsky. During the British Mandate he lobbied Britain to allow mass Jewish immigration and for the formation of a Jewish Mandate army.

Revisionism was very popular in Poland but lacked the necessary support from the Land of Israel. In 1935 the revisionist left and the Zionist Organization formed an alternative, the New Zionist Organization. He rejoined the World Zionist Organization in 1946.

Revisionist Zionism believes in settling the land and opposes Socialist Zionism. The revisionists seek to maintain firm Jewish traditionalism, as the pride of the nation. They mostly support the idea of returning to the geographical limits of the ancient Jewish state. Today it is represented by the Likud Party, which is the strongest party in Israel being labeled as the Israeli right.

General Zionism

General Zionism was initially the term used by members of the World Zionist Organization who had not joined a particular faction or any specific party, belonging only to the Zionist organizations of their respective countries. As the years passed, the General Zionists also created ideological institutions and formed the Organization of General Zionists, established in 1922 as the center party of the Zionist movement. The precepts of the general Zionists included a Basel-style Zionism, exempt from ideological positions, that is, with primacy of Zionism over any class, partisan or personal interest.

Religious Zionism

Primarily promoted by Rabbi Kalisher, it unites the ideals of creating a Jewish state with religion. Their ideology is summed up in one sentence: "The People of Israel, in the Land of Israel, according to the Torah of Israel." That is to say, to govern a State with religious bases and to settle in the entire Land of Israel, as marked by the reign of Solomon. Today they represent the National Religious Party (Mafdal).

Christian Zionism

Christian Zionism is a movement that emerged within mainly evangelical Christianity, but not limited solely to this denomination, which supports the idea of a national home for Jews since before 1948 and continues to support the existence of the State of Israel to date (Ice, 1997).

Christian Zionism is the belief among some Christians that the return of the Jewish people to the Holy Land, and the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, were the fulfillment of Biblical prophecy. The term began to be used in the mid-20th century, replacing Christian restorationism.

Catholicism has not traditionally paid much attention to Zionism, but Christian support for the movement grew among the Protestant community.

Some Christian Zionists believe that the return of the Jews to the Land of Israel is a prerequisite for the second coming of Jesus. The idea is common among Protestants, since the times of the Reformation, Christians have actively supported the return of the Jews to the Land of Israel, along with the idea that the Jews must convert to Christianity to fulfill the prophecy. biblical.

Other variants

Political Zionism

Its highest exponent was Theodor Herzl, and proposed the establishment of a sovereign and independent Jewish State through diplomatic and political methods. It considered that, in order for a possible Jewish State to arise, it was more important to reach a fundamental agreement with the world powers to legally and internationally legitimize the existence of the same, so that action should first be taken in the political field to succeed the Zionist company.

Conducting Zionism

Proposed by Menachem Ussishkin, proposed the establishment of agricultural settlements and their development. Unlike political Zionism, he considered it more relevant to the creation of a Jewish State that had the solid, demographic and material bases in the specific land where it would be created, which would later give rise to the political recognition of the international community, so he devoted his efforts mainly to Jewish immigration rather than to diplomatic activity to convince public opinion.

Synthetic Zionism

It sought the fusion of political ideologies and leaders in common objectives, was proposed mainly by Jaim Weizmann. It considered that the postulates of political Zionism were not contradictory with regard to the Zionism of the performer, because it argued that, in order for a Jewish State to be created, it was necessary international legal recognition and at the same time to begin to install the solid material bases on the land where the new State would emerge. In this regard, it did not prioritize among the diplomatic efforts around the world by influential personalities and youth migration projects to establish a Jewish population in the future country. This type of Zionism marked, from the leadership of Weizmann onwards, the historical activity and the way of carrying it out in the Zionist movement in the struggle for the establishment of the Hebrew State, whose efforts would be directed in practical Jewish immigration (Aliyá) and at the same time in political pressures to obtain legal recognition by the international community.

Spiritual Zionism

Proposed by Ahad Haam, he proposed the creation of a spiritual centre in Palestine, he was opposed to Herzl, as he completely separated the policy from his objectives.

Opposition movements (anti-Zionism)

Members of the Jewish anti-Zionist and propalestinian Orthodox group Neturei Karta with banners in which he puts "Judaism and Zionism are opposite extremes"and..."Stop the hunger of the Palestinians".

Zionism did not receive in its beginnings – at the end of the century XIX – the majority support of the Jews. In particular, he did not enjoy the sympathy of the majority of Western European Jews, who believed that they could consider themselves as citizens with full rights in their respective countries, after the airs of emancipation and tolerance brought about by the Enlightenment and the state. classic nineteenth-century liberal. The most exacerbated form of opposition to Zionist ideas was known as integrationism (also called "assimilationism"), and claimed that Zionism was analogous to anti-Semitism, insofar as both deny nationality. from a certain country to the Jews. An extreme manifestation of integrationism is the conversion to the Christian faith. A famous example of anti-Zionism was that of Edwin Samuel Montagu, a Jewish minister in the British Government who put many obstacles in the way of writing the Balfour Declaration, calling it anti-Semitic. Opposition to Zionism also existed among the Bundist movement in Eastern Europe, which sought cultural autonomy for Jews in the countries where they lived; as well as most Orthodox Jews. Among the latter there is still some ambiguity and even hostility to Zionism. The Dreyfus case was decisive in inspiring Herzl, considering Zionism as the only plausible and effective solution against European anti-Semitism. The emotional impact of the Holocaust definitively convinced many assimilated, socialist and orthodox Jews, refractory to Zionism, who remained in Europe.

In Eastern Europe, where Zionism became strong due in large part to the incessant persecutions to which Jews were subjected by Tsarism, the idea of a Jewish state, or even of a Jewish people, was rejected by many Jewish members of revolutionary, Marxist or anarchist organizations, who considered that the Jewish condition derived from religion and that, once this was eradicated, the distinction between Jews and non-Jews would disappear. These ideas did not prevent, however, that there was also a significant socialist Zionist movement.

The Arab population of Palestine, supported by the Arab League, opposed Zionism, refusing to accept the partition of the British Mandate of Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab, according to the United Nations recommendation of 29 November 1947. The pre-existing armed conflicts between Jews and Arabs in the region before the partition of Palestine finally led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War due to the proclamation of independence by the State of Israel, and the refusal of the Arab countries neighbors to recognize him by opposing the partition of Palestine. The war had different readings depending on the different analyses, for example Jacques Pirenne considered that the Liberation Army opted for the destruction of the nascent Jewish State, unleashing "a war of extermination" being defeated along with the Yarmouk, the Jews being victorious and unleashing the war. Arab League a powerful offensive that was rejected on almost all fronts. For his part, Ilan Pappé, a professor at the University of Haifa, maintains that the 1948 war was an ethnic cleansing committed by Israel against the Palestinian people, which is why what the Israelis know as the "War of Independence" for the Palestinians is the "Nakba", the "catastrophe". The war resulted in the exile of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs, the expansion of Israel beyond the limits established in the UN partition plan and the occupation by Egypt and Transjordan of the part assigned to the Arab State and the international zone of Jerusalem. The conflict was felt beyond the Palestinian borders, since the Jewish communities that lived in Arab countries (many from before being Arabized and Islamized), were forced to emigrate in the following decades, potential victims of "anti-Zionism" The phenomenon had different characteristics depending on the country, although in general it practically liquidated the Jewish communities in Arab countries. Some sources emphasize Judeophobia and migration immediately after the 1948 war, while others point to a much longer emigration process and due to a multiplicity of factors, including echoes of the Arab conflict. -Israeli, to which are added economic, cultural and others. Here's a chart that sums it up:

Great Britain, despite having taken the first step towards the creation of a Jewish state with the Balfour Declaration, made it very difficult for Jews to immigrate to the British Mandate of Palestine, even during World War II (see Book Blanco de 1939) and hesitated to facilitate its application. It even came to consider its repeal so as not to harm its geostrategic interests in the Middle East or damage its alliances with Arab countries. The serious conflicts that the Zionist plans generated among the Arab population of Palestine also advised the British to maintain the status quo prior to the war (which was specified in the so-called White Paper of 1939) and wait for the UN to redefine the Mandate of the extinct League of Nations.

Although increasingly minority, within Judaism there are still anti-Zionists for religious reasons and with varying degrees of opposition, such as the Haredim or some ultra-Orthodox and relatively minority groups such as Neturei Karta, the latter opposed to the current State of Israel, In addition to secular groups of dissident secular Jews and opponents of the State of Israel, and independent Jewish intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, Norman Finkelstein, Shlomo Sand; or gentile personalities opposed to Zionism, such as the American journalist Helen Thomas.

Resolution 3379

In 1975, at the height of the Cold War, the UN General Assembly adopted, at the impulse of the Arab countries, and with the support of the Soviet bloc and the non-aligned bloc, resolution 3379, of a declaratory and non-binding nature, which considered Zionism as a form of racism and made it comparable to South African Apartheid (72 votes in favor, 35 against and 32 abstentions). The alignment of the Arab and socialist countries and those belonging to the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries responded to the logic of the bipolar confrontation of the Cold War. Said block vote produced a majority in the UN that was organized to systematically condemn Israel in resolutions such as: 3089, 3210, 3236, 32/40, etc.

On the other hand, the resolution must also be read in light of the policies of the so-called Third Worldism promoted by political figures such as Mexican President Luis Echeverría. This, in a political calculation, used the World Conference of the International Women's Year as a platform to project his own figure as a leading member of the Non-Aligned Movement and seeking the General Secretariat of the United Nations. The foregoing produced a tourist boycott by the American Jewish community against Mexico that made visible internal and external conflicts of Echeverría's policies.

The then Israeli ambassador and future President of Israel, Chaim Herzog, tore the document to pieces in front of the Assembly. In 1991, Israel put the annulment of resolution 3379 as a condition for its participation in the Madrid Conference, which led to its being repealed when resolution 4686 was approved (111 in favor, 25 against and 11 abstentions).

Recognition of Israel in the Arab and Islamic world

Egypt was the first Arab state to recognize the State of Israel, and the others would do so after the PLO itself recognized the Jewish state in 1988. Currently there are Palestinian organizations that recognize Israel's right to exist, although the two largest parties, Hamas and Fatah, deny Israel that right. Among those who continue to hold anti-Zionist positions are the Iranian authorities.

Particularities of Zionism

Zionism was established on the basis of the association between the Jewish people and the Land of Israel. Aliyah to the Land of Israel is a recurring theme in Jewish prayers. Zionists consider Jews living outside of Israel to be exiles. The rejection of life in the diaspora is central to Zionism. Underlining this attitude is the feeling that the Jewish diaspora restricts the full growth of individual Jewish and national life. Zionists generally prefer to speak in Hebrew, a Semitic language that developed in conditions of freedom in ancient Judah, modernized and adapted to everyday life. Sometimes they refuse to speak Yiddish, a language they consider affected by Christian persecution. Once they emigrate to Israel, many Zionists refuse to speak their mother tongue and take Hebrew names. The main aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in Israel's Declaration of Independence:

The land of Israel was the cradle of the Jewish people. Here his spiritual, religious and national identity was forged. Here for the first time he achieved his sovereignty, creating cultural values of national and universal meaning, and gave the world the eternal Book of Books.

After being exiled by the force of his land, the people kept him faithful throughout his Dispersion and never ceased to pray and wait for his return to it for the restoration of his political freedom.

Driven by this historic and traditional bond, the Jews sought to restore themselves to their ancestral homeland in every generation. In recent decades they returned in mass.

Diaspora Denial

According to Eliezer Shweid, the denial of life in the diaspora is an idea in all currents of Zionism. Underlining this attitude was the feeling that the Diaspora restricted the full growth of Jewish national life.

Adoption of Hebrew

Zionists prefer to speak Hebrew, a Semitic language that developed under conditions of freedom in the ancient Kingdom of Judah and ceased to be spoken around the century I a. C., modernizing it and adapting it to daily life. The main person responsible for the resurrection of Hebrew as a spoken language from its previous status as a liturgical language was precisely a Zionist, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda. Zionists sometimes refuse to speak Yiddish, a language derived from Middle High German which they consider affected by Christian persecution. Once they emigrate to Israel, many Zionists refuse to speak their native language in the Diaspora and give themselves new Hebrew names.

Greater Israel

Zionism currently claims territories belonging to Greater Israel, mostly:^{[citation required]}

• Israel,
• Palestine,
• West Bank,
• Gaza Strip,
• Golan Heights and
• Sinai Peninsula.

Reaction to antisemitism

On this issue, historian Zeev Sternhell distinguishes between two schools of thought in Zionism. One is the liberal or utilitarian school of Herzl and Nordau. Especially after the Dreyfus affair they say that anti-Semitism will never go away, and they see Zionism as a rational solution for the Jews. The other is the rational nationalist school. It is prevalent among the Jews of Eretz Yisrael, and sees Zionism as a project to rescue the Jewish nation and not a project to rescue the Jews. Zionism was a problem in the "Renaissance of the Nation."

Anti-Semitism and Zionism

In France, personalities such as Xavier Vallat, the Vichy regime's minister for Jewish affairs, or Lucien Rebatet, a collaborationist writer who called for the extermination of the Jews during the war, supported Israel against the Palestinians. The apartheid leaders in South Africa, often antisemitic, supported Israel.

Leading Figures of Zionism