Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan (Turkmen: Türkmenistan Respublikasy), officially the Republic of Turkmenistan, is a country located in Central Asia bordering to the northwest with Kazakhstan, to the north and northeast with Uzbekistan, to the southwest with Iran, to the southeast with Afghanistan and to the west with the Caspian Sea, although it is considered a landlocked state. The Karakum desert occupies most of the country, whose main river courses are the Amu Daria, the Atrak and the Murgab. Its capital and most populous city is Ashgabat.

Today, Turkmenistan covers a territory that has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times, Merv (today known as Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road, a caravan route used for trade with China until the middle of the century XV. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the Central Asian anti-Bolshevik movement. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, officially named the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic. It became independent shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, on October 27, 1991.

After gaining independence, Turkmenistan was ruled by President-for-Life Saparmyrat Nyýazow—known as Türkmenbaşy, or "Leader of the Turkmen"—until his sudden death on December 21, 2006. Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected new president on February 11, 2007. According to Human Rights Watch, Turkmenistan "remains an isolated and repressive country under the authoritarian government of Berdimuhamedow and his associates," "brutally punishes any unauthorized form of political or religious expression. Access to information is highly controlled by the State. Human rights monitoring groups are not allowed. It is presumed that there are dozens of forcibly disappeared people in their prisons." Berdimuhamedow promotes a cult of his personality in which his family members and associates enjoy unlimited power and exercise total control over all aspects of public life.

Turkmenistan's GDP growth rate of 11% in 2012 is the result of several years of sustained high growth, albeit from a very basic, undiversified economy, driven by the export of a single product, as Turkmenistan has the fourth largest natural gas resource reserve in the world. Although rich in natural resources in certain areas, most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert, meaning "black sand". Since 1993, citizens have received free electricity, water and natural gas provided by the government until 2017. One of the best-known natural gas fields in the world is the Darvaza well, popularly known as the "Gateway to Hell". which frequently attracts the media and tourists.

Etymology

Map of Turkmenistan.

There are several theories about the origin of the country's name. The most accepted suggests that the term "Turkmenistan" comes from Turkic and means "home of the Turkmen", an ethnic group whose name derives from the Sogdian word Türkmen ("almost Turks"), in reference to to their status in the mythological Turkic dynastic system. However, some modern authors often prefer to view the prefix as a superlative, changing the meaning of Türkmen to "pure Turks" or "the most Turks". of the Turks". Some Muslim chroniclers such as Ibn-Kathir suggested that the etymology of Turkmenistan came from the words Türk ("Turkish") and iman (Arabic, إيمان‎, "faith, belief"), referring to a mass conversion to Islam of more than 200,000 peasants in the region in the year 971.

History

The territory of Turkmenistan has been populated since ancient times. Turkmen horse-breeding tribes arrived in the territory in ancient times, possibly from the Altai Mountains, and settled on the outskirts of the Karakum desert, reaching as far as Persia, Syria, and Anatolia.

Previously, the states of Margiana and Parthia existed in this region, whose studies place them around 1000 BC. These regions were ruled by the Achaemenids between the VI and IV a. C. but the empire was immersed in a structural weakness caused by internal conflicts and the lack of a common approach. They were eventually conquered by the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great in the late IV century BCE. c.

The vast empire of Alexander the Great in turn succumbed to the great Parthian onslaught of the Parthian Empire. These took advantage of the fact that the vast Macedonian empire was in a permanent out of control due to the loss of power of Alexander's successors both in the administrative and military spheres. The Arsacid dynasty settled in these territories until the year 224. During these years it had hard battles with the Romans, which it retained outside its borders.

After the passing of the Sassanid dynasty, the Heftalites occupied a large part of the territory of Turkmenistan, who were attacked by the Tiu-Che nomads who remained until 716. The territory of Turkmenistan at this time is occupied by the caliphate Arab who was in charge of introducing the religion of Islam.

Turks in traditional costume at Asjabad station, late centuryXIX.

Flag of the RSS of Turkmenistan.

After the passage of the Samanids in the X century, the immigrations carried out by the Oguz Turks, in the 1040 the Seljuk dynasty entered and appropriated the territory. Their rule in the region lasted until the XIII century, since from this time the Mongols arrived in Turkmenistan, between 1219 and 1221. The Mongol Empire carried out the division of control of the territory into two parts, one of them under the name of the Golden Horde and the other under the Chagatai Khanate.

Turkmenistan came under the rule of the Timur Empire in the 1380s. As early as the 18th century, negotiations began with Russia that led to trade between Central Asia and Europe passing through Turkmenistan.

The Russian army entered the territory between the 1860s and 1870s. In 1869, the port of Krasnovodsk was created, and in 1874, Russian rule was consolidated with the creation of the Transcaspian military district. Annexed by the Russian Empire between 1865 and 1885, by 1890 Russian control over Turkmenistan was complete.

Winds of revolution would arrive in 1917 and, during the civil war (1918-1920), Turkmenistan was also on the fighting fronts. Established the Soviet Union, the territory of the Transcaspian (since 1921 reorganized as Turkestan) is established as an autonomous republic, to become one of the constituent republics of the Union that same year.

During this time, the borders of the Soviet republic are established, and ambitious projects are developed to harness its natural resources for the benefit of the Soviet Union. Irrigation systems are also created and, little by little, the production of cotton and oil become the main economic activities.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Turkmenistan became an independent state. The controversial president Saparmyrat Nyýazow dominated the country's political life until his death on December 21, 2006.

His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, called elections on February 11, 2007, in which he would have been elected by 89.2% of the vote. According to official data, 98.65% of the voters would have participated. However, the political opposition denounced the existence of fraud. Berdymujammedov has implemented some reforms to the policies applied so far, such as the removal of the name of his predecessor from the national flag and the repeal of a law that required two years of work. before to be able to enter the university.

Government and politics

Turkmenistan is a presidential Republic, integrated into the Commonwealth of Independent States and provided with a Constitution since 1993, which formally establishes a democracy.

Currently, it is among the countries considered by the United Nations Organization as one of the most repressive and dictatorial in the international system; This same body has shown its concern at the repeated violation of the most basic human rights, and the marginalization of the Russian and Uzbek minorities. Members of any religion other than Islam also suffer marginalization and are monitored by the state.

Since gaining its independence, its President Saparmyrat Nyýazow monopolized power at all levels as Head of State and government until his death on December 21, 2006. Turkmenistan has ratified several major United Nations treaties related to with human rights. The media and dissemination are strictly controlled by the State, and no group dedicated to the defense of human rights can operate openly in the country. It is also not possible to obtain images in the country due to information controls^{[citation required]}, although numerous reports of torture and ill-treatment of detainees and prisoners are currently leaked abroad. The medical staff is not allowed to give information about the illnesses suffered by their patients, even if they are fatal, since they are constantly being listened to during consultations.

Saparmyrat Nyýazow established a strong cult following for himself, and for this reason his portrait was found almost everywhere: on banknotes and even on vodka bottles. He renamed himself Türkmenbaşy ("leader of the Turkmen"). The national holiday corresponds to his birthday, February 19. There was even a statue of her made of fine gold, which rotated on itself in the center of the capital, Ashgabat, so that her face is always illuminated by the Sun, it was removed in August 2010.

In 2012, the one-party system held by the Democratic Party was abandoned, forming the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs. There are other opposition parties, of an unofficial nature, that mostly operate abroad. The two most prominent opposition groups are the Turkmen National Democratic Movement, the Turkmen Republican Party. The Turkmenistan National Democratic Movement was led by Prime Minister Boris Shikhmuradov until he was arrested and convicted during the morning of November 25, 2002, with the attack on President Nyýazow's car.

International relations

Turkmenistan's declaration of "permanent neutrality" was formally recognized by the United Nations in 1995. Former President Saparmurat Niyazov claimed that neutrality would prevent Turkmenistan from participating in multinational defense organizations, but would allow military assistance. Its neutral foreign policy has an important place in the country's constitution. Turkmenistan has diplomatic relations with 132 countries.

Human Rights

In terms of human rights, regarding membership of the seven bodies of the International Bill of Human Rights, which include the Human Rights Committee (HRC), Turkmenistan has signed or ratified:

Status of major international human rights instruments

Turkmenistan	International treaties
	CESCR		CCPR			CERD	CED	CEDAW		CAT		CRC			MWC	CRPD
	CESCR	CESCR-OP	CCPR	CCPR-OP1	CCPR-OP2-DP			CEDAW	CEDAW-OP	CAT	CAT-OP	CRC	CRC-OP-AC	CRC-OP-SC		CRPD	CRPD-OP
Pertenence
Signed and ratified, signed, but not ratified, neither signed nor ratified, without information, it has agreed to sign and ratify the body concerned, but also recognizes the competence to receive and process individual communications from the competent bodies.

Turkmenistan has been widely criticized for human rights abuses and has placed severe restrictions on foreign travel by its citizens. Discrimination against the country's ethnic minorities continues to exist in practice. Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants without Turkmen surnames, especially ethnic Russians. Furthermore, teaching the customs and language of the Baluch, an ethnic minority, is prohibited. The same is true of Uzbeks, although the Uzbek language was previously taught in some national schools.

According to the 2014 Reporters Without Borders Global Press Freedom Index, Turkmenistan had the third worst press freedom conditions in the world (178 out of 180 countries), second only to North Korea and Eritrea, and is considered one of the 10 most censoring countries. Every broadcast under Niyazov's rule begins with the warning that "the station's language will shrink" if it slanders the country, the flag, or the president of Turkmenistan.

There have also been reports of civilians being held prisoner for religious reasons or for refusing to perform military service. However, in recent years progress has been made in this regard and at least one amnesty has been issued for several prisoners imprisoned for religious reasons.

Political-administrative organization

Turkmenistan is divided into five provinces (welayatlar, singular welayat): Balkan, Ahal, Daşoguz, Lebap and Mary; and an autonomous city: Ashgabat.

Geography

Satellite image of Turkmenistan.

Turkmenistan covers 488,100 km², 3.5% smaller than Spain or 20% larger than Paraguay. It is located for the most part in the Turan Depression (located between the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea), and is almost entirely occupied by the Karakum desert and the Karabil plateau. To the SW rises the Kopet Dag mountain range, which separates it from Iran. To the NE and E they penetrate the rocky edges of the Ustyurt plateau, which it shares with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The entire country is located within Turkestan.

Map of Turkmenistan.

The main rivers are the Amu Daria, the Atrak and the Murgab. As for the Turkmen coast that it has on the Caspian Sea, it is flat in its northern half and steep in the center and south. In the northern part there is the Krasnovodsk Bay, the peninsula of the same name and the gulf of Kara Bogaz Gol, occupied by a large saltwater swamp. Between this gulf and the Aral Sea is the small lake Sariqamish, belonging to Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Turkmenistan's shoreline along the Caspian Sea is 1,768 km long. The Caspian Sea is completely enclosed, with no natural access to the ocean, although the Volga-Don Canal allows shipping access to and from the Black Sea.

The climate is subtropical desert, with little rain. The winds are hot and dry, and the greatest amount of precipitation occurs between January and May. The annual rainfall in Turkmenistan is less than 200 mm. There are small areas of forest in the SW and SE highlands.

Economy

Development of per capita GDP in Central Asian countries.

Exports to		Imports
Country	Percentage	Country	Percentage
Ukraine Ukraine	42.8 %	Turkey	17 %
IranIran	14 %	Russia Russia	11 %
Turkey	11 %	EAU	8 %
ItalyItaly	9 %	Ukraine Ukraine	7.6 %
SwitzerlandSwitzerland	5 %	France	6 %
Other	18.2 %	Other	50.4 %

Turkmenistan's two main economic resources are cotton (it became the 10th largest producer in the world) and hydrocarbons. The country holds the world's fourth-largest oil and gas reserves, which provide a growing share of its revenue as prices rise and desertification reduces cotton production. Being isolated from the main consumers of hydrocarbons, the country depends on its neighbors, which has been the cause of tensions, mainly with Russia, which, through the state company Gazprom, distributes two thirds of Turkmenistan's gas exports.

Park in Asjabad.

Although Turkmenistan was one of the countries in the Euro-Asian area of the former Soviet Union that suffered least from the economic consequences of the disintegration, the difficult relations with the former Soviet republics have even led to the boycott of their exports, especially on the part of Ukraine and the growing debts of several of its neighbors that buy hydrocarbons from it. The move to a more open economic system after the fall of the Soviet Union has not solved the problems generated by the technological antiquity of industrial and mining equipment.

During Nyýazow's presidency, a large part of the profits obtained were used for programs to beautify the capital and worship the president, without significant parts of the country's population having benefited. In 2004, the unemployment rate was around 60%, and a similar percentage of the population lived below the poverty line according to 2003 statistics.

According to a decree of the Popular Council on August 14, 2003, electricity, natural gas, water and salt will be subsidized to citizens until 2030. In addition, car drivers are entitled to 120 liters free gasoline per month. Bus, truck and tractor drivers can get 200 liters of fuel and motorcyclists 40 liters. On September 5, 2006, after Turkmenistan threatened to cut off supplies, Russia agreed to raise the price it pays for natural gas from Turkmenistan from $65 to $100 per 1,000 cubic meters. Two thirds of Turkmen gas passes through the Russian state company Gazprom.

Pozo de Darvaza, popular tourist attraction.

The secrecy with which the government operates means that the numbers and evaluations are mostly estimates subject to a wide margin of error. The same government announced in January 2013 its intentions for Turkmenistan to start a process to become a member of the World Trade Organization.

The tourism industry has been growing rapidly in recent years, especially health tourism. This is mainly due to the creation of the Avaza resort area on the Caspian Sea. Every traveler must obtain a visa before entering Turkmenistan. To obtain a tourist visa, citizens of most countries need visa assistance from a local travel agency.

Demographics

Population from 1950 to 2009.

Turkmenistan is the least populous of the former Soviet republics in Central Asia. The population is basically concentrated around the rivers and the Caspian Sea coast. According to 2012 estimates, the seven most populous localities in the country had more than 100,000 residents. These are: the capital, Ashgabat (1,003,678 inhabitants), Türkmenabat (408,906), Daşoguz (275,278), Merv (208,628), Balkanabat (133,489) and Baýramaly (54,300).

Most of the citizens of Turkmenistan are ethnically Turkmen; other ethnic groups include Russians and Uzbeks. The Russian and Uzbek minorities have been marginalized in the life of the country for years. Turkmen is the official language of Turkmenistan, although Russian is still widely spoken as a 'language of inter-ethnic communication', as defined by the 1992 Constitution.

Education is universal and compulsory through high school. The total duration of secondary education was recently reduced from 11 to 9 years. In recent years, public libraries have been suppressed, considering that the majority of the population, illiterate, does not benefit from their services.^{[citation required]}

Turkmenistan's healthcare system, heir to the perfected Soviet system, has fallen into a state of paralysis. The President of Turkmenistan launched a campaign to close hospitals, keeping only the one in the capital, and laying off around 15,000 people from their jobs.

Religion

Russian Orthodox Church in Mary.

According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims make up 80% of the population while 18% of the population are followers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the remaining 2% declare themselves non-religious. to the Turkmen mainly through missionary activities. The missionaries were men who managed to establish themselves as patriarchs of clans or tribal groups, thus becoming their "founders". At the time of the Soviet Union, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities, calling them superstition and "remnants of the past." Most education and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. However, since 1990 efforts have been made to recover part of the cultural heritage lost during the Soviet regime.

Former President Saparmurat Niyazov ordered that basic Islamic principles be taught in public schools. Many religious institutions, including Koranic schools and mosques, have sprung up in the country, in many cases with the support of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Turkey. Muslim religion classes are held in schools and mosques, with instruction in the Arabic language, the Qur'an and Hadith, and the history of Islam.

Niyazov wrote his own religious text, published in separate volumes in 2001 and 2004, entitled Ruhnama. The Turkmenbashi regime demands that the book, which formed the basis of the educational system in Turkmenistan, be treated on an equal footing with the writing based on the quotations that Muhammad forced his followers to learn. Consequently, the mosques were forced to display the two books side by side. The book was heavily promoted as part of the former president's personality cult, and knowledge of the Ruhnama is necessary even for obtaining a driver's license.

The history of the Bahá'í faith in Turkmenistan is as old as the religion itself, and Bahá'í communities continue to exist today.

Culture

A Turkman traditionally dressed next to his drugstore.

The people of Turkmenistan have traditionally been mostly horse-herding nomads, and even today, after the fall of the USSR, Turkmen urbanization attempts have not been very successful. They had never really formed a cohesive nation or ethnic group until they were forced into it by Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. Yet they are divided into clans, with each clan having its own dialect and its own distinctive dress. The Turkmen are known for the manufacture of Yomut rugs. These are very elaborate and colorful fabrics, which also serve as a distinction between clans.

The Turkmen are Sunni Muslims, but as in most nomadic regions, they combined the doctrines of Islam with spiritual practices from the pre-Islamic period. As a consequence, they do not have the concept of religious militancy.

A Turkmen can be easily identified by the traditional telpek hat, made of sheepskin, black (generally for the elderly) or white (for the young) and large dimensions. Telpek keeps the head warm in cold desert winters, protects the eyes from sandstorms, and also provides shade and easy vision when the sun is strong. Also included in the traditional garments are wide pants, knee-high boots and cotton or silk coats such as the "don". Women and men wear a small cap called a "tahya"; the women's has small diamond-like patterns, while the men's has stripes.

Media

A number of monthly newspapers and magazines are published in Turkmenistan. The country currently has a signal from seven national television channels via satellite: Altyn Asyr, Yashlyk, Miras, Turkmenistan TV (in 7 languages), Turkmen Owazy, Turkmenistan Sport and Ashgabat. There is no private television in Turkmenistan. Articles published by state-controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader.

Internet services are the least developed in Central Asia. Access to internet services are provided by the ISP company of the government company Turkmentelecom. As of December 31, 2011, there were an estimated 252,741 internet users in Turkmenistan, approximately 5% of the total population.

Education

Education in Turkmenistan is universal and compulsory up to the secondary level, the duration of which has been reduced from ten to nine years; With the new president it has been decreed that from the 2007-2008 school year compulsory education will be ten years. As of 2013 general secondary education in Turkmenistan is divided into three school stages of 12 years in total in the following order: primary school (grades 1-3), secondary school, the first cycle of secondary education, lasting for five years (grades 4-8), and the third stage of secondary education, which is set for a period of four years (grades 9-12).

Sports

Soccer is the most popular sport in Turkmenistan. The national association regularly participates in competitions organized by FIFA and the AFC at senior and youth level. Valeri Nepomniaschi is probably the most famous name in Turkmen football. He was the coach who led Cameroon to the 1990 Soccer World Cup in Italy. There are 40 clubs, 820 players and 30 referees in the country. The main stadiums are: Köpetdag Stadium, Nabitchi (Nebitdag, 15,000 seats) and The Builder (Ashgabat, 11,000 seats).^{[citation needed]}