Universal history

universal history, world history, world history or human history is the set of facts and processes that have developed around the human being, from its appearance to the present.

Humanity's written history was preceded by its prehistory, beginning about 2.59 million years ago (in Africa) with the Paleolithic ("old stone"), followed by the Neolithic ("new stone"). The Neolithic saw the agricultural revolution take place from 8000 B.C. C., in several completely independent processes and without contact with each other: Western Asia, China, New Guinea, Mesoamerica, the Andean Region and North America.

Agriculture created the necessary conditions to make possible the emergence of complex societies, called «civilizations», characterized by the appearance of three novel types of organization: the city, the state and the market. Likewise, the development of technology allowed human beings to control nature and develop transportation systems and communication networks.

In some cases, writing, in turn, has become a fundamental need since the advent of agriculture. Writing is a factor in differentiating history from prehistory, because it made it possible to disseminate and preserve the knowledge acquired.

Universal history is determined by historiography, archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics and other disciplines; and, by periods since the invention of writing, from recorded history and secondary sources and scholarship.

This history is marked both by a gradual succession of migrations, cultural exchanges, discoveries and inventions, as well as by very accelerated developments linked to paradigm shifts and revolutionary periods.

This historical periodization scheme (dividing history into Antiquity, Postclassic, Early Modern, and Late Modern periods) was developed for, and best applied to, Old World history, particularly Europe and the Mediterranean. Outside of this region, including ancient China and ancient India, the historical timelines played out differently.

Story division

Paleolithic

Genetics and the study of fossils say that modern Homo sapiens appeared in Africa about 300,000 years ago, in the historical period called the Paleolithic.

In the Paleolithic, too, language developed and the burial of the dead became general. Burials probably had as one of their objectives to hide the decomposition of bodies, and indicate a more advanced understanding of the concept of death.

At a certain point, humans began to use fire to both heat and cook their food.

In this phase, humans depended on carrion, hunting, and harvesting; they were nomadic and did not have the ability to produce their own food. They were also adorned with various objects and it is in this period when the first artistic manifestations appear.

Around 50,000 years ago, humans began to settle all over the planet. First, in Africa, then they reached Central Asia, from where they headed, on the one hand, towards Europe, and on the other, towards America, crossing the Bering Strait.

Rapid human colonization of North America and Oceania occurred during the ice age, at a time when present-day temperate zones were extremely inhospitable. At the end of the last ice age, approximately 12,000 years ago, man already inhabited almost all of the world's ice-free areas. The last colonized areas were the islands of Polynesia, which was occupied throughout the first millennium AD.

Hunter-gatherer societies were, in general, small in size and already developed a type of social stratification; They also established contacts with other societies, traveling, in some cases, great distances, as is the case with the Australian aborigines.

Over time, most of these societies either became more powerful agricultural states or were exterminated or absorbed by other large states; some groups continued to survive in isolation from the rest and still exist today in some very remote regions.

Mesolithic

The Middle East was one of the first regions to develop its agriculture, therefore, they anticipated the Mesolithic and began to speak of Epipaleolithic. The Mesolithic (in Greek, μεσο- [meso-], «middle», and λίθος [líthos], «stone»; which means Middle Stone Age) begins at the end of the Paleolithic, approximately 10,000 years ago, and ends with the development of agriculture, although this initial date varies according to the specific characteristics of each region. In some areas it lasted a few millennia, but in certain places where agriculture already existed, such as the Middle East, the Mesolithic was short-lived and poorly defined, in regions little affected by glaciation sometimes it is preferred to speak of Epipaleolithic.

Where they persisted the longest was in Northern European societies, since they had an abundance of food because they lived in swampy areas that appeared as a result of climate change. These conditions favored the existence of different rhythms in development, as can be seen by analyzing the remains of the Azilian and Maglemosian cultures.

The persistence of the Mesolithic delayed the arrival of the Neolithic, which occurs around 7000 BCE. C.

However, few traces of this period have been found and these are generally limited to food residues, but it should be noted that in forested regions the first signs of deforestation appear. This practice was not generalized until the Neolithic, which is when agriculture began to require the use of large cultivation spaces.

In many areas, the Mesolithic was characterized by the existence of flint tools, for objects intended for fishing, stone axes and wooden artifacts, such as canoes and bows that have been found in some places. These objects, the product of technological progress, first developed in Africa, associated with the Azilian culture, before spreading to Europe through two areas: the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean Levant.

Neolithic

The Neolithic —which means the "new stone age"— is where the first period of technological and social development took place.

This stage began about 9,000 years ago (in 7,000 BC) and was characterized by the creation of the first towns and the appearance of agriculture, livestock, and metallurgy. The incorporation of this life change led to changes in diet and, in this way, they learned to make bread and alcoholic beverages.

Copper Age

Copper foundry in Egyptian funeral murals.

The use of metals supplanted flint and other stone materials that until then were the basic material for the production of agricultural tools, weapons and construction materials; this made it possible to have more durable and efficient objects. All these metals were already known by pre-Neolithic man, but he did not master the techniques for their production and manipulation, techniques that required very high temperatures.

Copper or bronze utensils, weapons, and ornaments were the staple material in 3000 B.C. c.

Bronze Age

After copper, new alloys of copper with tin or lead were discovered, which together gave rise to a new product, bronze; this new material is less malleable, but harder.

Iron Age

Subsequently, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Near East and China, the use of iron was widely introduced. A great technological leap was made with the use of forging, these high-temperature furnaces made it possible the manipulation of iron to produce even more resistant tools.

Birth of states

Mapmundi drawn by Ortelius (1570).

Atomic bomb on Nagasaki, August 9, 1945.

Buzz Aldrin on the lunar surface, July 20, 1969.

Universal history is usually divided into historical periods. Marxist historians distinguish four major periods: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism. The German Cristóbal Cellarius in 1685 divided history into three ages: ancient, middle and modern. However, such periodization is only valid for European history.

• Old Age. In Europe it comprises from around 3000 BC to around 476 AD.
• The Middle Ages. In Europe it comprises from 476 AD (fall of the Roman Empire of the West) to 1453 AD (fall of the Roman Empire of the East).
• The Modern Age. In Europe it comprises from 1453 AD to 1789.
• The Contemporary Age. In Europe it has been July 14, 1789, with the French Revolution, and has arrived to this day.

Max Weber defines the State as "a human organization that exclusively and legally controls the use of force over a specific geographical area".

In the middle of the X millennium B.C. C. there was a crucial change that is the development of agriculture, a change described as a "revolution" by Australian historian Gordon Childe; it took place in the Fertile Crescent area and, around 7000 BC. C., spread to other places, such as the Indus Valley, Egypt (6000 BC) and China (5000 BC). On the other hand, in Mesoamerica, archaeological remains were also found that confirm that agriculture was already practiced in this place in 2700 BC. C. As of 5500 B.C. C. the development of organized irrigation and the use, by the Sumerians, of specialized labor became general.

Traditional research has tended to focus on the region of the so-called Fertile Crescent, but archaeological studies carried out in the Americas, as well as in East and Southeast Asia, show that certain agricultural systems that used different types of crops and that functioned with the support of certain animals, they could have developed in parallel at practically the same time.

The first states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. C. in Mesopotamia and in Egypt on the banks of the Nile River.

Even so, nomadic peoples continued to exist, such as the Aborigines of Australia or the Boiximans of southern Africa, who did not use agriculture, and if they did, it was more recently.

In the third millennium B.C. C. the culture of the valley of the Indus arises, and the Caral civilization in Peru. The time of the Three Augusts and five emperors on the banks of the Yellow River. In China from 2500 BC. C. The first dynasty testified by archeology appears, which is the Xia dynasty.

In the second millennium BC. C. civilizations emerged in Crete, Eastern Greece and Turkey.

Since the I century a. C. a network of organized trade routes developed from the Chinese silk business. Its various routes began in the city of Chang'an (currently Xi'an), in China, passing through Karakórum (Mongolia), the Khunjerab pass (China/Pakistan), Susa (Persia), the Fergana Valley (Tajikistan), Taxila (Pakistan), Antioch (Syria), Alexandria (Egypt), Kazan (Russia) and Constantinople, at the gates of Europe, reaching the Hispanic kingdoms in the XV, to the far reaches of Europe and to Somalia and Ethiopia in eastern Africa.

The Kassites of Babylon or the Manchus of China managed to conquer highly developed states and later integrated into their structures. The Europeans gained imperial enclaves in Indonesia and the Moluccas, thanks to the absence of strong political or military powers in the region.

In the 15th century Chinese navigators like Zheng He and Portuguese like Henry the Navigator, driven by the spread of the compass, cartography and the construction of large ships, established trade routes that connected Europe, Africa and Asia. In 1492 the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus reached the American continent, in 1498 the Portuguese Vasco de Gama connected Europe with India and in 1522 Juan Sebastián Elcano would circumnavigate the globe for the first time (1519-1522).

At the end of the XVI century, a large maritime trade network was formed across the Pacific Ocean with port centers in Lima, Panama, Manila, Guangzhou and Xiamen. Simultaneously, the Spanish and the Portuguese opened shipping routes to trade slaves kidnapped in Africa and sold in America. In the 16th century, advances in science such as Andreas Vesalius in medicine and Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei in astronomy changed the vision of the world (for Europeans, at least). Thus, they laid the foundations for a series of discoveries: Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation, Lazzaro Spallanzani's principle that all life comes from another life, Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms, Edward Jenner's vaccination, etc.. On the other hand, the progress of medicine occurred with researchers such as Louis Pasteur.

At the beginning of the 17th century European navigators arrived in Australia. Only Polynesia was left out, and even so, the civilizations of the Pacific Ocean were added in the 18th century (Easter Island in 1722, Hawaii by Captain Cook). At the same time, the hypotheses about the mythical southern continent were confirmed for the first time, upon receiving reports of the existence of Antarctica.

At this time the liberal revolutions took place. The efforts of inventors such as Thomas Newcomen and James Watt led to the invention, in the late 18th century century, of the steam engine.. Industrialization put in the hands of the European colonial powers new weapons for war, such as the breech-loading rifle, the battleship or the machine gun, which gave them supremacy over armies. In Europe during the 18th century, the development of knowledge and technology reached a critical mass that made the Industrial Revolution possible.

The contamination of ecosystems began, the extinction of species and the consequent decrease in biodiversity. Carbon dioxide emissions since the middle of the XIX century, as a product of the massive burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil), has generated global warming.

Around 1835, human beings reached one billion inhabitants for the first time in their history. In the transition from the 19th to the 20th centuries, the rise of labor laws protected workers and allowed the rise of a middle class and a large-scale consumer society. This was not without hard struggles, in which workers' organizations (unions) were many times banned and persecuted.

Little by little, all the regions and populations of the globe fell under the power of one or another state until, by means of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878, the United Kingdom, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, France, the German Empire, the Kingdom Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire claimed the last unoccupied territories, with the exception of Antarctica.

In the XX century, in the year 1914, a minor incident (the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria) World War I unleashed until 1918. However, the peace was not satisfactory. After World War I came the Great Depression and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1939 World War II broke out, in which the Allied powers (Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, Free France, Poland, China and many more) against the Axis (Nazi Germany, Italy, Japan).

Since the end of World War II in 1946, a bipolar order led by the United States and the Soviet Union emerged. Both sought world domination, but fear of the enemy's nuclear arsenal led them to avoid open confrontation. That is why this period is called the cold war. Many Eastern European countries joined the Soviet Union and formed the Warsaw Pact. The intensity of the hostilities between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated until reaching the missile crisis of 1962. As a result of this, both powers engaged in more cordial relations, thus emerging Détente. In the 1980s, the United States embarked on a new arms race. In response, the Soviet Union sought to reform and open up in a process called Perestroika, which got out of hand and led to the eventual dismantling of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc (1989-1991).

An attempt was made to create a new world order tending to avoid repeating the horrors of the world wars and for this purpose the United Nations Organization (UN) was created in 1945, which in 1948 formulated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. But the UN was relatively insolvent in containing the United States and the Soviet Union. These, for their part, actively supported decolonization, dismantling the colonial empires of France, England and other European countries, as a way of directly intervening in the new republics. Thus, the "East-West" (USSR-USA) added a "North South" (rich countries and poor countries). The poorest and most backward countries were called the third world, because they did not have a greater place in either of the other two worlds, that of American capitalism or that of Soviet socialism.

The development of rocketry in the first half of the XX century allowed humans to send beyond of the atmosphere, robotic ships and satellites first and manned probes later. Space exploration developed within the framework of the so-called space race between the Soviet Union and the United States; after the collapse of the first, exploration has become an international collaborative enterprise. Thus, the MIR Space Station was replaced by the International Space Station. In 1969, Apollo XI made the first manned flight to the Moon. In 1977 the Voyager mission began, destined to explore the exterior of the solar system. In 1983, the Pioneer 10 probe reached the heliopause, the most remote end of the solar system, and definitively left it. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope, the first telescope located beyond the atmosphere, enters orbit.

In the first half of the XX century the use of radio became widespread and in the second half of the same century it became widespread the use of television. Advances in electronics lead to the development of the computer. In 1943, the ENIAC, the first computer, came into operation. At the beginning of the XXI century, the use of the Internet became widespread, making it possible to exchange information over long distances and in a short time.

Birth of the suprastates (since 1990 AD)

In this period, the treaties gain more force. Thus, in 1990 the North American Free Trade Agreement was signed, Mercosur was founded in 1991, the European Union was born in 1993, the World Trade Organization was established in 1995, the Andean Community was formed in 1996, and the Andean Community was created in 2001. African Union, in 2014 the Eurasian Union emerged.

• The European Union (1993-current) It is composed of twenty-eight European States and was established with the entry into force of the European Union Treaty (TUE) on 1 November 1993. With that act, the suprastructure "European Union" was joining and based on the three pre-existing European Communities — the European Community of Coal and Steel (ECCA), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the European Economic Community (ECE/EC) — and added to them the common foreign policy and judicial and police cooperation, forming a complex system known as "the three pillars". However, with the entry into force on 1 December 2009 of the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Union completely succeeded, although with certain particularities, the European Communities and thus assumed its unique legal personality as a subject of international law.

Clash of Civilizations

On the other hand, Samue Ricardo Ch.L.l P. Huntington, in his book Clash of Civilizations, put forward the thesis that the world is not globalizing completely, but that large civilizations and very different from each other. The described civilizations can be grouped as follows:

• La Euro-American Civilization: They speak English and German. His writing system is the Latin alphabet. Laicism is practiced. They're about a billion.
• La Muslim civilization: They speak the Arabic language. His writing system is the Arabic alphabet or alphabet. Its majority religion is Islam. They are more than one billion, and are concentrated in North Africa, the Middle East without Israel, Central Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia.
• La Hindu civilization: They speak the Hindi language. His writing system is devanagari, and his religion is Hinduism. They're over a billion, and they're concentrated in India.
• La civilization: They speak the Chinese language. His writing system is the Rénwù (Chinese writing). Their religions are: Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and other private ones. They are more than one billion, and are in China and East Asia.
• La Latin American civilization: They speak the Spanish language, the Portuguese language and the French language. They write with the Latin alphabet. Its majority religions are Catholicism and evangelicalism. It's over 600 million people.
• La sub-Saharan civilization: There are more than 700 million people. They live in poverty. They have animist religions.^{[chuckles]required]}
• La Slavic civilization: They speak the Russian language. His writing system is the Cyrillic alphabet. His religion is Orthodox Christianity (see Orthodox Church). It's more than 250 million people.
• La Jewish civilization: They are few, but of great influence. They speak in the Hebrew language and write with the Alef-Bet. His religion, Judaism.
• La Japanese civilization: There are 126 million people, concentrated in the Japanese archipelago. They speak the Japanese language, write using Kanji and Kana. His religion is Sintoism.

Eurasian history

From the 3rd millennium B.C. C. great civilizations arose, creators of territorial and organically vaster empires each time. The main centers of civilization were the following:

Chinese

The Great Wall China

Enlivened political map of the dynasties in the history of China

• The three augusts and the five emperors were the rulers of China prior to the first Xia dynasty. Despite the legendary character of the stories it is possible that at the origin of these legends are real characters, tribal leaders of the III millennium B.C. who would have achieved military victories prior to the unification of the possibly legendary Xia dynasty. The Chinese historical sources coincide in the number of three augusts and five emperors, but the identities of these vary according to the sources, with different versions both for the augusts and for the emperors.
• Xia Dynasty (2100 BC-1600 BC). The Xia dynasty that according to Chinese chronicles would have lasted the centuryXXIa. C. to the centuryXVIa. C., is considered the first dynasty in Chinese history. The historical memories of Sima Qian collect the names of the 17 kings of this dynasty. Around the Yangtse and Huang-ho rivers came Xia culture and Shang culture. This succumbed to the Zhou invaders, who ruled China during the first half of the 1st millennium a. C.
• Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) The Shang dynasty followed the legendary Xia dynasty and preceded the Zhou dynasty (1122 BC-256 BC). It is speculated that it was founded by a rebel leader who destroyed the last ruler Xia. In 1951 it was found in Erligang, in the vicinity of the present city of Zhengzhou, Henan province, the first archaeological site of the so-called Erligang culture (1600 B.C.-1400 B.C.), of the Bronze Age in China. Many Chinese archaeologists believe that Zhengzhou is home to an ancient capital of the Shang dynasty, which would identify Erligang's culture as one of the beginnings of the Shang.Sima Qian dynasty says in its Historical memories that the Shang dynasty moved its capital six times. The last and most important transfer, to the city of Yin (.) in1350 B.C., led to the golden age of dynasty. Shang Zhou, the last king Yin, committed suicide after his army was defeated by the Zhou people. Legends say his army betrayed him by joining the rebels. Both the Korean and Chinese legends show that a disenchanted prince Yin called Jizi (),і, Jīzi), who rejected ceding power to the zhou, left China with his garrison and founded the state of Choseon near the current Pionyang, the first Korean state. Although Jizi is mentioned only a few times in the Historical memoriesYou think the story of your march to Choseon is nothing but a myth.
• Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) At the end of the period Zhou grew two great philosophical schools, Confucionism and Taoism.
• The period of springs and autumns In turn, in the centuryVIa. C., the ancient Hegemony Zhou shook in several kingdoms, which entered a chronic state of war, during the period of Springs and Otoños.
• Combating Kingdoms (221 BC) It is normally considered as the second part of the eastern Zhou dynasty. The king of Zhou acted merely as a puppet emperor. The period name of the fighting kingdoms comes from the Register of the fighting kingdoms compiled in the early years of the Han dynasty. The date of the beginning of the Combating Kingdoms period is in dispute. While 475 BC is frequently cited as its beginning, following the period of the Springs and Otoños; on other occasions it is mentioned 403 BC, the date of the tripartition of the state of Jin, as the beginning of this period. The period of the fighting kingdoms, in contrast to the period of the Springs and Otoños, was a period in which the lords of the regional war annexed smaller states around them and consolidated their mandate. The process began in the period of springs and autumns; for the centuryIIIa. C., seven major states had reached a certain prominence. These Seven Fighting Realms (,國,, Zhànguó Qīxióng, literally, "The Seven Heroes among the Fighting Realms") were Qi ().), Chu, Yan (),), Han (),), Zhao (),), Wei ().) and Qin ().). Another sign of this shift in power was a change in the titles: the warlords were still considered dukes (Committee of the War). gōng) of the king of the Zhou dynasty, but they began to call themselves kings (a wang), to imply the meaning that they had as equals of the king of Zhou.
• Qin Dynasty (221 BC-206 BC) The name Qín, which has a pronunciation similar in Spanish to "chin", is one of the possible origins of the word China. The unification of China in 221 BC under the first emperor Qin Shi Huang, a name that could be translated as "The August Founding Emperor of the Qin", marked the beginnings of imperial China, a period that lasted (with certain interruptions) until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Qin dynasty left the legacy of a centralized and bureaucratic state that would be continued in successive dynasties. The king of Qin, Zheng, self-proclaimed "First Emperor", a formula of titles previously reserved for deities and the mythological rulers of China. It is known by historians as Qin Shi Huang, First emperor of Qin. To the death of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, a new civil war came.
• Empire Han (206 a. C.-220 d.C.). In the year 206 B.C., General Liu Bang once again unified China, following four centuries of relative peace and political stability. The power was exercised by the Han Previous or Western Han and the Han Posterior or Han Oriental, between the 2nd century B.C. and II AD.
• Three Kingdoms (220 BC-280 AD) In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280. However, many Chinese historians extend the beginning of this period to the rebellion of the yellow turbants in 184.
• Jin dynasty (265 AD-420 AD) (traditional Chinese:;; Wade-Giles: Chin⁴; pinyin: Jìn) ruled from 265 to 420. This dynasty was founded by the Sima family, the descendants of the general and politician of the state of Cao Wei, Sima Yi.
• Sixteen Kingdoms (304 AD-439 AD) Between 304 and 439 the north of China crossed a stage of political fragmentation and chaos. These sixteen kingdoms had been formed by non-Chinese ethnic peoples.
• Southern and Northern Dynasties It would be another non-Chinese ethnic people, the Tuoba, who managed to unify northern China by defeating all these small states and proclaiming the Wei dynasty of the North in 440. With the unification of the north, China is divided into two states: One in the north, in which the so-called northern dynasties will occur: Wei from the north, Wei from the east, Wei from the west, Qi from the north and Zhou from the north; and another in the south, in which, when the last emperor Jin was overthrown in 420, four dynasties were succeeded in the court of Jiankang,
• Dinastía Sui (581 d. C.-618 d.) In the year 581 Yang Jian, general of the army of the northern Zhou dynasty, became with power and proclaimed a new dynasty: the Sui. Eight years later, in 589, the Sui dynasty defeated the weak Chen dynasty of the south, thus achieving the reunification of the south and the north. Following reunification, a phase of institutional reforms and consolidation of central power began. At this time the Grand Canal was built and the Great Wall of China was expanded. It was also a time of promoting Buddhism. In the year 604, Yang Guang succeeded his father on the throne who died killed in the year 617. Then, a succession of peasant wars began, ending with the seizure of power by Li Yuan, in 618, who founded the Tang dynasty, with capital in Xi'an.
• Tang Dynasty (618 d. C.-907 d. C.) In 618, one year after the death of the last emperor Sui, the military Li Yuan assumed power as emperor Gaozu of the new Tang dynasty. In 624, Taizong succeeded him on the throne. After the violent death of the first heir to the throne, a second son of the emperor ascended to the throne as Emperor Gaozong in 649. Beginning in November 660, the state of health of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu began to rule from the shadow. After the emperor's death in 683, it was his third son, Emperor Tang Zhongzong, who went up to the throne, but after six weeks, Wu used his power to remove him and give the throne to another son of his, Emperor Tang Ruizong, who, as his brother, would rule nominally for a brief period, until his mother decided to publicly and officially ratify his power, becoming the first and only woman in China. In the year 705, Empress Wu, who, according to the existing chronicles, was already 80 years old, was overthrown and his son Emperor Zhongzong resumed power, restoring the Tang dynasty. After several years of internal struggles, Emperor Xuanzong would consolidate the power of dynasty. China in this period lived a period of cultural splendour, with inventions such as gunpowder or compass. In 904, military leader Zhu Wen launched an attack on Chang'an, destroying the city. Despite the apparent strength of the empire, the general of Central Asian origin An Lushan led one of the largest Chinese rebellions, the rebellion of An Lushan, which would shake the foundations of the Chinese state in 755. The new emperor Suzong finally succeeded in stifling the rebellion in 763. Finally, in 907 Zhu Wen killed the last emperor Tang and proclaimed a new dynasty: the Liang dynasty, with capitals in the cities of Luoyang and Kaifeng.
• Period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms (907 AD-960 AD). The five dynasties are as follows:
  • Lateral Liang Dynasty (907 d. C.-923 d.)
  • posterior T'ang Dynasty (923 d. C.-936 d. C.)
  • posterior Chin Dynasty (936 d. C.-947 d. C.)
  • Further Han Dynasty (947 d. C.-951 d.)
  • posterior chou dynasty (951 d. C.-960 d. C.)
• Song Dynasty (960 AD-1279 AD) The Emperor Taizu of Song (960-976) unified China through the conquest of other lands during his reign, ending the agitation of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms. During this dynasty the paper coin, gunpowder and compass were used. Song dynasty is divided into two different periods: the North Song and Song of the South. During the North Song 960-1127), the Song capital was in the northern city Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of China's interior. The South Song (Chinese: , 1127–1279) refers to the period after which the Song lost control of northern China against the Jin dynasty. During this period, the Song court retired south of the Yangtze River and established its capital in Lin'an. In 1234, the Jin Dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining precarious relations with the Southern Song. In 1271, Kublai Kan was proclaimed emperor of China. After two decades of sporadic clashes, the Kublai Kan armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279.
• Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)
• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) In the year 1351 A.D. a group called The Red Turbants rose in rebellion. Zhu Yuanzhang was a poor farmer and a Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbantes in 1352 and forged a reputation by marrying the adoptive daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356, Zhu forces took the city of Nanking, which would later become the capital of the Ming. With the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, many rebel groups began to fight for the control of the country. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang won the battle of Lake Poyang, in which it was possibly one of the greatest naval battles in history. Thanks to the use of brulotes, Zhu's 200 000 marines managed to beat their rivals even though they were higher in number. The victory eliminated the last rebel faction, which left Zhu Yuanzhang as an incontestable owner of the rich Yangtse valley and allowed him to strengthen his power in the South. After the suspicious death of the head of the Red Turbine when he was a guest of Zhu in 1367, there was no one who could prevent his access to the throne and made public his imperial ambitions by sending his army to the capital Yuan Dadu (now Beijing) in 1368.
• Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) The Qing dynasty was not founded by the Chinese, but by the Manchus, who are both ethnic minority in China today and antiquity. The Manchu State was formed by Nurhaci, who was originally a vassal of the ming dynasty, when he declared himself emperor of the Jin in 1609. When Ligden Khan, the last Great Kan of the Mongols, died in Tibet in 1634, his son Ajei surrendered to the Manchus and gave him the great seal of the emperor of Yuan to Hung Taiji, son and successor of Nurhaci. The ming dynasty officially ended when the emperor Chongzhen of China, the last emperor ming, committed himself hanging on a tree in the park Jingshan. Beijing in April 1644 was taken by a leader named Li Zicheng. Wu Sangui, commander-general of the Ming, made an alliance with Prince Manchu, Dorgon, regent of the six-year-old Shunzhi emperor, son of Emperor Hung Taiji who had died the previous year. Both armies defeated the rebel forces of Li Zicheng in battle on May 27, 1644. And so the Manchus established themselves as a new dynasty in China. In 1848 the Opium War took place.
• The Republic of China (1912-1949) In 1912 the last emperor Qing, Puyi, was overthrown. Sun Yat-sen becomes President of the Republic of China. However, Yuan Shikai, a military leader, self-proclaimed emperor in 1915 Sun Yat-sen settled in Canton, from where he led the Kuomintang, the political party he had founded. Chiang Kai-shek, successor to Sun Yat-sen at the head of the Kuomintang, will win much of China and establish in Nanking the capital of the Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek becomes president of the Republic. But in 1931 AD. Japan conquers Manchuria abandons the capital of Nanking, occupied by Japan, and is folded into the interior, establishing itself in the city of Chongqing. After the end of World War II, in 1945, Japan abandoned its conquests in Asia and China recovered Manchuria and Taiwan. When it seemed that the Chiang Kai-shek government could already consolidate the stability of the republic, the Communist Party organized an armed rebellion against the Kuomintang. This becomes a total civil war since 1947. Against the forecasts, the Communists manage to defeat the army of the Republic. The Kuomintang government is going to Taiwan.
• The People ' s Republic of China (1949-2019) On 1 October 1949, the leader of the Chinese Communist Party Mao Tse-Tung proclaimed the People's Republic of China from the gate of Tian'anmen of the Forbidden City of Beijing. Mao was China's top leader until his death in 1976. After the death of Mao, the successor chosen by this, Hua Guofeng, failed to consolidate power, which ended up in the hands of Deng Xiaoping. Deng Xiaoping initiated a process of economic reforms and commercial openness to the rest of the world. Since then, the Chinese economy has grown at a spectacular rate. After Deng's death, his successor Jiang Zemin maintained power until 2003, when he was replaced by Hu Jintao, who ruled China until 2013, when he was replaced by current President Xi Jinping.

Indian

• Bhimbetka Them Rupest coats of Bhimbetka They make up an archaeological site located in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The paintings were discovered in 1957 by the Indian archaeologist Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar (1919-1988). The coats present several interesting paintings that show the lives of people living in the caves, including scenes of births, dances and drinks, religious rites and burials. The paintings also show animals such as bison, elephants, turkeys, rhinoceros and tigers. According to archaeologist Yiotsna Kamat, the main diet of these tribes were fruits, onions, honey, pork, wild boar, deer, fish, turtles and birds (including peacock). No sign of wine or liquor.
• Mehrgarh
• Culture of the Indo River Valley (3300 BC-1300 BC). It developed from c. 3300 to C. to c. 1300 B.C. along the Indo Valley in Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India. It encompassed about a hundred settlements and two major cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, both in Pakistan. As a whole it included the largest area of all ancient civilizations, more than a million square kilometres, and went through several periods, being its maximum splendor between 2600 and 1900 a. C. This culture disappeared to 1500 B.C., possibly before the Aryan invaders.
• Vedic period (c. 1500 a. C.-c. 500 a. C.) India was consolidated as a militarized society, with a social caste system, expressed in the Rig-veda (the oldest text of India, from the middle of the second millennium to C.).
• Mahajanapadas (c. 600 B.C.-c. 300 B.C.) In the fourth century B.C. Buddhism and Yainism flourished.
• Nanda Dynasty (345 BC-321 BC)
• Maurya Empire (320 B.C.- 180 B.C.) At the end of the centuryIVa. C., a warrior named Chandragupta Mauria unified India, giving it stability under the Mauritanian Empire.
• Śu.ga Empire (185 B.C.-75 B.C.)
• Kanva Dynasty (75 BC-30 BC)
• Kushan (30 d. C.-375 d.C.)
• Empire gupta (320 d.C.- 550 d.C.)
• Chalukya Dynasty (543 d.C.- 743 d.C.)
• Rashtrakuta (783 d. C.-952 d. C.)
• By 1000, Turkish conquerors of Muslim religion entered militarily and, since then, the Indian territory is Muslim and Hindu.
• Hoysala Empire (1026-1343)
• Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)
• Kingdom of Mysore (1399-1950) Kingdom (subordinated to the Vijayanagara Empire up to 1565) and vassal principality of the United Kingdom after 1799
• Union of India (1947-1950) India was militarily controlled by England since the conquest of Delhi in 1804 and maintained its rule despite a great native rebellion in 1857.
• Republic of India (1950-)
• Indochina Indian merchants carried in the centuryVII Hinduism to Southeast Asia. Under his influence, in Indochina arose the Jemer Empire, which was powerful between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, to be replaced later by other kingdoms.

Western Europe

• Stonehenge (2500 BC) Stonehenge consists of large blocks of metamorphic rocks distributed in four concentric circles. Near is the “Pedra del Sacrificio”. Faced with the "Piedra Talón". It is composed of a large circle of large megalites whose construction is dated to 2500 a. C.
• Hallstatt culture (1200 BC-450 BC)
• Culture of La Tène (475 BC-18 BC)
• Celtic. Celts settled in Western Europe during the first millennium BC and their culture spread from Spain to Poland, and from England to Turkey. Finally, they were defeated by the Romans; only a single reduct survived, in the distant Ireland, until it was annihilated by the Vikings.
• The Kingdom of Soissons (457 AD-486 AD) The Kingdom of Soissons (also called the Dominion of Soissons or the Kingdom of Siagrio) was a Gallo-Roman enclave centered around the city of Soissons that survived the fall of the Roman Empire of the West, being the last territory of the Roman Empire to fall, in 486 AD, ten years after the deposition of Rhomulus Augusto and six after the death of July Nepote. The Kingdom of Soissons began when the Emperor Majoriano (457-461) appointed Egidio as magister militum of the Roman Gaul. When Mayoriano lost his authority and life in front of Ricimero in 461, Egidio maintained his dominion over most of the province of Galia Lugdunense, creating de facto a Roman remnant state that became known as the Kingdom of Soissons. In the chaos of the Gaul of the time, Egidio retained his power in front of the East-Seated Francs and the South Visigoths; his relations with Roman Britain may have been friendly. Egidio died in 464 or 465. His son Syagrius inherited power as Dux of the enclave Suessionum (Soissons). He was defeated by the Franks in the battle of Soissons in 486 AD, Siagrio asked for refuge to Alarico II (the Visigoth Reign of Tolosa). Instead of receiving him, he took him prisoner and sent him to Clodoveo I, who sent him to beheaded in 487. His regime represented the last recorded example of a Gallo-Roman native authority in Galia.

• The Kingdom of the Franks at the Merovingian era (481 d. C.-800 d. C.)
  

  Expansion of the Franco kingdom.
  Between the years 355 and 358, Emperor Julian tried to dominate the river paths of the Rhine under the control of the Franks and, once again, pacified them. Rome granted them a considerable part of the Belgian Gallia, from which they became foederati of the Roman Empire. Thus, the French became the first Germanic people to settle permanently within Roman territory. In the year 481, Clodoveo, son of King Childerico I and Princess Basin of Turingia, acceded to the throne of the Franco Salio kingdom, located in the region of Tournai in the present Belgium. The title of king was not new, for this was given to the heads of war of the barbarian nations at the service of Rome. It was Clodoveo I (481-511), who by his military campaigns truly enlarged the kingdom of the francs (Regnum Francorum) east in Germany and south-west in Aquitaine, dominated until then by the Visigoths. Many years later, the palace butler of all the Merovingian kingdoms, Pipino el Breve (son of the butler Carlos Martel and descendant of Pipino el Viejo), succeeded in destroying his Merovingio Childerico III king in 751 and was recognized king of the Franks and later anointed as king by the Roman Bishop Stephen II in 754. Pipino el Breve distributed the kingdom to his death in 768, among his sons Carlos and Carlomán. However, Carloman retired to a monastery and died shortly afterwards, leaving his brother as the only king. This would later become known as Carlomagno, in French Charlemagne and in German Karl der Große.

• The Carolingian Empire (800 AD-843 AD)
  

  Carolingian Empire
  On the Christmas day of 800, the Roman bishop Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Emperor who governs the Roman Empire", in Rome. Carlomagno had several children, but only one survived him. It was Louis the Piadoso, who succeeded his father at the head of the unified empire. Luis died in 840 AD and his three surviving children decided to divide the territory into the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

• Western France (843 A.D. 987 A.D.)
• Kingdom of France (987 AD 1791 AD)
  • General States (1789 A.D.)
  • The National Constituent Assembly (1789 AD 1791 AD).
• French constitutional Monarchy (1791 AD-1792 AD) The French constitutional monarchy is the first stage of the French Revolution. On September 3, 1791, when the Constitution was sworn, Louis XVI passed France from an absolutist monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. The constitutional monarchy ended on September 21, 1792 when the Legislative Assembly proclaimed the abolition of the monarchy, giving way to the First French Republic.
• First French Republic (1792 AD-1804 AD)
  • The Convention (1792 d. C.-1795 d.C.)
  • The Directory (1795 d. C.-1799 d. C.)
  • The Consulate (1799 AD-1804 AD)
• The First Napoleonic Empire (1804 AD-1815 AD)
• The Bourbon Restoration in France (1814 AD-1830 AD). After the expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, the allies restored the House of Bourbon to the French throne. The period ahead was called Restorationcharacterized by an acute conservative reaction and the restoration of the Catholic Church as a political power in France. But the governments of Louis XVIII (between 1814 and 1824) and Carlos X (between 1824 and 1830) had to accept new realities such as the constitutional monarchy, parliamentarism, the redistribution of the land made during the convulsions of the end of the centuryXVIII and the disappearance of the former artisanal guilds. In 1830, Carlos X faced a moderate liberal majority parliament. In the face of this, it decreed the 4 ordinances of July, which suspended the freedom of the press, dissolved the newly elected House of Representatives, lengthened the position of the deputies and reduced its number. The people of Paris rushed to the street and managed to defeat the royal army. Liberal politicians took advantage of this event and King Charles X was forced to exile.
• The Monarchy of July (1830 AD-1848 AD) Louis Felipe I was appointed as a new king and thus France became endowed with the Constitution of 1830 France. The so-called July Monarchy began with "Les Trois Glorieuses" or in Spanish, The Three Glorious Revolutionary Days of Paris on 27, 28 and 29 July 1830, against the government of King Charles X, which ended up bringing to the French throne Luis Felipe de Orléans who belonged to a collateral branch of the House of Bourbon, the so-called Borbon-Orleans.

• The Second French Republic (1848 AD-1852 AD) It begins with the provisional government of 1848 (24 February - 9 May 1848) was a collective government of republican tendency set in motion after the revolution of February 1848 intended to administer the state until the constitution of a National Assembly. The executive commission of the French Republic was then established, which was composed of members who equally assumed the role of heads of State, although François Arago was the president. The Commission sessioned from 9 May to 28 June 1848, when Louis Eugène Cavaignac was appointed as head of government until the elections took place. On December 10, 1848, the first President of the French Republic is elected by universal male suffrage: Luis Napoléon Bonaparte, the "prince-president", nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Constitution provided for a four-year presidential term, without the possibility of re-election. On 7 November 1852, through a plebiscite, the Second Republic is ended and the Second Empire is established. Luis Napoleón Bonaparte is proclaimed as "Napoleon III, Emperor of the French", on December 2, 1852, a record date of the crowning of Napoleon I and the battle of Austerlitz. In this period there was the abolition of slavery in the colonies.

• The Second Napoleonic Empire (1852 AD-1870 AD) The Empire was proclaimed on December 2, 1852 (anniversary of the coronation of Napoleon I) when the first and only president of the Second Republic, Luis Napoleón Bonaparte, became Napoleon III, "Emperor of the French". Although a year earlier, Luis Napoleón Bonaparte had already given a coup d’etat, dissolved parliament and became a dictator, acquiring the post of “prince-président” (“Prince-President”). The proclamation of the Empire was approved, one month earlier, by the Senate, purged of any republican or monarchical opposition, and ratified by a popular plebiscite two weeks later.
• Third French Republic (1870 AD-1940 AD) In 1935 the Sunday rest was legalized.
• France de Vichy (1940 AD-1944 AD)
• Provisional Government of the French Republic (1944 AD-1946 AD)
• Fourth French Republic (1946 AD-1958 AD)
• Fifth French Republic (1946)

Central Europe

• III century barbaric invasion From the microglacial period initiated c. 400 d. C., more military incursions and population displacements were made on the borders of the Roman Empire. Except for the Turkic peoples, the other three were indo-European, like the Greeks and Latins. Given their ethno-linguistic status, these peoples were very different from each other, and four cultural groups could be distinguished:
  • Turkic peoples: like the coves, the Huns and then the Bulgarians of the Volga.
  • Slavic peoples: like the bandages, in what is today Poland, and later the southern Slavs in the Balkans.
  • Iraqi peoples: like the scyto-sarms, between the Danube and the Tisza, and the alanos, on the shores of the Black Sea.
  • Germanic peoples: like the gods, the elves, the vandals, the heirlooms, the saxons, the Jews, the Franks, the Burgunds, the Longobards and others.
• Eastern France (843 d. C.-962 d. C.) Through the Treaty of Verdun the kingdom of Charlemagne was distributed among its three grandchildren. The eastern part, called Eastern France, fell in Louis the Germánico, whose descendants would reign until the death of Louis IV the Child and who would be his last caroling king. After the death of Louis IV in 911, the leaders of Germany, Bavaria, France and Saxony still chose as a successor a nobleman of frank stirpe, Conrado I. But once dead, the Reichstag gathered in 919 in the city of Fritzlar appointed the count of Saxony, Enrique I el Pajarero (919-936). With the choice of a sajón, the last ties were broken with the kingdom of the Western francs. Henry appointed his son Oton I the Great as a successor, who was elected king in Achish in 936.

• The Holy Roman Germanic Empire (962 AD-1806 AD).
  

  Sacro German Roman Empire
  Known as the First Reich. The Empire was formed in 962 under the Saxon dynasty with the coronation of Oton I the Great as emperor. The Sacro Empire became the predominant entity in central Europe for almost a millennium until its dissolution in 1806.

• The Rhine Confederation (1806-1813) The Rhine Confederation (in German: Rheinbund) was the name that received the confederation of the First French Empire's clients created by the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the framework of the so-called Napoleonic Wars. The confederation was initially created by 16 German states after Austria and Russia were defeated in the battle of Austerlitz. The subsequent Treaty of Presbourg created the creation of the Rhine Confederation. The confederation existed between 1806 and 1813. The Confederation dissolved after the defeat of Napoleon in the battle of Leipzig in 1813.

• The Vienna Congress (1814-1815) The Vienna Congress was an international meeting held in the Austrian capital, convened with the objective of re-establishing the borders of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte and reorganizing the political ideologies of the Old Regime. Thus, his intention was to return Europe to the situation before the French Revolution (1789) and also to ensure a balance of power.

• The German Confederation (1815-1866) The German Confederation (in German): Deutscher Bund, “German Confederation”) was a union established in 1815 by the Vienna Congress that grouped 39 German states into a confederation of sovereign States under the presidency of the House of Austria. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 disputed among the various entities that formed this Confederation: the Austrian Empire and its allies on the one hand and the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies on the other.

• The German Confederation of the North (1867-1871) The German Confederation of the North (in German): Norddeutscher Bund) had its beginning in 1867, following the dissolution of the German Confederation. Formed by 22 states in northern Germany, it was a transient group, which lasted only until the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871. On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the Northern German Confederation renamed the Confederation as the German Empire and gave the title of German emperor to the king of Prussia as president of the Confederation. During the Paris Site, on January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor at the Gallery of the Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles.

• The German Empire (1871-1918) The German Empire (in German): Deutsches Reich, called by some German historians Kaiserlich Deutsches Reich or simply Kaiserreich), was the form of state that existed in Germany from its unification and the proclamation of William I as emperor, on January 18, 1871, until 1918, when it became a republic after the defeat in the First World War and the abdication of William II (9 November 1918).

• The Republic of Weimar (1919-1933) The name Weimar Republic is a term applied by the subsequent historiography, since the country retained its name Deutsches Reich (‘German Empire’). The name is due to the city of Weimar, where the National Constituent Assembly met and approved the new constitution, on 31 July and entered into force on 11 August 1919. This period was characterized by military and right-wing coups, revolutionary attempts by the left and strong economic crisis. This whole combination led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the German National Socialist Party. On March 5, 1933, the Nazis obtained the majority in the elections to the parliament, so they could pass on March 23 the Enabling Law which, together with the Reichstag fire decree of February 28, allowed the adoption of laws without the participation of the Parliament, is considered to be the end of the Weimar Republic.

• Nazi Germany (1933-1945) Nazi or National Socialist Germany refers to the time when the German National Socialist Workers Party ruled the country. After Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg, on January 30, 1933, the Nazi Party began to eliminate all political opposition and consolidate its power. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended up mass unemployment using high military expenditures and a mixed economy. The return to economic stability prompted the regime's popularity. Austria and Czechoslovakia were annexed in 1938 and 1939. In September 1939 he ended up invading Poland, which marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. In alliance with Italy and the Axis Powers, Germany conquered most of Europe in 1940. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide turned against the Third Reich, suffering serious military defeats from 1942. Germany was invaded in 1945 by the Soviets from the east and by the Western allies from the west. Hitler's refusal to admit defeat led to massive destruction of German infrastructure and unnecessary loss of life in the last months of the war. The Allies led the Nazi leaders who survived to trial for war crimes, crimes against humanity and war of aggression in the Nuremberg Trials.

• The German Reunification (1989-) refers to the political and social changes that occurred during 1989 and 1990 in Germany, which ended in the accession of the former German Democratic Republic (RDA) under the jurisdiction of the Federal Republic of Germany (RFA). It also led to the opening of the borders between the Germans, which triggered the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. The Governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union signed Treaty Two plus Four, which failed in favour of reunification. It also endorsed the Unification Treaty, a legal instrument that authorized the accession of the RDA to the RFA under the Basic Law of Germany on 3 October 1990. Since 1991, that date has been celebrated on the Day of German Unity.

Eastern Europe

• Great Moravia - was a medieval empire of central Europe developed between 833 and the centuryX, constituted the first state reality that was forged among the ancestors of Czech, Moravian and Slovak. The territorial nucleus of the empire was the Morava River, today in Czech Republic and Slovakia, and in its expansion it reached the areas of modern Hungary, Romania, Poland, Austria, Germany, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia and Ukraine.
• Kingdom of Poland (1025-1385) - it was a medieval kingdom of Europe developed between 1025 and 1385.
• Great Principality of Hungary (858 AD - 1000 AD) Hungarian Chronicles like the Gesta Hungarorum They narrate the existence of the Great Prince Almos of Hungary (c. 819 - 895), who served as supreme authority over the seven rulers of the magicians, ruling between 858 and 895. Seven Hungarian tribal chiefs symbolically joined their seven tribes under their command as Grand Prince after holding a ceremony (the blood pact). Almos was succeeded by his son was Árpád. Taksony, grandson of the Great Prince Arpad, led in 947 an attack against Berengario II of Italy and collected taxes from the kingdom of Italy for the Hungarians. After the defeat suffered by the Hungarians before the German emperor Oton the Great in the Battle of Lechfeld, and the death of the Hungarian Prince Falicsi, Taksony took over. After the death of Taksony, it would happen his son Géza, who would begin with the process of sedentarization and Christianization of the Hungarians. The son of Prince Géza was St. Stephen I.
• Kingdom of Hungary (1000 AD-1867 AD) The first Hungarian king was St Stephen, crowned in 1000, and the last Charles IV, who renounced his rights in 1918 by signing the Eckartsau agreement.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 AD-1919 AD)
• Hungary (1989 d.C.-2019 d.C.) Since 1989 Hungary is a democratic parliamentary republic.
• Kingdom of Bohemia was a medieval kingdom of Europe until the centuryXVI.
• Mongolian invasion of Europe - The Mongolian invasion of Europe by hordes commanded by Batú Kan, Subotai and Kadan of the centuryXIII, reached Poland, Hungary and Romania after the Mongols had conquered and devastated the Rus of Kiev.
• Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights - was formed in 1224 during the Baltic Crusades, when the Knights of the Teutonic Order conquered the pagan Prussians. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword who controlled Livonia were incorporated into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch of the Order of Livonia in 1237. In 1410, after its defeat in the battle of Grunwald, the Teutonic Order came into decline and its branch of Livonia joined the Livona Confederation which had been created in 1422-35. The Teutonic lands in Prussia were divided into two in 1466, after Thorn's Peace: the western part of the Teutonic Prussia became the Royal Prussia, which became a further part of Poland; the monastic state in the east was secularized in 1525 during the Protestant Reformation, when it was replaced by the Duchy of Prussia, a Polish fiefdom ruled by the House of Hohenzoller.
• Grand Duchy of Lithuania - it was a medieval empire of Europe until 1569 and then until 1795 as part of the Republic of the Two Nations.
• Kingdom of Poland (1385-1569) - it was a medieval empire of Europe until 1569 and then until 1795 as part of the Republic of the Two Nations.
• Republic of the Two Nations - it was a universal empire and a federal aristocratic monarchy formed in 1569 by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; it lasted until the divisions of Poland in 1795. The political system of the commonwealth, called Golden Freedom, was characterized by the limitation of the power of the monarch by the laws and the legislative chamber (Sejm) controlled by the nobility of Poland. This system was the precursor of modern concepts of democracy, constitutional monarchy and federation.
  • Polish-Language Wars
  • Polish-Russian War
  • Polish-Turkish wars
• Czechoslovakia
• Second Polish Republic
  • Polish-Soviet War
• Compact Ribbentrop-Mólotov
  • Invasion of Poland of 1939
  • Occupation of the Baltic Republics

Russia

• The Russian territories were colonized by the Goths in the time of the Romans and then by the Jazars and the varegos (vikings). The latter founded Kiev in 962.
• The Rus of Kiev (882-1240) The Rus of Kiev was a federation of Eastern Slavic tribes The Rus of Kiev began with the reign of Prince Oleg (r. 882-912), who extended his control of Nóvgorod the Great to the Dniéper River valley in order to protect the trade of the Khazarian incursions in the east and transferred its capital to the most strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (?-972) achieved the first great expansion of the territorial control of the Kyiv Rus. Vladimiro the Great (980-1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, all the inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. The Rus of Kiev reached its largest extension under Yaroslav I (1019-1054); its children prepared and published the first written legal code, the Justice of the Rus (Rúskaya Pravda), shortly after his death. The decline of the State began at the end of the centuryXI and during the centuryXII, disintegrating into several rival regional powers. It was further weakened by economic factors, such as the collapse of the commercial ties of the Rus with Byzantium due to the decay of Constantinople and the subsequent decline in trade routes in its territory. The State finally fell with the Mongol invasion of 1240.
• Vladimir-Súzdal Principality (1157-1363) In the middle of the centuryXII the Rus of Kiev disintegrated into lands and independent principalities. The Principality occupied a vast territory in the northeast of the Kiev Rus limited, approximately, by the Volga, Oká and Northern Dviná rivers. Vladimir II Monomaco, in securing his rights to the principality in 1093, transferred the capital of Rostov to Súzdal. Fifteen years later (1108), he strengthened and reconstructed the city of Vladimir. At the death of the prince in 1125, this land is separated from the South Rus and his son Yuri Dolgoruki becomes his first prince. He moved the headquarters of the Principality to Vladimir in 1157. However, the prince did not lose hope of occupying the throne of Kiev and maintained constant wars for the great principality. In one of these battles Yuri Dolgoruki managed to occupy Moscow (1147). In 1155 Prince Yuri reached his goal and became the great prince of Kiev, but two years later he was poisoned by the boyars of this city. Andréi Bogoliubski, son of Yuri Dolgoruki, had been sent by his father to the north and invited by the local boyars to govern these territories. It is to Andréi the Piadoso who must be given the merit of taking Vladimir to his zenit of political power. Andréi was a singularly gifted ruler, who disdained the former power centers like Kiev. After burning Kiev in 1169, he refused to accept the throne of Kiev and instead enthroned his younger brother, Gleb of Kiev. His capital of Vladimir was for him a much greater concern and embellished it with churches and white stone monasteries. Andréi was killed by the boyars in his suburban residence in Bogoliúbovo in 1174. In 1238, the Mongol hordes at the orders of Batu Kan took and burned Vladimir during the Mongolian invasion of Russia. Neither Vladimir nor any of the oldest cities managed to recover after the Mongol invasion. The principality quickly disintegrated into eleven small principalities: Moscow, Tver, Pereslavl, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Úglich, Belozersk, Kostromá, Nizhni Nóvgorod, Starodub del Kliazma and Yúriev-Polski. They all nominally recognized the sovereignty of the Great Prince of Vladimir. Their rulers, once installed as great princes of Vladimir, did not even care about leaving the capital and establishing themselves permanently in Vladimir. When the metropolist Pedro moved his headquarters from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325, it became clear that the Grand Duchy of Moscow had succeeded Vladimir as the main centre of power in the north-eastern Rus.
• The Principality of Moscow (1283-1547) When the Mongol Empire invaded the lands of the Rus of Kiev, Moscow was a small town of the Vladimir-Súzdal Principality. The Mongols burned Moscow in the winter of 1238. The first Moscovita prince was, Daniil Aleksándrovich (reinated between 1283 and 1303), who assured the principality for his family, the Rúrikovich. His son, Ivan I of Russia (ruled between 1325 and 1340), obtained the title of the great Prince of Vladimir of the Mongol leaders. He cooperated closely with the Mongols, raising tributes from other principalities in which the Rus of Kiev was fragmented.
• The Russian Zarato (1547-1721) The Russian Tsar is the official name of the Russian State from the taking of the title of Zar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the founding of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721.
• The Russian Empire (1721-1917) The expression "Imperial Russia" designates the chronological period of Russian history from the conquest of territories between the Baltic Sea and the Pacific Ocean initiated by Peter I to Emperor Nicholas II and the beginning of the 1917 Revolution.
• The Soviet Union (1922-1991) The February Revolution of 1917, which caused the fall of the Russian Empire, had as its successor to the Russian Interim Government, which was overthrown by the October Revolution establishing the Bolshevik government called Sovnarkom. Then the Russian Civil War was unleashed, which was won by the new Soviet regime. In December 1922 the Soviet Union was created with the merger of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, the Soviet Federal Republic of Transcaucasia, the Soviet Socialist Republic of Ukraine and the Soviet Socialist Republic of Belarus. The Soviet Union had a single political party system dominated by the Communist Party until 1990 and although it was a federal union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet State was structured under a national government and a highly centralized economy. In 1957 the Soviet Union set into orbit the Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. Then, in 1961, followed by Yuri Gagarin, the first cosmonaut. The first woman will be Valentina Tereshkova in 1963, and the first space walker will be Alexei Leonov in 1965. In the late 1980s, the republics of the Soviet Union legally incorporated movements into the declaration of sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the Constitution of the USSR, which indicated that any republic of the Soviet Union was free to separate. On 8 December 1991, the Presidents of RSFS of Russia, the Ukrainian SSR and the Belarus SSR signed the Belavezha Treaty which officially declared the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), instead. The next day, the Supreme Soviet Soviet, the highest government body in the Soviet Union, dissolved itself. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor at the international scene.
• Russian Federation (1991-) The struggle for the centre of power in post-Soviet Russia and the nature of economic reforms culminated in the political crisis and bloodshed of 1993. Yeltsin, who represented radical privatization, was opposed by parliament. Faced with the opposition and threatened with the challenge, Yeltsin "disolved" the parliament, in what can be called a coup d'etat, on September 21, and ordered new elections and a referendum for a new constitution. On October 4, Yeltsin ordered the Special Forces and the army elite to take over the parliament building. Thus the transition period of the post-Soviet era ended. A new constitution was adopted by referendum in December 1993. Russia had a strongly presidential system. Radical privatization went on. Vladimir Putin assumed the presidency on 31 December 1999 until 7 May 2008 and resumed on 7 May 2012, following the mandate of Dmitri Medvédev.

Mesopotamia

Successive settlements in Mesopotamia, a word that in Greek means "between rivers" (μέσος, "between" and ποταμός, "river").

• Obeid period (4500 BC-3500 BC): At this stage stands Eridu, considered by the Sumerian tradition as the oldest in the cities of Mesopotamia. The antiquity of the city was demonstrated by archaeologists throughout the 20th century, the lowest levels of excavation dating back to 4900 B.C., at the beginning of the period of El Obeid. Eridu was eclipsed by the neighboring city of Ur. In this first stage, the ceramic remains show a significant role of Eridu in the region. Around 3800 B.C. (L.V.) the city had an important temple and a cemetery that had been discovered about a thousand graves. During the period of El Obeid, agriculture has advanced thanks to the control of surface water, through canal-based irrigation techniques.

• Uruk period (3800 BC-3200 BC) The most important findings of this stage focus on Uruk, a population located a few kilometres from El Obeid, in the lower course of the Euphrates, which will name the period. The Uruk culture had its centre in the southern area of Mesopotamia, but its features spread throughout the Asian Near East. Thus, samples are found in northern Syria, Turkey or Susa, in current Iran. The main characteristics of this period are the appearance of the cylindrical seal, the monumental of its architecture, the features of its ceramics and the appearance of writing. Other advances were the invention of the wheel and its first application outside the transport, the potter's lathe. At the end of the period the bronze, produced from copper and arsenic or tin, began to be used.
• Yemdet Nasr period (3200 BC-3000 BC): There was a distance between the northern and southern regions; the latter, more populated. The administration left the regional area and was located in each of the cities, which were more differentiated. For the first time you can talk about Cities-state and City-Templo. At this level the findings of written documents are considerably reduced. Thus, in the peripheral regions, its use disappeared completely; although it remained in the Lower Mesopotamia. It is likely that, due to the administrative nature of most texts, they would no longer be necessary when the regional bureaucracy ceased to function.
• Arcaic Dinastic Period (2900 BC-2334 BC)
• The Acadio Empire (2334 BC-2193 BC): it was a great kingdom of Mesopotamia formed from the conquests of Sargon of Akkad. It maintained its maximum splendor between the 21st and 21st centuries B.C. in which five monarchs were succeeded: Sargon himself, his sons Rimush and Manishutusu, his grandson Naram-Sin and his son, Sharkalisharri who ruled a total of 141 years.
• The invasion of the Gutis Also called gutu They were a people of the east of Tigris, who inhabited the Zagros mountains at the end of the third millennium B.C., which from 2000 to. C. participated in the struggles to dominate Acad, a part of which came to occupy first briefly (2180 BC-2175 BC) and later for longer (2159 BC-2116 BC). They appear in Universal History when Naram-Sin, king acadio, undertakes a punitive expedition against him. The famous trail of Naram-Sin reflects this military triumph. However, a century later the guts attacked the Empire, dismantling it. The guts were imposed in Mesopotamia for about a century, until — being defeated first by the king of the city of Uruk, Utu-.egal—, the political resurrection of the former Sumerian city of Ur replaced its power definitively.
• Lagash's second dynasty: The Gutis invasion was not so devastating. The cities of the south sumeric maintained their independence and were distinguished by intense cultural activity. We have a large documentation about everything in terms of Lagash dynasty. Between ensi of these cities is evidenced in particular by Gudea, for the great number of literary texts and statues in his image, which was made by the most famous Sumeric king. He was a peaceful king, who dedicated himself to the construction of numerous canals, buildings and temples, of which the most famous is the E-Ninnu, the temple of the god Ningirsu, built in collaboration with other cities, without repairing expenses.
• The Third Dynasty of Ur: During the later period it was Uruk, with the reign of Utu-hegal who obtained a predominant position. The new monarch beat the head of the nomadic gutis, Tiriqan, who was taken prisoner, after which he was named "king of the four regions". Utu-hegal was succeeded by Ur-nammu, which is not known whether it belonged to his dynasty or was a usurper. It has been speculated that it could be his brother. The new king strived to realize the title he had inherited; he attacked the neighboring cities and conquered Nippur, Uruk, Larsa, Ur, Eridu and Lagash, whose king Nammahni was killed. After this, he decided to move the capital of his state from Uruk to Ur, founding a new dynasty; the third dynasty of Ur. The reason for this transfer is unclear, although it is possible that Ur-Nammu would have been governor of this city before receiving the throne of Uruk. Ibbi-Sin, Brother Shusin, was the last sovereign of the dynasty. During his reign he had to face the waves of the Amorite nomads. Finally, an attack by the elamites and the nomads of the Zagros mountains managed to take Ur, ending the dynasty. This was related to the calls regrets of Ur.
• The cities- Amorean state
  • Isin: Ishbi-Erra, a subject of Ibbi-Sin separated from Ur's third dynasty and founded its own dynasty in Isin, north of Ur. Although the empire of Ur was not succeeded by another State covering all Mesopotamia, In the later years Ishbi-Erra obtained a partial hegemony in the south of Mesopotamia. This situation would remain for about 50 years, including the reign of his successors.
  • Larsa: However, some Sumerian cities were not controlled by the Isin dynasty. From the reign of Lipit-Ishtar, one of them began to stand out: it was Larsa. The flourishing of Larsa became evident around 1930 B.C., when King Gungunum conquered Elam and the Dijala Valley. About five years later, after conquering the city of Ur, Gungunum called himself “the King of Sumeria and Acad”. His successor Abisare continued the expansion of the kingdom, conquering the Akkadian cities of Kish and Akusum as well as Nippur. Already in the centuryXIXa. C., King Bur-Sin of Isin tried to stop the advance of Larsa conquering Ur and Nippur, but his initiative must have failed since by mid-century Isin had lost all territory beyond the city itself.
• The Paleo-Babylonian Empire or First Babylonian Empire to the State created by Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) according to the average chronology) In Mesopotamia there are various dating problems for this period, so that no date is absolute. Chronologies can be used High, average and Lowsuggesting different dates in Lower Mesopotamia. Under his command Babylon, a submersive city-state in power of a love dynasty, spent in just over thirty years to control a territory more extensive than the empire of Ur (Epoch of Ur III), former undisputed hegemonic power of the region. The I dynasty, the Amorean, ended in the centuryXVIa. C., because of the invasion of the Hittite Empire. Shortly afterwards the Babylonian house dynasty or intermediate Babylonian period began.
• The Assyrian Empire (1813 BC-609 BC): Towards the centuryVIIIa. C. Assyrians, a town in northern Mesopotamia, began a vast military expansion against Palestine, even reaching Egypt.

Heats and Medes

• Burning Empire (550 BC-331 BC) or First Persian Empire
  

  Burning Empire under Darius I
  Its territorial expansion began, during the reign of Cyrus II (559-530 BC), with the annexation of the medo kingdom, and reached its peak in the year 500 BC, when it came to encompass part of the territories of the current states of Libya, Bulgaria and Pakistan, as well as certain areas of the Caucasus, Sudan and Central Asia. The great conquests made him the greatest empire in extension until then. His existence ended in 330 BC when the last of the burnt kings, Darius III, was overcome by the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great.
• Hellenistic epoch (331 B.C.- 312 B.C.): Alexander the Great died in 323 BC.

• The Seleucid Empire (312 B.C.-63 B.C.): In the year 312 BC Seleuco was established in Babylon that same year, taking that date as that of the foundation of the Seleucid Empire. Around the 100th century B.C., the once formidable Seleucid Empire covered just over Antioch and some Syrian cities. Between the years 69-64 B.C. Antíoco XIII Asian king was seleucida after the defeat of Tigranes II the Great, Lucio Licinio Lúculo proclaimed him king in Antioch, as a king of customer. However, Pompeyo deposed it shortly afterwards, converting Syria into Roman province. He is often regarded as the last of the seleucids, although Philip II Philorroman reigned in part of Syria after him.
  

  Referential map of the kingdoms Grecobactriano, Parto and Seleúcida in 180 a. C.

The Sassanian Empire under Cosroes II

• The Sasanian Empire (226 AD-651 BC) or Second Persian Empire The births, in turn, were succeeded by the Sassanids. The Sassanid dynasty was founded by Ardacher I after overthrowing the last ardid king, Artabán IV of Partia, and ended when the last Shahanshah (King of kingsSassanid Yazdgerd III (632-651) lost a prolonged 14-year war against the first of the Islamic caliphates.

Before his death in 632, Mohammed had consolidated his dominion over the Arabian peninsula.

• Islam (610 AD-632 BC): Muslims believe that in 610 at forty years of age, while meditating, Mohammed had a vision. The first revelations made Mohammed come to think that he was under the influence of a demonic presence, taking him near suicide. The mediation of his wife avoided such disillusionment and thus Mohammed began preaching against the polytheism of his own tribe, the cyrayshi, because they were the guardians of the Kaaba. This is why Mohammed and his followers were persecuted. They fled to Medina in 622 AD and thus began the Muslim calendar. Mohammed arrived in Medina as a mediator, invited to settle complaints between the Arab bands of Aws and Khazraj. It achieved this by absorbing both factions in the Muslim community. In 628 AD, Mohammed's position was strong enough to decide his return to Mecca. In 630 AD, he succeeded the Conquest of Mecca. Mohammed died on 8 June 632 AD in the city of Medina at the age of 63. Abu Bakr, the father of Aisha, the third wife of Mohammed, was chosen by the leaders of the Muslim community as the successor of Mohammed, for this was the favorite of Mohammed.
• The Orthodox Caliphate (632 d. C.-661 d. C.)
• The Omeya Caliphate (661 d. C.-750 d.C.): In 661, a civil war led to the establishment of the Omeya Caliphate, made up of a caste of warlords installed in Damascus, Syria.
• The Abbasid Caliphate (750 AD-1258 AD)
  

  Caliphate Abasi towards 850 AD.
  It was the second Sunni caliph dynasty, which happened to that of the Omeyas. It is also known as the caliphate of Baghdad, as the Abbasid caliphate was founded in Kufa in 750 and changed its capital in 762 to Baghdad. In 750, they were shot down by a rebellion promoted in the Jorasan by the abasids, who lived a cultural gold age during the next centuria; this, although anticalifates arose in Egypt and Spain. The Abbasid Caliphate was replaced by the government de facto of the Silent Turks, and then their last remnants of power were swept down with the conquest of Baghdad by the Mongols, in 1258.
• The Selyucid Empire (1037 AD- 1157 AD): After the Abbasids became decayed, with the outbreak of the Selyúcida (sixteenth century)X), the Muslim religion continued to spread to even more remote regions, including Central Africa or Indonesia, while its culture even reached Christian Europe.
• The Mongol Empire (1206 AD-1368 AD.)
  

  Expansion of the Mongolian territory.
  : it was the second largest empire in history and the first among those constituted by continuous territories, it was instituted by Gengis Kan from 1206 and it came to have in its peak an area of about 33,000 000 000 km2, covering from the Korean peninsula to the Danube, and housing a population of more than 100 million inhabitants, The Mongol Empire was disintegrated in a series of kanatos, which were subjected to one in the course of the following six centuries, by Russian and Chinese invaders, disappearing the last in the centuryXIX.
• The Safavid Empire (1501 AD 1722 AD) o (persa: دودمان صفوی) The safávidas were originally from Ardebil, a city of Iranian Azerbaijan, then a region in northern Iran. They were predominantly an Azerbaijani Turkic-speaking dynasty, whose classic language was Persian. The Safávidas created a unified and independent Iranian State for the first time since the Muslim conquest of Persia, reaffirmed Iranian political identity and established Shiite Islam as the official religion of Iran. The safávidas ruled Iran between 1502 and 1722, a year in which the pastune forces of Mir Mahmud Hotaki invaded their domains. Later, in 1736, the affidavit dynasty was seized from the territory, although some savory lords remained until 1760.
• The Afghan dynasty (1785-1925) (in Persian, سلسله افشاریان) was an Iranian dynasty of Khorasan, of the tribe of the Afshar Turkmenox, who ruled the Persian Empire in the eighteenth century, when the empire reached its greatest degree from the Sassanian Empire.
• Kayar dynasty (1736-1796): The kayar dynasty (also written Qajar, Qadjar or Qājār; Persian, سلسله قاجاریه o دودمان قاجار) was a real family of Iran, of Turkish origin, which ruled Persia (Iran) from 1785 to 1925. First under absolute monarchy and then under constitutional monarchy. The Qajar family took full control of Iran in 1794, deposing Lutf Ali Khan Zand, the last Shah (emperor or king) of the Zand dynasty. They reaffirmed Persian sovereignty over the former Iranian territories of Georgia and the Caucasus. In 1796, Aga Muhammad Kan was formally crowned as sah. It was succeeded by the Pahlaví Dynasty in 1925.
• Pahlaví Dynasty (1925-1979): The Pahlavís were the last dynasty of the Sah to rule over Iran, between 1925 and 1979, until their overthrow of the Iranian Revolution.
• The Republic of Iran (1979-2016) (in Persian: انقلاب اسلامی, Enghelābe Eslāmi o انقلاب بیست و دو بهمن) was the process of mobilizations that led to the overthrow of the sah Mohammad Reza Pahleví and the consequent establishment of the Islamic Republic currently in force in Iran. That is why the revolution is often called Islamic, although it was actually a broad and heterogeneous movement that gradually was being hegemonized by the Shiite clergy under the leadership of Ayatollah Jomeini.

Mediterranean Levant

Map of the southeast of the Levante, c. 830 a. C.: Kingdom of IsraelKingdom of JudahPhoenician StatesKingdom of Aram-DamascoKingdom of AmmonKingdom of MoabKingdom of EdomPhilistine State

• Canaan
• Kingdom of Israel (1050 BC - 720 BC) In 928 BC the tribes of the north rebel against King Rehoboam and separate from Judah. Since that year, Israel is governed by twenty monarchs in nine dynastic periods. In 722 B.C. Sargon II takes the city of Samaria and takes numerous Israelites captive to Assyria.
• Kingdom of Judah (1050 BC - 586 BC) The Hebrews read the Bible to posterity. During this period they ruled the dynasty of Saul and the dynasty of David. They were strong under Solomon. The Jews were deported in three stages. In 587 B.C. the second stage of deportation to Babylon occurred.
• Yehud Medinata (538 B.C. - 332 B.C.) The name means "Province of Judah". It was a province of the arched Empire. In 538 BC Cyrus II allows Jews to return to Jerusalem.
• Hellenistic epoch (332 B.C. - 312 B.C.) In 330 B.C., the last burnt king was killed. And Alexander the Great takes over.
• Province of Egypt (312 BC -200 BC)
• Seleucid Empire Province (200 BC -142 BC)
• Asmoneos(142 BC - 40 BC) In 63 B.C. General Pompeyo addressed Judea. There, he found the Hircan brothers and Aristobulus, the latter, who was besieged by his brother in Jerusalem and requested the Roman intervention, offering a reward to Pompey, who accepted. Then Aristobulus accused the Romans of extortion, which originated that Pompeyo set Hircano on the throne and since then Judea and Galilee became a client kingdom of Rome, which although independent de jureI was subject to Roman authority.
• Roman Province of Iudæa (63 BC - 132 AD) In the year 47 B.C. Idumea Anti-Power succeeded Hircano as Procurator of Judea, being appointed by Julius Caesar. At the death of Antiposter in 44 B.C., his son Herod I the Great was appointed governor by the Roman Senate and king of Judea in 39 B.C., although he began to reign two years later. During his reign he removed several members of the Maccabees, to make sure on the throne. The Romans called Herod «Allied king and friend of the Roman people» (rex socius amicusque populi Romani). He died in 4 B.C. and the kingdom of Judea was divided between four of his sons, who became tetrarks, although Rome continually intervened in internal politics, to the point that the Roman emperor Caesar Augustus removed from his post a son of Herod.
• Caliphate abasi (750 AD - 945 AD)
• Fatimid Caliphate (909 AD - 1171 AD)
• Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099 AD - 1291 AD)
• Sultanate Mamluk of Egypt (1250 AD - 1517 AD)
• Ottoman Syria ejalato (1516 AD - 1918 AD) La Balfour Declaration (date on November 2, 1917) was a public formal demonstration of the British government during the First World War, to announce its support for the establishment of a "national home" for the Jewish people in the region of Palestine, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. The Declaration was included in a letter signed by the British Foreign Minister (Foreign Office) Arthur James Balfour and addressed to Lionel Walter Rothschild, a leader of the Jewish community in Britain.
• British Mandate of Palestine (1920 AD - 1948 AD)
• State of Israel (1948 -) In 1947, the United Nations approved the partition of Palestine into two States, one Jewish and one Arab. On 14 May 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence, which was followed by the 1948 Arab-Israeli War with neighbouring Arab countries, which refused to accept the UN plan. The successive victories in a series of subsequent wars confirmed their independence and extended the borders of the Jewish State beyond the provisions of the United Nations Partition Plan. Since then, Israel has been in conflict with many of the neighbouring Arab countries, with several wars and decades of violence that continue to this day.
• Filters
• State of Palestine
• Fellowships Fenicia flourished on the coast of Lebanon, a people of merchants who sailed to Britain for trade.
• The Aramaic, which they later succumbed to the Assyrians, made their language pervious until beyond the time of Jesus Christ.

Anatolian

• Kanes (XVIIth century B.C.) The first dynasty of hegemony in Central Anatolia under the direction of kings Pitkhana, Anitta and Tudhaliya. They established their capital in Kanes, also known as Nesa and subjected the main anatoly states, including Buruskhattum, Hatti and Zalpa. This dynasty did not survive many years and disappeared under unknown circumstances.
• The Hittite Empire. In the centuryXVIIIa. C., Anatolia was dominated by the people of the Hittites, who created a great empire that, under Suppiluliuma I and his successors, was able to rival Egypt.
• The Byzantine Empire. (395 B.C.-1453 AD) The Byzantines endured the repents of Germans and Huns, but after the death of Justinian I (565) they became decay, of which only came out thanks to the work of Leo III the Isaurus and his successors. At the time of Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantines evangelized the Slavs. After 1071, when the Byzantines lost Bari in Italy and were beaten in the battle of Manzikert, they came into decline.
• The Ottoman Empire (1299-1923) began to be one more of the small Turkish states that arose in Asia Minor during the fall of the Seljudic Empire. The Ottoman Turks were gradually controlling the other Turkish states, survived the Mongolian invasions and under the reign of Mehmed II (1451-1481) finished what remained of the Byzantine Empire. During the nineteenth century, various territories of the Ottoman Empire were independent, mainly in Europe. The successive defeats in wars and the rise of nationalisms within the territory led to the collapse of the power of the empire. His participation in the First World War followed by the occupation of Constantinople and the emergence of revolutionary movements within Turkey gave him the fatal blow and resulted in the partition of the Ottoman Empire. The empire under the direction of a sultan was abolished on November 1, 1922 and a year later, the caliphate. The revolutionary movements that had overthrown it were grouped and founded on October 23, 1923 the Republic of Turkey.
• The Republic of Turkey (1923-) It is a democratic, unitarian and constitutional republic, whose political system was established in 1923 under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the most outstanding member of the Turkish National Movement, after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, with the occupation of Constantinople, as a result of the First World War and the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Since then, Turkey has been increasingly associated with the West through membership of organizations such as the Council of Europe (1949), NATO (1952), OECD (1961), OSCE (1973) and G-20 (1999).

Asian Islands

• Japan Towards the centuryVII the Yamato, one of the Japanese feudal protorreinos, won the supremacy of the south of the archipelago, and installed the Mikado regime. In the following centuries, the so-called Heian Era, Japan lived a golden age, which later ended an intense civil war in 1056. In 1085, the last emperor with effective power was defeated, thus beginning the rule of the shoguns, military chiefs who ruled nominally in the name of the emperor, although they were the lords de facto from Japan. The shogun regime altered eras of stability with bloody civil wars, until the imposition of the Tokugawa Shogunate on a later date as 1603. As for Japan, after being forced into foreign trade in 1853, it began its development during the Meiji Era (1868-1912).
• Insulin. In the present Indonesia, for its part, the Sriviyaian Empire first and the Mojopajit Empire emerged after, before the outbreak of Muslims from Malacca.

European islands

• England is the largest and most populous territory in the United Kingdom. Inhabited by Celtic peoples since the centuryVa. C., was colonized by the Romans between the 43rd and the beginning of the 5th century. Since then, it was invaded by a series of Germanic villages (anglos, saxons and jutos) that expelled the Celts, partly Romanized, to Wales, Scotland, Cornwalls and French Brittany. In the 10th century, after resisting a series of viking attacks, England unified politically. After the ascension of James VI from Scotland to the throne of England in 1603 and the annexation of Scotland by England in 1707 is less appropriate to differentiate the history of England from the rest of the UK. In the England of the CenturyXVII led to the generation of a new political system, democracy with separation of powers. In addition, the commercialistic protectionist school, for the benefit of free-cambism, was abandoned. Industrialization and production in series allowed production costs to be lowered. England would thus become the most powerful nation on Earth and the British colonial Empire would cover the fifth of all the emerging lands.
• Denmark
• Iceland
• Denmark
• Ireland

The Iberian Peninsula

• Visigothic kingdom (418 AD-711 AD)
  

  Visigoth Kingdom.
  The Visigoth Kingdom of Tolosa or Galician, with capital in the gala city of Tolosa, began in 418, after the covenant or foedus between the Visigoths and Rome; it lasted until 507, the year in which King Alarico II is defeated by the Franks in the battle of Vouillé and the ostrogod intermediate begins.
• The Muslim Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (711 AD-1492 AD).
• The Reconquest (1492 AD-1516 AD)
• The House of Austria (1516 AD-1700 AD) It is the name with which the Habsburg dynasty reigns in the Hispanic Monarchy in the xvi and xvii centuries; from the proclamation as king of Charles I in 1516, to the death without direct succession of Charles II, which provoked the Spanish War of Succession.
• The Kingdom of Spain (1700 AD-1808 AD)
• The First Spanish Republic (1873 d.C.-1874 d.C.)
• The Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874 AD-1931 AD) It was extended between the end of 1874 (moment of the pronouncement of General Arsenio Martínez-Campos Antón that ended the period of the First Spanish Republic) and on 14 April 1931 (date of proclamation of the Second Republic). The name alludes to the recovery of the throne by a member of the House of Bourbon, Alfonso XII, after the parenthesis of the Democratic Sexenium. The Bourbon Restoration was characterized by some institutional stability until its progressive decline with the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923. It was based on the four pillars of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo: Rey, Cortes, Constitución y turnismo (peaceful alternative between two parties). The latter facilitated bipartidism with two major parties: the Conservative Party of Cánovas and the Liberal Party of Sagasta. These parties split up to the death of their leaders. The system was oligarchical and centralist
• The Second Spanish Republic (1931 - 1939) Following the 1931 municipal elections, which led to the victory for the Republican parties in most cities, King Alfonso XIII left the country and proclaimed the Second Republic. There were general elections for the constituent legislature, charged with drafting the republican constitution. During the second republican period the foundations of the current territorial organization of the country were laid, it was read in favor of the workers and women obtained the right to vote. It is usually divided into four stages, the constituent period, the transformative biennium, the radical biennium and the end of the republic.
• The Spanish Civil War (1936 AD-1939 AD) Provoked after a coup in Spanish Morocco by General Franco.
• The Franquist Regime (1939 AD-1975 AD). The main defining trait of the Franco regime was that a single person, the General Franco — hence the name with which he is known — accumulated in his hands some omnitized powers. The Law of Reorganization of the Central State Administration, promulgated by Franco himself only four months after the end of the Spanish Civil War, thus confirmed it by attributing to the Caudilloall executive and legislative branches:
• The Second Republic in Exile (1939 - 1977) Recognized at the beginning by the USSR, the countries under Soviet influence, Yugoslavia and Mexico, the latter being the only countries that did not recognize the Francoist regime as the Spanish official and maintained their recognition to the Republic in exile until 1977 as the only legitimate government. The USSR never issued an official communiqué and the satellite countries withdrew recognition after the PCE removed from the republican government. The government proclaimed its dissolution after the general elections to the constitution of 1977.
• Reinado de Juan Carlos I de España (1975 d.C.-2014 d. C.)
• Reinado de Felipe VI de España (2014 AD).

The Scandinavian Peninsula

• Norway After the death of Haakon VI in 1379 and after the death of his minor son, Margarita I of Denmark, he chose to adopt his nephew Erico of Pomerania and took him to Denmark, where he proclaimed himself king of both countries, as well as Sweden, giving rise to the Kalmar Union. After the departure of Sweden from the Union, Norway remained united to Denmark until 1814.

After Denmark's alliance with Napoleon, Norway was ceded to the King of Sweden in 1814.

The Kalmar Union (1397–1523)

• Sweden In the centuryXVIGustavo Vasa fought for an independent Sweden, blocking an attempt to restore the Kalmar Union and sealing the foundation of the current Sweden. At the same time, he separated from the Catholic Church and established the Reformation.
• Finland

The Balkan Peninsula

• Yugoslavia (1929-2003)

The Italian peninsula

• Etruria. In Italy arose the culture of the Etruscans, which ruled the north of the peninsula between the X and III century B.C., approximately succumbing to the cultural and military pressure of the Romans.
• The Roman Monarchy (753 BC-509 BC) (in Latin, Regnum Rōmānum) It was the first political form of government of the state city of Rome, from the legendary moment of its foundation on April 21, 753 a. C. until the end of the monarchy in 509 B.C., when the last king, Tarchinio the Sovereign, was expelled, the Roman Republic was installed.
• The Roman Republic (509a.C.- 27 a.C.) In the Lazio (centre of Italy), the Roman Republic (509 B.C. to 31 B.C.) began an unstoppable expansion, imposing on the Etruscans first and the Carthaginians later (see Punic wars) and the Hellenistic kingdoms to the last, until they conquered the entire Mediterranean Sea, to which they called Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea").
• The Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD) The Roman Empire (in Latin: Imperium Rōmānum, Senātus Populusque Rōmānus or Rēs pūblica populī rōmānī, among other names) was the third period of Roman civilization in the classical Antiquity, after the Roman Republic and characterized by a form of autocratic government. The birth of the Empire is preceded by the expansion of its capital, Rome, which extended its control over the Mediterranean Sea. Under the imperial stage the dominions of Rome continued to increase until reaching its maximum extension during the reign of Trajan, when it covered from the Atlantic Ocean to the west to the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to the east and from the Sahara Desert to the south to the forested lands on the banks of the rivers Rin and Danube and the border with Caledonia to the north. Its estimated maximum area would be about 6.5 million km2.
• Odoacro Kingdom (476 AD-493 AD) Odoacro He was the head of the Germanic tribe of the heirulos, of heirlo and sciro origin. In history it stands out for being the one who dismissed the last Roman emperor of the West, Rómulo Augústulo, in 476, who was deported to Castellum Lucullanum in Naples Bay. The Ostrogods, in command of Theodorico the Great, invaded the kingdom of Odoacro, destroyed their army of barbarians foederati. Until his death in 480 at the hands of Theodorico, Odoacro was tattooed rex Italiae (King of Italy) and as such it was recognized for the rest of his life.
• Ostrogod Kingdom of Italy (493 AD-553 AD)
  

  Ostrogodo Kingdom.
  The ostrogod kingdom of Italy was a political entity of the Italian peninsula. After conquering the Kingdom of Odoacro in 493, led by Theodorico I ostrogotes invaded Italy. Its approximate limits ranged from Provence to Iliria (including the current countries of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina). It lasted until 553, when the ostrogotes were defeated by the Byzantine general Narsés.
• Lombard kingdom (568 AD-774d.C.) It was the state entity formed in Italy of the Lombards between 568-569 (invasion of Italy) and 774 (fall of the kingdom with the arrival of the Francs of Carlomagno), with its capital Pavia.
• Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946) The Kingdom of Italy (in Italian: «Regno d'Italia») was the name assumed on March 17, 1861 by the state emerged after the Italian national unification (1848-1870) led by Victor Manuel II who crowned himself King of Italy in 1861. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of the concerted efforts of the Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Saboya, reigning until that time in the predecessor state to the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Sardinia, to establish a united kingdom covering the entire Italian peninsula. From 1922 to 1943 it is called fascist Italy, which is the time of the government of the Fascist National Party between 1922 and 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government.
• Republic of Italy (1946 AD-) It extends from the birth of the Italian Republic on June 2, 1946, when a popular referendum abolished the Italian monarchy. A new constitution was written for the new Italian Republic, which entered into force on January 1, 1948 and is in force until today, by which it is declared that Italy is a "democratic republic founded on work"

Greece

• Crete Island (3000 BC-1450 BC) . On the island of Crete a thalassocracy emerged that ruled the Aegean Sea up to about 1,450 B.C., when its capital of Cnossos was plundered by the aqueos.
• Micenas The main aqueous settlements were Micenas and Tirinto; they became famous for the Trojan War; and they eventually succumbed to all the invaders, the Dorians, towards 1100 a. C.
• Dark Age when Homer and Hesiodo flourished.
• Archaic epoch (776 BC-499 BC) Conventionally the beginning of the archaic period is established in the first Olympics (λλυμπιάς, computation of the time in four-year periods that begins with the celebration the first Olympic Games, 776 B.C.); while the end is marked by the Revolt of Jonia (499 B.C.), when the Greeks of the coast of Asia Minor requested the help of the cities of Greece persa.
• Classic Greece (499 B.C.-336 B.C.) or Classical epoch by antonomasia, is the period of the history of Greece between the revolt of Jonia (year 499 B.C., when the Arkic Age ends) and the reign of Alexander the Great (336 B.C.-323 B.C., when the Hellenistic Epoch begins)
• Kingdom of Macedonia (336 BC-168 BC) In the year 336 a. C. Alexander III Magnus ascended to the throne of Macedonia and was recognized as a hegemon of Greece. He threw himself into the conquest of the Aquemenida Empire. After his death, his son was proclaimed king (336 a. C.-309 BC), although he was still in the womb. In the meantime, Pérdicas and Antipatro were regents. Casandro, the son of Antiposter gave a coup in 305 B.C. and founded his own dynasty and the city of Thessaloniki. They were defeated by the Romans in the year 168 BC in the Third Macedonian War. And they became Roman province.
  

  Map of the maximum extension of the empire of Alexander, with road map. From Greece, Aegean and Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor, Media, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Central Asia and India.

History of Africa

Egypt

• Ancient Egypt. Agriculture and cattle ranching were the two main activities of Ancient Egypt, which raised their supremacy, their wealth and jobs in civilization by leading them to become one of the most powerful empires in all history. Around the Nile River a number of neolytic settlements emerged, the nomes, encased between geographical barriers such as the Sahara Desert and the Sinai Peninsula, despite which they traded with the Middle East from an early period. Around 3100 B.C., those nomes were unified in a single great empire under the authority of Pharaoh. Egyptian culture developed hieroglyphics as a form of writing, mastabas, pyramids and hypogeos as methods of burial and mummification as a method of inhumation, as well as a religion related to the gods Ra and Osiris, among many others. The Pharaonic crown lived times of crisis and splendor, but always within its borders, until external invaders, the hicsos, took over the Delta by about a centuria (about 1650 BC), until they were expelled. In response, the Egyptian armies crossed the Sinai desert and expanded to the Euphrates River, fully intervening in the Middle East policy. In its stage of decay, the ancient Egyptian culture was still prestigious enough to inspire the kings of Kush and Axum, kingdoms that emerged in the 1st millennium a. C. in what is currently Ethiopia and which even invaded Egypt and ruled it as "Black Pharaohs" for three quarters of a century. The successive invasive crisis experienced by the Egyptian Empire forced constant population movements from the Nile Valley to the rest of Africa.
• Ptolemaic dynasty (305 BC - 30 BC) After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. Pérdicas, acting as provisional regent, appointed Ptolemy governor of Egypt and Libya. He was attached to Cleomens of Naucratis, a Greek official already appointed by Alexander and de facto ruler until that time, because of his power to impose and raise taxes on all nomes. Accusing him of spying on behalf of Perdicates, he murdered Cleomens, thus eliminating the only brake on his authority in Egypt and taking over a considerable collection. The new regent, Anti-Power of Macedonia, later confirmed Ptolemy in Egypt in the second division of the Empire (320 BC). In the same year his possessions increased by taking Jerusalem. In 310 B.C. Casandro murdered the widow of Alexander the Great, Roxana and the orphan Alexander IV. In 305 B.C. Ptolomeo declared himself an independent ruler, appointing himself king of Egypt, thus establishing the so-called Ptolemaic dynasty. His last ruler was the famous Cleopatra. After his death and that of his son, Cesarion (Ptolemy XV), the dynasty ended and Egypt was annexed by Augustus to the Roman Empire.

Carthage

• Carthaginian Empire (573 B.C. - 146 B.C.) The city of Cartago, initially a Phoenician colony. Its form of state evolved from a tyranny with certain monarchical characteristics to a fully republican system. The territorial extension of their domains formed a true Punic Empire or Carthaginian. Its territorial and commercial growth caused various wars with the Greek polys throughout the Mediterranean. At this time Cartago reached its greatest peak as the first economic and military power of the Western Mediterranean. At the end of the third century BC came into contact with the other great republic of its time, Rome, which was also immersed in a large territorial growth project. Their confrontation materialized in the three Punic wars, considered as the most transcendent wars of classical antiquity. Cartago was always defeated and the clashes did not stop until the dismantling of the Republic of Cartago and the destruction of its capital in 146 a. C.

Colonization of Africa

At the beginning of the 19th century, Africa was a largely unexplored continent, ruled by tribal kings like Shaka Zulu. But over the course of the century, various missionaries and explorers mapped it almost completely.

• French colonization of Algeria (1830 AD - 1962 AD)
• French Union (1946 AD - 1958 AD) The French Union was the political entity in force during the Fourth French Republic established by the French Constitution of 27 October 1946.
• Oubangui-Chari (1946 AD - 1958 AD)
• France (1910 AD - 1958 AD)

In 1900 only Liberia, Abyssinia, Libya were independent and the last strongholds of the Boers were in the process of being annexed by England (see Boer Wars).

History of America

Completely independently of the historical development in Afro-Eurasia, a series of civilizations arose and developed in America, grouped into large trunks: the Mesoamerican civilizations, the South American Andean civilizations, the North American civilizations (such as the Anasazi, Iroquois Confederacy or Inuit culture), Caribbean islands (Caribs), civilizations on the eastern South American plains (such as the Terra Preta settlements in the Amazon and the Tupi-Guarani in the south of the continent).

Mesoamerica to 1492 AD. C

Teotihuacán

Costa Rican stone spheres, more than 300 pre-Columbian spherolites of great perfection.

• Olmeca. In the southeast of the state of Veracruz, Mexico existed the Olmec culture considered the first Mesoamerican culture. They are accredited as the first to develop the calendar, writing and epigraphy in America. They prospered on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between 1200 BC and the dawn of the Christian era, approximately, having as successive centers the settlements of San Lorenzo, La Venta and Tres Zapotes. Two major cultural centres received and extended their legacy: the culture of the Mayas and the culture of Teotihuacán and Monte Albán.

• The Mayas They prospered in the region that currently corresponds to Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and the Mexican states of Yucatan, Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana roo, east of the ancient Olmeca world. They were organized in the jungle, around a settlement model known as ceremonial center. They were never a united state. By default, each ceremonial centre was constituted as a military theocracy. The strongest were Tikal, Calakmul, Palenque, Copán and Uaxactún, among others. These settlements reached their peak in the so-called Classical Maya Period, approximately 300 to 900 AD and were abandoned for reasons not yet fully clarified.

• Teotihuacan The Valley of Mexico was controlled, between 250 and 750 AD, approximately, by Teotihuacán, a city that was one of the most populated of the Earth in its minute. The cultural influence of Teotihuacán came, through the trade routes, as far as the current southern United States, where settlements such as Cahokia or Snaketown flourished, even centuries after the collapse of the mother city. In parallel to the Valley of Mexico, in the Valley of Oaxaca, Monte Alban flourished, the great city of Zapotec culture. Around 1000, the Mesoamerican area was shaken by invasions and changes in political power.

• The Toltecs In the Valley of Mexico, the decline of Teotihuacán was accompanied by the rise of Tula, the capital of the Toltec culture; when these in turn were defeated by the Chichimecas, a faction of his emigrated to the Yucatan, where they merged with emigrants of Mayan culture to consolidate the power of cities such as Chichén Itzá and Mayapán.

• The Mixtecas On the other hand, in the Oaxaca Valley, Monte Albán had to give his place to the new Mixtecas. During the centuryXIV, the Valley of Mexico lived a period of relative peace under the control of Azcapotzalco, but when it collapsed in 1428, it was replaced by a new power: the Tenochas of Tenochtitlán, creators of the Aztec Empire, the last great regional power, before being debated by the Spanish invaders in the war from 1519 to 1521.

• In Costa Rica, a complex culture was developed at least from 6000 BC. Artisanal objects and influences have been discovered from both Mayans (from Guatemala), Olmecas and Aztecs (from Mexico, far from the north) and chibchas (from Colombia), Quechuas and Incas (from Peru, far from the south). For example, there was a Sukiah school called Guayabo, located in Turrialba de Cartago.

The Andean world up to 1492 AD. c

Machu Picchu

• Caral In America, one of the first known civilizations to appear in 3000 BC was that of Caral-Supe the current province of Barranca located in the central coastal area of Peru. Other civilizations also developed in Mesoamerica, the Cordillera de los Andes central (Andean civilizations) and some historians argue that also in the Amazon.

• Chavín de Huantar The first of the great powers that seem to have dominated the region is the one that consolidated around Chavín de Huantar. It is possible that the inhabitants of America did not know the use of iron prior to the Chavín culture (900 B.C.), but it is known that the backpacks had armors, knives and metal dishes.

• Tiahuanaco, city that controlled most of the Andean world thanks to a vast network of commerce and that had its counterpart in the city of Huari, located in the vicinity of the Pacific Ocean. Other relevant powers throughout the history of the Andean world are the kingdom of the Moche, Paracas, Nazca and Chimú. The Andean cultural influence surpassed, the current Peruvian borders and spread to Chile in one direction and towards Colombia in the other. In Chile, urban cultures such as the Atacameños and the Diaguitas emerged. In Colombia, for its part, the culture of the Muscas flourished, which soon met in military lordships, being that of the Zipa of Bacatá the most powerful of all.

• Inca Empire In the centuryXVIn the Cuzco Valley, the military power of the Quechuas was consolidated. His king the Inca Pachacútec, who saved Cuzco from being conquered by the Chancas in 1438, undertook a long series of wars against the neighboring kingdoms, thus laying the foundations of the Inca Empire; his work was not only military, but also dedicated to building fortresses and organizing administration and religion, creating for this last the temple of Coricancha. The Incas, who had little resources to get metals, used to relieve their plows, at least during the conquest of the Chimús. Archaeological research in Peru has been undeveloped but steel may already exist in that area before Europe. The order founded by Viracocha resisted almost a whole century, until in 1527, the civil war struck the Inca Empire, facing two imperial nuclei: Quito to the north and Cuzco to the south.

In 1547, in The South American Annals, Francisco Pizarro ―the conqueror of Peru― declared: «I heard that the high lords of this empire [Peru] meet every four years in the country de las Bolas, where it seems they receive advice from great sages».

Colonization of North America

New France from 1534 to 1803

• Thirteen colonies (1607 AD - 1776 AD)
• Virreinate of New France (1607 AD - 1776 AD) It was the territorial entity of the French colonial Empire that included all the French colonies of North America, from the mouth of the San Lorenzo River to the delta of Missisipi, passing through the territory of the Ohio Valley. Its existence can be framed in the period that extends from the exploration of the San Lorenzo River by Jacques Cartier in 1534 until the transfer of these territories to Britain after the 1763 Paris Treaty.
• Virreinato de Nueva España (1535 AD - 1821 AD). The virreinate of New Spain was officially created on March 8, 1535. His first virrey was Antonio de Mendoza and Pacheco and the capital of the viceroy was Mexico City, established on the old Tenochtitlan. The virreinate of New Spain came to cover the territories of Spain in North America, Central America, Asia and Oceania.
• Kingdom of Guatemala (1542 AD - 1820 AD)

South American Governorates

Spanish governorates in South America (1534-1539)

• Governorate of New Castile (1529 AD - 1542 AD)
• Governorate of New Lion (1529 AD - ? d.C.)
• Governorate of New Toledo (1534 AD - 1542 AD)
• Government of Nueva Andalucía (1534 AD - 1566 AD)

Colonization of South America

• Virtue of Peru (1542 AD - 1824 AD)
  

  Peru
  • New Kingdom of Granada (1550 AD - 1717 AD)
  • Virreinato de Nueva Granada (1717 AD - 1723 AD and 1739 AD - 1810 AD) It was a viceroyalty established by the Spanish Monarchy. It was created by King Philip V in 1717 within the new policy of Bourbons and suspended in 1723, for financial problems, being reinstated in 1739 until the independence movement dissolves it again in 1810. The territory was reconquered by the army of King Ferdinand VII in 1815, being restored again, until the liberating army achieved the definitive independence of Spanish power in 1819. The capital of the virreinate was Santafé.
  • Virreinato del Río de la Plata (1776 AD - 1814 AD) Throughout the centuryXVIII, the Bourbon reforms; they transformed the American units, until then relatively autonomous "kings" in colonies entirely dependent and subject to the decisions made in Spain. It was created as a result of those political reforms, first provisionally, on August 1, 1776, and then, ultimately, on October 27, 1777, by order of King Charles III of Spain and had his capital in the city of Buenos Aires. It was born of a circumcision of the Virreinate of Peru and integrated the territories of the governorates of Buenos Aires, Paraguay, Tucumán and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the corregimiento de Cuyo de la capitanía general de Chile and the corrections of the province of Charcas. The triumphant Revolution of May in 1810, which took place in Buenos Aires, which had been preceded by the failed revolutions of Chuquisaca and La Paz, both of 1809 in the province of Charcas, unleashed the beginning of the war of Independence Argentina that culminated in the segregation of the virreinate regarding Spanish power and its subsequent division. On November 18, 1811 the last viceroy, Francisco Javier de Elío, left the command of the then governor of Montevideo, Gaspar de Vigodet, who became the highest Spanish authority as the general captain and governor of the provinces of the Rio de la Plata. Vigodet continued in his post until the surrender of Montevideo, on June 23, 1814, was the end of the Spanish domain in the Rio de la Plata.
• General Office of Venezuela (1777 AD - 1823 AD) It was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by the Spanish Crown in 1777. She was governed by different general captains except for a brief period when she ruled the Caracas Supreme Board after the resignation of Vicente Emparan until March 1811.
• "Reino" of Chile (1540 AD - 1818 AD)

Brazil

• Principality of Brazil (1501 AD - 1808 AD) As for natives, the vast majority of them perished, victims of war, economic exploitation and epidemics. In many regions, however, many indigenous groups of almost pure blood survived; at the same time, especially in the Spanish-American cities, a mixed social stall was formed between indigenous and Europeans of pure blood. At the beginning of the Spanish Empire there was a strong philosophical and legal discussion about the status of the Indians and the treatment to be given to them, which was called the Polémicas de Indias; it was finally accepted that for the good of the indigenous (according to the European Christian concept), they should be protected and evangelized, which was sought to be carried out through the system of the encomienda. The results of this political operation are discussed until today in historiography on the subject. In addition, a vast contingent of black population was added, brought as slaves from Africa. This black-trafficking network that the Europeans mounted in the Atlantic, this slave-trafficking operation was extinguished around the centuryXIX.

• Kingdom of Brazil (1808 d.C.- 1815 d.C.) The Kingdom of Brazil is the name received by the State upon the arrival of the Portuguese royal family and its Court, after the Napoleonic occupation of Portugal in 1808.
• United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarve (1815 AD-1822 AD). After the agreements of the Vienna Congress in 1815, Brazil was recognized as a kingdom by the European powers of that time, which was upheld the following year; its monarch was at the same time the king of Portugal.

Independence of North America and the birth of the republics

• United States (1776 AD) In 1776 it proclaimed its independence; after a few years, in 1787, the Thirteen Colonies created a single state of a federal nature and set its powers in the 1787 Constitution; both this constitutional body and the idea of a republican nation would be transformed into models and references for the rest of the world. At the end of the centuryXIXfollowing the Monroe Doctrine, the United States began to create a sphere of influence in the region. To this, President Theodore Roosevelt called him the Great Garrote. The most visible example was the Separation of Panama from Colombia and the transfer to the United States of an area to build a transoceanic channel in the region.
• United Mexican States (1810 AD) With the entrance of the three-fold army to Mexico City the areas of Oregon to Costa Rica until December 30, 1853 with the current territory
• Canada (1867-) In 1867, with the union of three British American colonies, United Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through the Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal domain of four provinces. These four founding provinces of Canada, together with New Brunswick, Quebec, East Canada and Ontario, West Canada. The United Province of Canada ceased to exist for the training of the Canadian Confederation on 1 July 1867, when it was subdivided into the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Canada gained greater autonomy with the Westminster Statute of 1931 and culminated in the 1982 Canada Constitution Act, which broke the vestiges of the legal unit in the British parliament. It is governed as a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy with Isabel II as head of State.

Independence of Latin America

• United Provinces of the Centre of America (1823 AD-1824 AD) On July 1, 1823, the Congress met in Guatemala, under the chairmanship of Presbyter José Matías Delgado, and declared that the provinces represented there were independent of Spain, Mexico and the whole other nation. The new country took the name of United Provinces of Central America. The following day, 2 July, the deputies declared themselves constituted in the National Constituent Assembly and proclaimed that it resided national sovereignty and temporarily put into effect the Constitution of Cadiz. In 22 November 1824 the National Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America.
• United Provinces of New Granada (1811 AD - 1816 AD)
• United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (1810 AD - 1831 AD) United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata is the name used by the state that, after the triumph of the May Revolution of 1810, supplanted the Virreinato del Río de la Plata. The state arose on May 25, 1810, in the framework of the Napoleonic Invasion to Spain, when an assembly of the Buenos Aires Cabildo decided definitively to the virrey Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and replaced it by a Board of Government. The new authorities claimed to rule legitimately on behalf of Fernando VII. This was known as the Mask of Fernando VII, which was partially in force until — in 1816 — this state declared itself independent"of King Ferdinand VII, his successors and metropolis". Although his government claimed jurisdiction over the entire territory of the viceroyalty, the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata never managed to control the entirety of the old viceroyalty, which eventually subdivided into various countries. In 1811 the current Republic of Paraguay was independent, in 1825, the High Peru became independent by forming the present Bolivia and, in 1828, the Eastern Province gained its independence as a state, the present Eastern Republic of Uruguay.
• Empire of Brazil (1822 AD-1889 AD) When King John VI finally returned to Portugal, in the early 1820s, most of the privileges that had been granted to Brazil were suppressed, which caused the wrath of the nationalists. Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal, who remained in the country as regent, joined the nationalists and supported the Portuguese constitutionalist movement to lead a revolt in Porto in 1820. Pressed by the Portuguese court to return, Peter refused. Regent was dropped. When he heard the news, on September 7, 1822, he drew his sword and exclaimed: “Independence or death!” in what was called Ipiranga’s Grite. He was proclaimed emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822 and formally crowned on 1 December of that same year.

Republican Latin America

• Federal Republic of Central America (1824 AD -1839 AD) The Federal Republic of Central America was a federation that emerged from the Constituent Assembly of the United Provinces of the Center of America, on 22 November 1824, through the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America of 1824. Its capital was Guatemala City until 1834; then it was Sonsonate for a brief period and, finally, San Salvador, from 1834 to 1839, however, only the executive power was the one that moved, while the legislative and judicial branches maintained their seat in Guatemala City. The Federation consisted of five States: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica (Panama was part of the Great Colombia and Belize was a British colony). In 1838, a sixth State was formed, Los Altos, with capital in the city of Quetzaltenango, with the territories of the west of Guatemala and the territory of the present Soconusco of Chiapas (Mexico). The territory of the Federation also included the dense jungle region of Belize, although already at that time the British presence in a commercial establishment on the Atlantic coast was strong, from which English smuggling was carried out to the rest of the isthmus.
• Argentine Confederation (1835 AD- 1852 AD) was a confederation of provinces that existed during the organization of the current Argentine Republic. The provinces formed a confederation of sovereign states that delegated external representation and some other powers in the government of one of them. It is one of the official names of the Argentine Republic in accordance with article 35 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation, together with that of Argentina and United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata.
• Republic of Peru (1821 AD-) At the beginning of the process, criollos simply sought to gain social and economic advantages, but the harsh repression organized by Fernando VII led them to open rebellion and independence. Spain tried to recover its colonies and there was the Battle of Callao between Spain against Chile and Peru in 1865-1866.
• Great Colombia (1819 AD-1831 AD) The Great Colombia was a country of America created in 1819 by the Congress of Angostura through the Basic Law of the Republic (ratified later by its counterpart at the Constituent Congress of 1821) by the union of Venezuela and the New Granada in a single nation under the name of Republic of Colombia, Then they joined Panama (1821) and Ecuador (1822). This republic existed legally between 1821 and 1831 and was established from the union of the former colonial entities of the Virreinato de la Nueva Granada, Capitanía General de Venezuela, Presidency of Quito and the Free Province of Guayaquil. The dissolution of Great Colombia was due to the political differences that existed between supporters of federalism and centralism, as well as regional tensions among the peoples that formed the republic.
• Haiti Here François Dominique Toussaint-Louverture led the Haitian Revolution, which is remembered as the first case in which slaves abolished the slave system autonomously and permanently in the time between 1791 and 1804, setting a definitive precedent for the end of slavery in the world.
• United States of Brazil (1889-68) Emperor Peter II was dismissed on 15 November 1889 by a military coup led by General Deodoro da Fonseca, who proclaimed the Republic and became the first president of the country.
  

  Evolution of the Administrative Division of Brazil
• Federal Republic of Brazil (1968-)

History of Oceania

animated map showing the creation of the different Australian colonies. In addition, New Zealand (not shown) belonged to New South Wales from 1788 to 1840.

• Tui tonga Empire (950-1826) It was a powerful empire in Oceania. It focused on Tonga, on the island of Tongatapu, and with capital in Mu'a. At its peak, the empire spread from Niuē to Tikopia.
• Australia (1770-) For at least the last centuries, Calcutta (an Indian city) has marketed with the Natives of the North Coast, particularly with the Yolngu of the Arnhem Land. Journalist Peter Trickett in the book Beyond Capricorn asserts that the Portuguese Christvão de Mendonça arrived at Botany Bay in 1522. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, the western and northern coasts of what they had called New Holland had been mapped and fully navigated by the Dutch. In 1770, the expedition Endeavour Under the command of British Royal Navy Lieutenant James Cook sailed and cartographed the eastern coast of Australia, landing on the continent for the first time in Botany Bay on April 29 of that year. Cook then headed north and, before leaving, landed on Possession Island, in Torres Strait, on August 22, 1770. There he formally claimed East Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain and called it New South Wales. The United Kingdom claimed the western part of Australia as its own in 1829. On 1 January 1901 the six British colonies constituted a federation called the Commonwealth of Australia, initially Fiyi and New Zealand participated in this process, but then chose to separate. Australia remains, however, a constitutional monarchy with Isabel II of the United Kingdom as her Queen. In 1999, voters rejected a movement to turn the nation into a republic with a majority of 55% of the votes.