Veganism

Symbol widely used to denote a vegan product.

Veganism, from English veganism, is the attitude consisting of rejecting the use of products of animal origin, together with a doctrine or philosophy that refuses to conceive of animals as merchandise, whether for clothing, medicines, cosmetics, transport, experimentation, help at work or entertainment. Veganism is defined as a lifestyle, as an ethical position and as an ideology. Those who practice veganism are called vegans.

The foundations of veganism include moral, environmental, health, and humanitarian arguments. The main products and services excluded in veganism are: meat, fish, eggs, milk and derivatives (such as cheese or yogurt), honey, leather, wool, skins and cosmetics tested on animals; and the use of animals in zoos, aquariums, circuses or as draft animals is also rejected.

The elimination of all animal products from the diet can cause certain nutritional deficiencies, some serious, which must be prevented by regular intake of fortified foods or dietary supplements. Nutritional education is essential, a personalized evaluation and follow-up over time by nutrition professionals. A part of the nutrition associations considers that vegan diets —well planned— are appropriate for all stages of life, but others do not recommend them in infants, children, adolescents, the elderly, pregnant women or mothers during lactation.

Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, grains and mushrooms are the basic elements of vegan food.

The history of veganism is mixed with that of vegetarianism. Since ancient times there have been people who have renounced the consumption of products of animal origin, but the term "veganism" is modern: it was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson with the aim of differentiating it from vegetarianism, which rejects the consumption of meat but accepts the consumption of other products of animal origin, such as milk, dairy products and eggs. Currently, veganism is a minority and even marginal lifestyle, but fast growing.

Motivation

This section is an excerpt from Fundamentals of Veganism.[chuckles]edit]

"Do vegan!", the slogan of veganism.

The fundamentals of veganism are the arguments that lead people to adopt veganism. They are usually grouped into four categories: ethical, environmental, health and humanitarian arguments. Many vegans are for several reasons at once.

Moral arguments come from a wide range of perspectives. In general they are based on the rejection of specism due to the impossibility of finding relevant moral differences between human and non-human animals. From utilitarianism, the basic argument is that adopting veganism minimizes death and suffering. From deontology, the main argument is that animals are sinful beings and therefore we must take into account their interests.^{[chuckles]required]} In adolescents, adopting veganism for moral reasons can cause a low interest in the knowledge of nutritional aspects. In addition, veganism does not prevent animal deaths and suffering: there is a great sensitivity towards domestic animals, but the enormous negative impact on the wild animals of agricultural techniques, necessary to sustain the vegan diets, becomes "invisible" and unemotional. On the other hand, discoveries made over the last few years suggest that plants are also "sintient" beings, capable of feeling stress similar to animals and communicating extensively and actively.

Environmental arguments point to the enormous negative impact of livestock and other forms of animal exploitation on the environment. Most of the global deforestation is due to the burning of trees to make livestock space. The cattle ranching is also a large methane and other greenhouse gases. The overfishing to feed humans and livestock threatens marine biodiversity. In addition, 77% of the agricultural land is used for grazing or for animal food cultivation. Agriculture has a huge negative impact on the Earth; it causes the reduction of the available surface for wildlife, destroys a large number of insects, plants and animals, both directly in the preparation of the land and through the use of pesticides or other methods to defend crops (including poisoning and shooting hunting), as well as the contamination of the waters by fertilizers and pesticides, and their negative effects on the food chain. All this causes a loss of biodiversity, which is not reduced even in those countries that value and protect nature. Agriculture is also an important source of air pollution and gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect and acid rain.

Health arguments indicate the health benefits of adopting a vegan diet and the health damages of eating animal products. The main benefits are a reduction in the risk of contracting coronary disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, obesity and certain types of cancer. However, the beneficial effects on health are not exclusive to the vegan diet but are also achieved with other types of diets, including the Mediterranean diet, low carbohydrate/high protein diet and vegetarian diet. In addition, the risk of severe nutritional deficiencies may override these health benefits. Health arguments, of themselves, do not imply the rejection of animal exploitation for clothing, transportation, entertainment, etc.

Humanitarian arguments emphasize the benefits for humanity to adopt veganism.^{[chuckles]required]} The main argument is that plant-based diets are more sustainable than diets rich in animal products, since they use less natural resources and cause less impact on the environment. They can therefore help combat malnutrition and ensure food security for more people.^{[chuckles]required]} In addition, the production and consumption of animal products were and are the cause of various zoonotic diseases, epidemics and even pandemics.

History

This section is an excerpt from History of Vegetarianism.[chuckles]edit]

Parsuá founded jain vegetarianism in the 8th century BC, the strictest and most comprehensive form of vegetarianism.

The history of vegetarianism and its variants (veganism, semivegetarianism, etc.), as a concept and practice among a significant number of people, begins in ancient India, especially among the Jains and in particular in the north and west. Time later appears in ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece. In both cases, the diet was closely related to the idea of non-violence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious and philosophical groups.

After the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity (IV-VIs), vegetarianism almost disappeared from Europe. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from fish consumption, so these monks were not vegetarians, but pescetarians. Vegetarianism rose in Europe during the Renaissance and became a more widespread practice during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In 1847 the first vegetarian society was born in the United Kingdom, and others would soon be born in Germany, the Netherlands and other countries. In 1906 the International Vegetarian Union emerged as a union of all national societies. At present, the percentage of vegetarians in the West varies between 0.5% and 4%, according to the region and the source.

Demographics

• Germany - In 2021, 2% of German residents were vegans, according to a survey commissioned by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.
• Argentina - In 2020, a survey commissioned by the Unión Vegana Argentina to the market research company Kantar and carried out to 1000 people, concluded that 12% of the population is considered vegan or vegetarian.
• Australia - Between 2015 and 2016, Australia led Google's global searches of the word "vegan". A study of Euromonitor International He concluded that the vegan food market packaged in Australia would grow 9.6 per year between 2015 and 2020, placing Australia as the third vegan market at growth speed, after China and the United Arab Emirates.
• Austria - In 2013, the Austrian newspaper Kurier It estimated that 0.5 per cent of the population is vegan and 0.7 per cent in the capital, Vienna.
• Belgium - In 2016, an online iVOX study to 1000 residents of Flanders and Brussels concluded that 0.3% are vegans.
• Canada - In 2018, a study estimated that 2.1% of Canadian adults are considered vegans.
• Chile - In 2018, the National Environmental Survey showed that 6% of respondents did not eat beef, pig or chicken. However, the question did not include marine animals. The Vegetarian Foundation Today noted that probably the number of vegetarian/vegan people is around 5%-6% measured in 2018.
• India - In 2005-2006, 1.6% of the people surveyed in the national health study never claimed to consume products of animal origin. As the population of India in 2005 was approximately 1120 million, 1.6 per cent of the total was nearly 17 million vegans. Veganism is more common in Guyarat (4.9%) and Maharashtra (4.4%).
• Israel - In 2014, 5 per cent (approximately 300,000 people) said they were vegans, the largest population in the world per capita of the world. In 2015, a survey by Globes and Israeli news channel 2 also concluded that 5 per cent of Israelis are vegans. Veganism increases among Israeli Arabs. In 2015, the Israeli army began providing boots without leather and woolless coils for the vegan soldiers.
• Italy - In 2015, between 0.6% and 3% of the population reported being vegan.
• United States - The studies carried out by the organization Responsive Management Between 1996 and 2012 they suggested that between 0.5 and 3 per cent (approximately between 1.5 and 9 million people) were vegans. In 1996, 3% said they did not use animals for any purpose. In a 2006 survey, 1.4% of respondents were vegans in their diet, while another one performed by the Vegetarian Resource Group (VRG) reported that 0.5 per cent was. In 2009, the result was 1 per cent (two million a population of 313 million or 1 in 150). In 2012, based on a sample population of 2 030 people over the age of 18, it was found that those who do not consume any type of meat were found in 4% of the total respondents, while the company Gallup reported that the percentage of vegans in this country was 2%.
• Spain - In 2020 the study Adre's Institution declared that among the Spaniards there are 2'4% of vegans, representing an approximate number of 230,000 people.
• Netherlands - In 2020, the Dutch Vegan SocietyNederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme) estimated, based on the growth of its members, 150,000 Dutch vegans, or 0.9% of the population, while in 2018 it had estimated more than 100,000 (0.59 per cent).
• United Kingdom - In 2005, the newspaper The Times estimated that of a population of 60 million, 205 000 were vegans. In 2006, the newspaper The Independent estimated 600 000. In 2007, in a study conducted by the British government, 2% of the respondents were recognized as vegan. In 2012, the British vegetarian market of tofu and meat substitutes was £786.5 million. In 2016, a study commissioned by the Vegan Society Ipsos MORI, found nearly 10,000 people over 15 years of age throughout the UK and found that 1.05% is vegan, for a total of approximately 542 000 people. In 2018, a survey by comparethemarket.com concluded that 7% of the population is considered vegan (3.5 million people) and that environmental concern is a major factor in this development. However, the Vegan Society questioned this result because according to its own annual study, in 2018 there were 600 000 vegans (1.6%), which was already seen as a huge increase over previous years.
• Romania - The members of the Romanian Orthodox Church keep a fast for several periods, which together cover most of the year, in which they abstain from consuming products of animal origin. As a result, vegan foods abound in shops and restaurants, but Romanians may not be as familiar with veganism as a lifestyle.
• Sweden - In 2016, in a survey Demoskop, 4% of respondents said they were vegans.
• Switzerland - In 2017, the market research company DemoSCOPE estimated that 3% of the population is vegan.
• Mexico - According to a study by the consultant Nielsen, in 2021 9% of the Mexican population was vegan.

Excluded products and services

Vegan food vendor, Cameron Antiques Fair, October 2019.

There are at least two kinds of veganism that can be distinguished: veganism "by diet" or strict vegetarianism, which refers to those who avoid using any product of animal origin as food - be it meat, eggs or dairy products - but they do use them in clothing and personal hygiene, and "ethical" veganism, who see veganism as a philosophy, reject the commercialization of animals —hence their condition as merchandise— in addition to avoiding using them as food, they also reject their use for any other purpose, be it clothing, entertainment or others. biological being in question due to the fact of belonging to a specific species, and proposes putting aside the social hypocrisy built around consumer practices to act accordingly.^{[ci ta required]}

Where possible and practical, the UK Vegan Society only certifies products that are not made from or by animals, including those that have been tested on animals. Products of animal origin include: all kinds of meats, eggs, dairy products, honey and beeswax; furs, leather, wool, silk, feathers or any product that contains derivatives of animal fat. Also lesser-known products such as: animal charcoal, bone china, cochineal carmine, casein, gelatin, fish glue, lanolin, rennet, shellac, tallow, whey. There are also other even less well-known ingredients that cannot be detected on ingredient labels.

Food

Meats, eggs and dairy like milk and cheese are the main foods excluded from the vegan diet.

The practice of veganism excludes consuming meat of all kinds, from any kind of animal, be it cows, pigs, chickens, fish or any other. It also excludes the consumption of eggs, since it considers that the common forms of production, both in cages and in pens, cause suffering in the animals and their premature death, in addition to the fact that the majority of male chicks are sacrificed because by not producing eggs their maintenance is not profitable. In a similar way it happens with dairy products, such as milk, cheese and yogurt. The cows are artificially inseminated, and in mixed meat-milk use the calves are separated from the cows after having taken the colostrum and fed with milk replacers, in order to obtain maximum milk yield. The cows are slaughtered after several production cycles, the total duration of which is variable, depending on the type of management and the breeds. Payback is estimated to be achieved when a dairy cow produces between four and five lactation cycles. In highly demanding farms, a percentage of cattle is slaughtered before completing that period, for reasons such as short lactation, anestrus or abortions, although the average stay in the herd of productive cattle exceeds six and a half years. The longevity of the Cattle can exceed twenty years, but are usually slaughtered before reaching them. Goats on the farm reach an average of up to six years; thereafter its production declines.

As for products made by insects, such as honey or silk, there are disagreements between different currents of veganism. Large numbers of vegans consider modern beekeeping to be cruel and exploitative, as after the honey is collected it is substituted with sugar or corn syrup to keep the hive together. Neither the British nor the American Vegan Society The United States considers honey, silk or other insect products to be suitable for vegans, while Vegan Action and Vegan Outreach consider its use to be a matter of personal choice. Agave nectar is a Popular vegan alternative to honey.

Clothing

The practice of veganism that goes beyond mere dietary observation rejects buying or wearing garments with fur, leather, wool, feathers or any other material of animal origin. Some "vegan-friendly" clothing, particularly those made with leather substitutes, are made from petroleum-based products. This has provoked criticism, due to the damage associated with its production.

Medications and dietary supplements

Ethical vegans try not to use any products of animal origin and try to avoid those tested on animals. They also avoid certain vaccines, such as the flu vaccine, which uses chicken eggs in the manufacturing process.

The Vegan Society acknowledges that "it is not always possible to make a choice that avoids the use of animals". A major problem is the case with medicines, which are routinely tested on animals to ensure they are effective and safe, and they may also contain animal ingredients, such as lactose, gelatin, or stearates. For drugs to be approved, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires the manufacturer or sponsor to perform a series of steps that include first laboratory and animal studies, prior to human clinical trials. Alternatives to prescribed medication may not be available, or these alternatives may be inappropriate, less effective, or cause more adverse side effects.

Animal testing has also been used for many decades to understand the basic functions of micronutrients and to make dietary supplements, such as those needed to prevent certain deficiencies in people on vegetarian diets, and to calculate their dosages. In addition, laboratory animal testing is used to assess the safety of vaccines, food additives, cosmetics, household products, workplace chemicals, and many other substances.

The European Commission "underlines that animal experimentation continues to be important to protect the health of humans and animals and to maintain an intact environment." As pointed out by the Confederation of Scientific Societies of Spain (COSCE) " Virtually all current protocols for disease prevention, cure, and control, from antibiotics to blood transfusions, from dialysis to organ transplants, from vaccines to chemotherapy, from heart surgery to heart replacement, bones and joints in orthopedic surgery, are based on knowledge obtained from research conducted on laboratory animals."

Cosmetics

The criteria of the British Vegan Society to certify a product are that its ingredients do not contain any element of animal origin and that both the finished product and its components have not been tested on animals, either directly by the manufacturer, or by someone on your behalf.

Animal-based ingredients are cheaper, so they're ubiquitous in toiletries. Especially tallow, which is widely used to make cosmetics and toiletries. In general, vegans review the list of composition of the products, to verify that no product of animal origin has been used in its preparation.

The most common are tallow as a raw material for making soaps; glycerin —obtained from the saponification of fats, which may be of animal origin—, used as a moisturizer in hair products, moisturizing creams, shaving creams, soaps, and toothpastes; lanolin extracted from sheep's wool, which can be found in lip balms and moisturizers. Stearic acid can also be of vegetable origin, it is used in the production of face creams, shaving foams and shampoos. Manufacturers prefer to use stearic acid of animal origin. Lactic acid is a carboxylic acid with a hydroxyl group, derived from milk, and allantoin found in the urine of many animals and in the comfrey plant; They are used to make shampoos, moisturizing creams and toothpastes.

Health Effects

The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the British Dietetic Association, the Dietitians of Canada and the Australian Dietitians Association consider well-planned vegan diets appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, the Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs, Food Safety and Nutrition considers that "infants and young children should not receive a vegan diet." while the German Nutrition Society does not recommend them in babies, children or adolescents, neither during pregnancy nor during lactation, although she stresses that "those who want to follow vegan diets anyway, should consider the consumption of specific foods, fortified foods and/or vitamin supplements". In 2014, the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health noted that the 6th Swiss Nutrition Report identifies only the "ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet for healthy adults as a balanced diet" while also n noted that a lack of nutrients in other vegetarian diets can lead to nutrient deficiencies.

The elimination of animal proteins in the diet, especially those from red meat, is associated with some beneficial health effects such as protection against some types of cancer and decreased cardiovascular risk. In general, people who follow vegan diets tend to be thinner and have lower levels of cholesterol and blood pressure, which could have a protective effect.

However, vegan diets can also cause significant nutritional deficiencies, which can only be prevented by fortified foods or regular use of dietary supplements. Vitamin B12 deficiency is very common among vegans, which it can lead to early vascular disturbances and an increased risk of developing atherosclerosis-related diseases, as well as neurological disorders.

A systematic review with meta-analysis published in 2021 concluded that plant-based diets may compromise overall bone health. People who follow plant-based diets have lower bone mass than people who eat an omnivorous diet.

The risks of nutritional deficiencies and serious health consequences are especially important during pregnancy, in babies and children, which in some cases have caused death.

A 2019 review of the medical literature found that following vegetarian diets is related to the development of the eating disorder orthorexia nervosa (a pathological obsession with eating food considered healthy), but concluded that more longitudinal research is needed. to investigate whether following a vegetarian diet is a risk factor for the onset of this disorder.

Pregnancy, babies and children

The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and the Canadian Dietitians Association consider well-planned vegetarian diets appropriate for all stages of life, including pregnancy, lactation, childhood, and adolescence, but they warn of the risks of poor planning and the lack of supplementation of various nutrients. In infants breastfed by vegan mothers, the risk of suffering vitamin B12 deficiencies is very high, so a regular source of this vitamin it is essential for pregnant and lactating women, or for babies if the mother is not taking any supplements. Vegetarian diets are often high in folic acid, which can mask vitamin B₁₂ until neurological disorders have already occurred and the first symptoms appear.

In 2016, the German Nutrition Society noted that it did not recommend a vegan diet for infants, children, adolescents, pregnant women, and lactating women.

According to Reed Mangels, vitamin B₁₂ stores do not appear to cross the placenta, and researchers have reported cases of vitamin B deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers, which is linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. Pregnant vegan women may also need to consume more vitamin D, depending on the amount of sunlight they receive and whether they are eating fortified foods. Doctors may recommend iron and acid supplements folic for all types of pregnant women (vegans, vegetarians and non-vegetarians). A physician or registered dietitian should be consulted regarding whether or not to take supplements during pregnancy.

There is little information on the growth of non-macrobiotic vegan children, although the results suggest that these children tend to be slightly smaller, but within normal ranges for weight and height, and less frequently obese.

A 2021 review of the scientific literature suggests that a well-planned vegan diet including supplements is likely to provide the recommended amounts of nutrients for proper infant growth and may even be beneficial in some ways. However, data on five critical nutrients is still lacking, so no definitive conclusions can be drawn as of 2021.

Other documented complications in vegan children with poorly planned diets include rickets, scurvy, and kwashiorkor.

A study from Sweden found that although some adolescents embark on vegetarian diets as a fad, others are primarily motivated by ethical and ecological aspects. According to the researchers of this study, in cases of adolescents who do not have their health as a reason to switch to a vegetarian diet, this lack of motivation can generate a low interest in nutritional aspects and neglect the correct planning of the diet, which which can cause health problems.

Nutrition

Vegetarian food pyramid according to the recommendations of the American Nutrition and Dietary Academy (2003).

The German Nutrition Society takes the position that it is difficult or impossible to get the required amount of certain nutrients from a pure diet based only on natural, plant-based foods. The most critical nutrient in vegan diets is vitamin B12, which in natural (unfortified) foods is only present in amounts sufficient for humans in those of animal origin, so vegans tend to supplement this nutrient with fortified foods and supplements. Not all vegan foods are healthy or nutritious, since if high levels of sugar, fat or salt are added, they are nutritionally unfavorable.

Well-planned vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folate (vitamin B₉), vitamin C, vitamin E, potassium, and phytochemicals, and lower in calories, saturated fat and cholesterol.

However, eliminating all animal products can lead to nutritional deficiencies, mainly vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, omega-3 fatty acids, iodine, and sometimes iron, zinc, and selenium. For To prevent these nutritional deficiencies, you can resort to designing a vegan diet with the necessary nutrients, consuming foods fortified with these nutrients or taking regular dietary supplements, with the exception of vitamin B12, which is the only one that it cannot be achieved without fortified foods or supplements. Other nutrients such as proteins capable of providing essential amino acids can be obtained from the mixture of vegetable protein sources such as legumes, nuts and plant-based milks.

Protein

Soybean milk.

Vegetables are a source of protein and essential amino acids, although less than animal foods.^{[citation needed]} Vegans and vegetarians can get enough protein and amino acids by consuming a variety of whole grains, legumes, soybeans, fruits, nuts, and seeds. Omnivores generally get one-third of their protein from plants, lacto-ovo vegetarians half, and vegans get it entirely from plant sources. However, concerns remain as to whether plant-based proteins supply adequate amounts of those amino acids that are not synthesized by the human body.

Sources of vegetable protein are legumes, such as soybeans (which is used in making tofu, tempeh, textured vegetable protein, soy milk, and edamame), peas, peanuts (peanuts), kidney beans, and chickpeas (the latter is often consumed in the form of hummus); grains such as quinoa, rice, corn, barley, and wheat (sometimes eaten in whole wheat bread, bulgur, and seitan); and nuts such as almonds and hemp and sunflower seeds.

Quinoa is the only plant-based food that provides all the essential amino acids, its protein quality being equal to that of milk, and it is rich in trace elements and vitamins. Its grains are highly nutritious, exceeding biological value, quality nutritional and functional to traditional cereals (such as wheat, corn, rice and oats) and does not contain gluten. Mangels and his group of researchers say that the reference dietary intake (RDA for its acronym in English) of protein (0.8 g/Kg of body weight) from soybeans will satisfy the biological requirement for amino acids. They add that the US Department of Agriculture has ruled for its federal School Lunch Program that soy protein can replace meat protein. The other products of animal origin are still included in the program.

Traditional combinations that contain high amounts of all the essential amino acids are: rice with beans, corn with beans, and hummus with whole wheat pita. In 2009, the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics stated that eating a diverse variety of vegetables throughout the day can provide all the essential amino acids for healthy adults, indicating that the combination of plant-based protein ingredients in one dish but can be consumed separately throughout the day. Mangels and colleagues wrote that there is little reason to advise vegans to increase their protein intake, but they prefer to err on the side of excess. of caution —considering the low digestibility of vegetable protein and its low amount of amino acids—, so they recommend that healthy adults increase to 1g of protein per kilogram of body weight, which is equivalent to a 25% increase in reference food intake.

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is a product of bacterial origin essential for cell division, for the formation and maturation of red blood cells, for DNA synthesis, and for the proper functioning of the nervous system. Vitamin B deficiency₁₂ is very common among vegans, which can lead to megaloblastic anemia, early vascular abnormalities, an increased risk of developing atherosclerosis-related diseases, neurological disorders and, if untreated, death. High folic acid content in vegetarian diets may mask the hematological symptoms of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, so vitamin B₁₂ deficiency may go undetected until late-stage neurological symptoms are evident. of evolution, which can be irreversible, such as neuropsychiatric disorders, neuropathies, dementia and, occasionally, atrophy of the optic nerves.

Vitamin B₁₂ in capsules.

Only natural foods of animal origin contain sufficient amounts of vitamin B₁₂ for humans. The only way to prevent vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in vegans is by choosing foods fortified with vitamin B₁₂ or taking regular vitamin B supplements. The inability of vegans to obtain this vitamin from an exclusively plant-based diet it is often used as an argument against veganism.

Neither plants nor animals produce vitamin B₁₂, which is produced only by certain bacteria. It is synthesized by some intestinal bacteria in humans and other animals. Human beings cannot absorb this vitamin B₁₂ synthesized in their intestines, since this phenomenon occurs in the colon, far away from the small intestine, which is where vitamin B_{12 is absorbed.} , and they need the contributions through diet. In contrast, ruminants, such as cows and sheep, can absorb the vitamin B₁₂ produced by bacteria in their intestine. Herbivorous animals obtain it from the bacteria housed in their rumen, either by absorption or by ingesting their cecotropes (soft feces); rabbits, for example, produce and eat their caecals. Animals store vitamin B₁₂ in the liver and muscles, in birds some passes into the eggs and in mammals into the milk; meat, liver, eggs and milk are therefore sources of vitamin B₁₂, with ruminant meat being the best.

Vitamin B₁₂ is made primarily by industrial fermentation of various types of bacteria, which produce forms of cyanocobalamin, which are further processed to produce ingredients used in supplements and fortified foods. they can use various compounds for the cultivation of the bacteria, such as glycine, glycerin, L-threonine, betaine, choline or whey supplemented with yeast extract, most of which are of animal origin. Another form of vitamin B₁₂ used in food supplements is methylcobalamin, which can be produced from genetically modified microorganisms or manufactured semi-synthetically after extraction of the vitamin B₁₂ sub> from products of animal origin. Vitamin B₁₂ supplements may also contain gelatin or stearates of animal origin in the excipients. find alternative sources of vitamin B₁₂ to make supplements that can meet the needs of people on vegetarian diets and calculate dosages.

The supplement Spirulina is not considered a reliable source of vitamin B₁₂, as it mainly contains pseudovitamin B₁₂, which is biologically inactive in humans. The companies that market and promote it claim that it is an important source of this vitamin, based on unpublished studies, and say they do not accept criticism from independent scientific organizations. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics of the United States and the Dietitians of Canada in their document on their position regarding vegetarian diets, establish that the spirulina supplement is not a reliable source of active vitamin B₁₂. The available medical literature in this regard also warns that this supplement is not a source of B₁₂.

Calcium

Calcium is necessary to maintain bone health and for a number of metabolic functions including muscle function, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, nerve signal transmission, intracellular communication; and also participates in hormonal secretion. 99% of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth. The recommended daily dose in children is 200 mg between 0 and 6 months, 260 mg between 7 and 12 months, 700 mg between 1 and 3 years, 1,000 mg between 4 and 8 years; in people between the ages of 9 and 18 it is 1,300 mg, 1,000 mg in adults between the ages of 19 and 50; in men between the ages of 51 and 70 it is 1,000 mg and in women within this same age range it is 1,200 mg; and finally 1,200 mg for men and women over 71 is 1,200 mg.

The European Prospective Study on Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) published a report in 2007, which concluded that vegans have a 30% higher risk of bone fractures than those who eat meat, fish and vegetarians, probably due to their considerably lower average calcium intake, although those who consume adequate amounts of this mineral (at least 525 mg per day) have the same risk of fracture as the other groups.

To make up for milk and milk products, which are by far the main source of calcium in our diets, vegans should make sure they get enough calcium from appropriate sources, such as fortified non-dairy milks, cheese, Fortified soy, almonds, hazelnuts, sesame seeds, tahini, enriched tofu, low-oxalate vegetables such as broccoli, turnips, collards (bokka cabbage, kale) and supplement if needed. In spinach the bioavailability of calcium is poor. Whole wheat bread and cereals contain small amounts of calcium.

Since vitamin D is necessary for the absorption of calcium, vegans should make sure they get enough of it (see below for more details).

Vitamin D

Vitamin D (calciferol) is necessary for various functions, including the absorption of calcium, which allows bone mineralization and growth. Without it, bones can become thin and brittle. This vitamin, along with calcium, helps protect against osteoporosis. Vitamin D is produced in the body when medium wave ultraviolet (UVB) rays from the sun strike the skin. Because UVB radiation does not penetrate glass, it is necessary to expose them outdoors. This vitamin is present in very few foods—mainly salmon, tuna, mackerel, and cod liver oil; and in small amounts in cheese, egg yolk, beef liver, and some mushrooms.

Diets low in vitamin D are more common among people who eat vegan diets, although not necessarily the majority. This vitamin has two forms: cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃) which is synthesized in skin after sun exposure. The commercial presentation of this vitamin is of animal origin as it is produced industrially using lanolin extracted from sheep's wool. Ergocalciferol (vitamin D₂) is a provitamin of ergosterol that is artificially obtained from yeast fermentation and is suitable for vegans. Studies are conflicting as they have suggested that the two forms of this vitamin may or may not be equivalent. According to a 2011 report issued by the Council of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, the differences between vitamins D₂ and D₃ do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and identical responses are evidenced when activated in the body.

Supplements should be used with caution as vitamin D can be toxic, especially to children. The RDA is 10 mcg for children 0-12 months; 15 mcg for people between the ages of 1 and 70, and 20 mcg for those over 70. People with little or no sun exposure may need more, perhaps as much as 25 mcg per day. According to the institutes health, the tolerable daily intake level from 9 years of age to adulthood is 100 mcg; for children between 0 and 6 months it is 25 mcg, between 7 and 12 months it is 38 mcg, 63 mcg for children between 1 and 3 months and 75 mcg for children between 4 and 8 years.

Iron

Iron is present in all cells of the human body and has various functions, including oxygen transport to the lungs and enzymatic reactions in various tissues.

There are doubts about the bioavailability of iron in foods of plant origin; some researchers believe that the content of this mineral in these is between 5 and 15% compared to 18% found in a non-vegetarian diet.

The RDA for non-vegetarians is 11mg from 7 to 12 months of age, 7mg from 1 to 3 years, 10mg from 4 to 8 years, and 8mg from 9 to 13 years. The recommended daily dose is different for men and women, going to 11 mg for men between the ages of 14 and 18 and 15 mg for women in this same age range; for men between the ages of 19 and 50 it is 8 mg and 18 mg for women in the same range. It returns to 8 mg at age 51 for both women and men. Mangels says that because of the lower bioavailability of iron in plant-based foods, the Food and Nutrition Council of the National Academy of Sciences of The United States has established separate RDAs for vegetarians and vegans, which is 14 mg for vegetarian men and postmenopausal women, and 33 mg for premenopausal women not using oral contraceptives. Supplements are to be used with caution and after consulting a doctor, as iron can accumulate in the body and cause organ damage; This is particularly true for people who suffer from hemochromatosis, a relatively common disease that can go undiagnosed. The tolerable upper daily intake level, according to the US National Institutes of Health, is 40 mg for ages 7 months to 14 years and 45 mg for those 14 years and older.

According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, iron-rich foods suitable for vegans are: blackstrap molasses, lentils, tofu, quinoa, beans, and chickpeas. Nutritionist Tom Sanders wrote that absorption Iron can be improved by consuming a source of vitamin C together with a vegetable source of iron and avoiding concomitance with inhibitors of iron absorption, such as tannins present in tea. Sources of vitamin C can be: half a cup of cauliflower, 150 ml of orange juice consumed together with a vegetable source of iron such as: soybeans, tofu, tempeh or black beans. Some herbal teas and coffee can inhibit iron absorption, as do condiments that contain tannins such as turmeric, cilantro, chili peppers (also called chili peppers and peppers), and tamarind.

Essential fatty acids

Essential fatty acids are those that mammals cannot synthesize, so they have to be obtained through the diet. There are two families of essential fatty acids: omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6). Since these acids are not saturated with hydrogen atoms—and also have more than one double bond between atoms—they are called “polyunsaturated fatty acids” (PUFAs). Most polyunsaturates come from plants and fatty fish.

Omega-3s are found in fish such as salmon, tuna, and halibut. They are also found in algae, shrimp, and nut oils. Omega-6s are present in vegetable oils, such as: soybean, safflower, and corn. They can also be found in nuts, seeds, and in small amounts in meat, poultry, and eggs. There are supplements that contain omega-3, such as: those made from fish oil and those made from algae. Omega-6 supplements can be made from borage, blackcurrant and evening primrose oil.

The daily dose recommended by the European health authorities for polyunsaturated fatty acids are: 2 g per day of alpha-linolenic omega-3 fatty acid (ALA) and 250 mg per day of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA). And omega-6 linoleic acid (ALA) is 10 g per day.

In the US, the RDA for adults has been set at 1.6 g ALA for men and 1.1 g for women and 17 g omega-6 (LA) for men between 19 and 50 years old, and 12 g for women in this same age range.

Vegan Outreach suggests vegans take a quarter teaspoon of flaxseed oil a day and use oils low in omega-6 fatty acids, such as: olive, canola; also consume avocado and peanuts.

Iodine

Iodine is necessary for thyroid function, and both its deficiency and excess can cause disorders that negatively affect general metabolism. The most common sources of iodine are seafood, including seaweed and seaweed. salt, then dairy products, and vegetables last, provided they have been grown in soils that contain the element. An unbalanced vegan diet for iodine may be deficient, and this possibility is increased by consuming salt obtained from salty sources or salt mines that are not supplemented—such as Pakistani pink salt.

The opposite case, that is, excess iodine, can also occur, if enough is consumed in the form of supplements.

Cases of severe malnutrition and infant death

In 2008, a 12-year-old girl who never ate meat or dairy was diagnosed with rickets, usually caused by a lack of vitamin D. She also sustained multiple fractures. The pediatrician refused to discuss the case with the press, but said that "the risks of forcing a child to follow a vegan diet are clear." A well-known nutritionist, who asked not to be named, said: "In most cases, parents who put their children on a very restrictive and potentially dangerous diet were not raised vegan... They put something on their children."...of which we don't know, for sure, if it's safe."

In 2011, a vegan couple was sentenced to five years in prison in France for the death of their eleven-month-old baby, as a result of nutritional deficiencies resulting from the mother's vegan diet. The couple decided to become vegan for ethical reasons, after watching a documentary on slaughterhouses on television. The girl was breastfed but it is believed that she "inherited" through her milk the nutrient deficit from her mother. The girl's autopsy identified a vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, which is essential for proper development of the central nervous system (including the brain). The charge the parents were charged with was "neglect or denial of food".

In 2014, a seven-month-old baby died as a result of being fed exclusively with vegetable milk (oat, rice, corn or quinoa), which is neither sufficient nor does it have the necessary nutrients. At the time At the time of his death, at seven months old, he weighed 4.3 kilograms, was "completely dehydrated", had an "empty stomach", and was "pathologically malnourished". They “self-diagnosed” as lactose and gluten intolerant, without any kind of medical advice or diagnosis; They had not done pediatric follow-ups nor had the baby received medical attention at any time in his life, despite presenting respiratory problems. When the baby's deteriorating health became apparent, the parents took him to a homeopath in Bilzen. According to the prosecutor in the case, “His ideas about medicine cost his son his life. When it was almost too late, they decided to go to Bilzen instead of the nearest hospital. That is why I ask for both an effective sentence of 18 months in prison. The defense lawyer maintained that they were unlucky, because when the homeopathic doctor told them to go immediately to the hospital "'they put the wrong address on the GPS and went to a center without emergencies', and that when they arrived at their destination It was too late." Many tabloid headlines wrongly attributed the boy's death to a "gluten-free diet" imposed by his parents. Gluten is not essential to humans. It is a mixture of proteins of low nutritional and biological value, with low quality due to deficiencies in essential amino acids. Although there is a very long debate about when to introduce gluten into the baby's diet, the most general opinion and what What seems most convenient would be to delay it as long as possible, until at least the first year of life has been reached. It has currently been shown that neither early exposure to gluten nor the duration of breastfeeding prevent the risk of developing celiac disease., although the delay in the introduction of gluten is associated with a delay in the onset of the disease.

In 2016, a two-year-old Italian girl had to be admitted to a pediatric hospital, as a consequence of nutritional deficiencies derived from the vegan diet imposed by her parents. The girl arrived at the emergency room with low weight and slow movements. She had very low hemoglobin levels, was deficient in vitamin B ₁₂ and was at high risk of serious neurological and muscular consequences. After several days in the intensive care unit, the girl was discharged. Her mother had breastfed the child for a long time, but her milk had very low nutritional value as a result of her vegan diet. The doctors explained that the vegan diet can be deficient in certain nutrients and therefore can be dangerous for a child if periodic medical check-ups are not carried out to immediately correct possible deficiencies in vitamins or other elements. In Genoa, a vegan diet can be requested in schools, but a medical certificate is required to ensure that the child is monitored by a pediatrician. Also in 2006 in Italy, a 14-month-old baby had to being separated from his parents due to the advanced malnutrition that he presented as a consequence of a vegan diet, which together with a cardiac malformation complicated the clinical picture of the baby. She had a body weight corresponding to that of a three-month-old, her calcium levels were just enough to survive, and she had to undergo emergency surgery for congenital heart disease. The doctors did not enter into a debate between the diet options, but they did point out that this particular baby should have received a greater amount of calcium and iron since her birth.

In October 2020, a seven-month-old baby died in New York as a result of his mother's vegan diet. According to her statements, she wanted to avoid having a "fat child". The case has been deemed a homicide by the Office of the Medical Examiner.

Criticism

Lierre Keith, author of the book "The Vegetarian Myth", assures that the cause of environmental destruction lies in agriculture and not in livestock. On the other hand, certain detractors of veganism argue that some of the activists of this movement behave like followers of a kind of ideological cult.

Symbolism

Etymology

The English term vegan was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson, in the first issue of The Vegan News. In this document, Watson explains that he created the term by rejection of the cruelty and exploitation that lactovegetarianism also implies. In addition to coining the term, Watson was co-founder of the Vegan Society (Vegan Society) in England. According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 in the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, which defines it as "a vegetarian who does not eat butter, eggs, cheese or milk".

The terms «vegano» and «veganismo» were officially incorporated into the Spanish language in October 2014.

Complementary bibliography

• Aboglio, Ana María (2009). Veganism: practice of justice and equality. Buenos Aires, Argentina: De los Cuatro Vientos. ISBN 9789870801559. OCLC 837988673.
• Moreno Díez, Ana Isabel (2003). Survival Manual for Newborns: for a world full of love (1st edition). Madrid, Spain: Mandala Ediciones. ISBN 9788495052940. OCLC 53230558.
• Vilaplana, Estrella; Román, David (2003). Ethical Diet: Ethical and Dietary of "veganism". Alicante, Spain: Román Molto, David. ISBN 9788460742388. OCLC 49943512.
• Horta, Oscar (2017). A step forward in defense of animals. Madrid, Spain: Plaza and Valdés. ISBN 9788417121044. OCLC 994145991.
• Kaplan, Helmut Friedrich (1993). Leichenschmaus: ethische gründe für eine vegetarische ernährung [chuckles]Convite funeral: ethical reasons for vegetarian nutrition] (in German). Reinbek, Germany: Rowohlt. ISBN 9783499195136. OCLC 231551026.