Tupi-Guarani languages

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The Tupi-Guarani languages make up a subfamily of 53 languages of the macro-Tupi family that are or were spoken in countries such as Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Argentina, Peru, and Venezuela.

It comprises eleven subgroups and one unclassified language. Eleven languages are extinct and at least eight others are in danger of extinction. It is the most important subfamily of the Tupi family, the one with the greatest geographical extension in the territory of South America. In addition, the Tupi-Guarani languages are probably the best-studied group of languages in the Amazon, having conveniently reconstructed proto-Tupi-Guarani (proto-TG).

History

The name of this branch of macro-Tupi languages comes from the three historically most important languages of this branch: Tupi, Tupinambá (which in its creoleized version was called ñe'engatú or língua geral) and the Guaraní language, which is currently the official language in places like Paraguay, Bolivia and the province of Corrientes (Argentina), and which has several million speakers.

The Tupinambá lived along the coast, with most of the population being in what is now the Rio de Janeiro area and further north. This group was the largest of the indigenous groups initially contacted by the Portuguese. Their language reached such a length that during the 16th and 17th centuries their language was simply called língua brasílica or brasiliano, the name tupinambá appearing around the XVIII. The priest José de Anchieta (1595) extensively documented the earliest stage of this language, noting that it was the "language most used along the coast of Brazil", surpassing in the first period of colonization to portuguese. Tupinambá has been an important source of lexical borrowing into Brazilian Portuguese, especially with regard to flora and fauna. Several of these words have spread massively to other languages, including: tapioca (< typy ʔók-a) jaguar (< jawár-a), cassava (< mani ʔók-a), toucan (< tukán-a) or tapir (< tapi ʔír-a).

The Guarani living south of what is now São Paulo were the largest group with which Spanish explorers had contact on the east coast of South America. The ancient Guarani, documented and described by Antonio Ruiz de Montoya (1639). Unlike Tupi and Tupinambá, Guarani is not an extinct language, but over time it has become one of the largest indigenous languages in the Americas, currently with almost 5 million speakers (2007).

Tupí proper was closely related to Tupinambá, although it shares with Guarani the absence of final consonants. The Tupi lived in the area of what is now São Paulo, in the São Vicente area and on the upper reaches of the Tieté River. The creolized form of this language was called língua geral paulista. At present, Tupi, unlike the creolized version of tumpinambá or ñe'engatu, is an extinct language.

Family languages

The term Tupí-Guarani was first used by Alfred Métraux, the first anthropologist to use chronicle data from the 16th and 17th centuries on the Tupinambá and Guarani. And although there were attempts to classify the languages of this branch in the 1940s and 1950s, the first classification based on linguistic data, instead of geographic data or lists of ethnonyms, is that of Rodrigues (1958) originally presented in the XXXII International Congress of Americanists. This classification made it possible to clearly recognize the Tupi-Guarani branch of the rest of the languages that make up the macro-Tupi family. The following table summarizes the classification proposed by Rodrigues:

Subgroup Language Dialects Geographical coverage Estimated number of speakers ISO/DIS 639-3
Subgroup I Old Guaraní or classic guaraní or Jesuit Guaraní Guaraní Jesuit missions Only preserved in manuscripts of the Jesuit period
Guaraní criollo or Avañe'e - Guaraní Paraguay, - Guaraní correntino Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia ~4 850 000 (1997)
  • 4 650 000 (Paraguay)
  • 2 000 000 (Argentina)
  • 50 000 (Brazil)
  • 50 000 (Bolivia)
[gug]
Guaraní boliviano occidental o simba Chuquisaca (Bolivia) 7000 (1987)
5000 (2000)
[gnw]
Guaraní chaqueño or chiriguano Izoceño, avá Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina 70 000 (1986)
15 000-50 000 (1991)
70 000 (1997)
49 000 (2000)
67 000 (2002)
(15 000 Swiss)
51 230 (2007)
[gui]
Guaraní Mbyá Tambéopé, baticola Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina 8000-8500 (1997)
17 500 (2000)
3000 (2002)
25 450 (2007)
25 000 (2008)
[gun]
Aché (guayakí) Four dialects, one of them almost extinct Paraguay 350 (1986)
850 (2002)
1500 (2006)
1360 (2007)
[guq]
Kaiwá Teüi, Tembekuá, Kaiwám Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), Argentina 29 000 (1986)
12 500-14 600 (1990)
29 000 (1997)
11 000-14 000 (1998)
15 500 (2000)
19 500 (2002)
18.510 (2003)
[kgk]
Pãí tavyterá (for some part of the Kaiwá complex) Eastern Paraguay, Argentina 10 000 (2000)
15 000-20 000 (2007)
[pta]
Chiripá Apapocuva East of Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil 11 000 (1991)
11 900 (1995-2000)
[nhd]
Xetá Paraná (Brazil) 3 (1990).
Almost extinct
[xet]
Tapieté, Ava or ñandeva, chané Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia 9200 (1997)
4900 (2002)
2440 (2007)
[tpj]
Subgroup II
Guarayú-Sirionó-Jorá
Guarayú Northeast of the Guarayos River area, Beni (Bolivia) 5000-8000 (1991)
5000 (1997)
5930 (2000)
5000 (2002)
5933 (2007)
[gyr]
Siriono East Beni and northeast of Santa Cruz (Bolivia) 300-800 (1991)
399 -400 (2000)
650 (2002)
[srq]
Yuqui Cochabamba (Bolivia) 50-100 (1991)
120 (2000)
[yuq]
Jora Bolivia 5-10 (1991)
Extinction (current)
[jor]
Subgroup III Cocama-Cocamilla Cocamilla, coca (or kokama) Peru, Brazil, Colombia 15 196-18 396 (1997)
260 - 2050 (2000)
[cod]
Omagua Aizuare, Curacirari, Paguana Iquitos (Peru). There may be no more speakers in Brazil. 10-100 (1976). Almost extinct[omg]
Potiguára Paraíba (Brazil) Extinction[pog]
Tupinikim Espírito Santo y Bahía (Brazil) Extinction[tpk]
Tupinambá Atlantic coast, from Rio de Janeiro to the Amazon (Brazil) Extinction[tpn]
Tupi paulist geral linguaCurrent state of São Paulo (Brazil) Extinction[tpw]
Ñe'engatú Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela 3000 (1997)
8000 (1998-2000)
3000 (2002)
ECU6000 (2007)
[yrl]
Subgroup IV Asuriní Río Tocantins, Pará (Brazil) 300 (2001) [asu]
Avá-canoeiro Goiás y valle del alto Tocantins (Brazil) 40 (1998)
100 (2002)
[avv]
Guajajára Pindare, zutiua, mearim, I feared Gurupí About 80 villages in the Maranhão Basin (Brazil) 10 000 (1997)
15 000 (2000)
10 000 (2002)
10 200 (2007)
[gub]
Suruí do Pará Pará (Brazil) 180 (1997)
140 (2000)
150 (2002)
[mdz]
Parakanã Under river Xingú, Pará (Brazil) 350 (2002)
900 (2004)
[pak]
Tapirapé Northeast of Mato Grosso (Brazil) 350 (2000)
200-350 (2002)
500 (2003)
[taf]
Tembé Maranhão (Brazil) 150 -180 (2000)
100-200 (2002)
800 (2007)
[tqb]
Subgroup V Asuriní xingú Pará (Brazil) 110 (2002) [asn]
Araweté Amazonas (Brazil) 80 (2002)
290 (2003)
[awt]
Kayabí North of Mato Grosso and South of Pará (Brazil) 500 (1997)
1000 (1999)
800 (2000-2002)
[kyz]
Subgroup VI Amundava Rondônia (Brazil) 83 (2003) [adw]
Apiacá North of Mato Grosso (Brazil) 190 (2001) [api]
Júma Río Açuã, Amazonas (Brazil) 300 in 1940 and 4 in 1998.Almost extinct[jua]
Karipúna Amapá (Brazil) Extinction[kgm]
Karipuná Jacaria and Pama (or Pamana) Rondônia and Acre (Brazil) 14 (2004).Almost extinct[kuq]
Paranawát Rondônia (Brazil) Extinction[paf]
Tenharim Tenharim, Parisian, kagwahiv, karipuna jaci paraná, mialát, diahói. Amazonas and Rondônia (Brazil) 493 -790 (2000) [pah]
Tukumanféd Rondônia (Brazil) Extinction[tkf]
Uru-ew-wau-wau It could be a taharim dialect Rondônia (Brazil) 87 (2003) [urz]
Wiraféd Rondônia (Brazil) Extinction[wir]
Morerebi It could be a taharim dialect Amazonas (Brazil) 100 (2000) [xmo]
Subgroup VII Kamayu Mato Grosso (Brazil) 360 (2002) [kay]
Subgroup VIII Anambé Pará (Brazil) 7 (1991).Almost extinct[aan]
Amanayé Pará (Brazil) Probably extinct[ama]
Emerillon South border of French Guiana 200 (2000)
400 (2001)
[eme]
Guajá Maranhão y Pará (Brazil) 370 (1995) [gvj]
Wayampi Oiyapoque, wajapuku, oiyapoque wayampi, amapari wayampi, jari. French Guiana and Brazil 720 (1997)
1180 (2000)
500-650 (2002)
[oym]
Zo'é Pará (Brazil) 150 (1998)
136 (2000)
[pto]
Turiwára Pará (Brazil) Extinction[twt]
Urubú-kaapor Maranhão (Brazil) 500 (1997)
800 (1998)
500 (2000)
[urb]
Aurah Maranhão (Brazil) Extinction[aux]
Pauserna Pauserna Southeast of Beni (Bolivia) Extinction[psm]
Subgroup Language Dialects Geographical coverage Estimated number of speakers ISO/DIS 639-3

There are many Tupi-Guarani languages whose phonological and grammatical structure is sufficiently altered with respect to Proto-Tupi-Guarani, to justify the hypothesis that these languages are the result of linguistic substitution in groups that previously spoke other languages. Among these languages resulting from substitution would be Chané, Tapieté, Izoceño and Achí or Guayakí of subgroup 1; Sirionó, Yuqui and Jorá from subgroup 2, and Kokamá / Omáwa from subgroup 3.

Otherwise the classification into subgroups can be done according to certain shared changes:

Subgroup ***pj*kj*t-(i) *kw
I ,, ・h, Ø,, ・k gwβkwkw
II ,, s,, spjkj,, ・j (?) wβkwkw
III ,, s,, spjkt, j(g)wβpwkw
IV h, Øh, Ø k, s,,,z,,, swwkwkw
V ØØsss ww kw
VI hhpjktjgwβkwkw
VII h, Øh, Ø k jwwhwkw
VIII h, Øh, Øsk, ・, s・, sjww,(β)kwkw

Common features

Phonology

The reconstructed phonological inventory for Proto-Tupi-Guarani (Proto-TG) is as follows (Jensen, 1989):

Labial Alveolar Alv.-pal. Velar Gloss
Fridge
Flat occlusive *
Labialized occlusive *kw
Palate occlusive *pj*kj
Africada **
Flat Nasal *
Nasal labialized *
Nasal palatalized *
Sonorante *

Most modern languages have simplified this phonological inventory, having lost distinctions. However, thanks to the multitude of surviving languages, it has been possible to reconstruct with great precision not only the original inventory but also the phonological processes of proto-TG.

Lexical comparison

The numerals in different Tupi-Guarani languages are:

GLOSAGroup I Group II Group III Group IV Group V Group VI Group VII Group VIII PROTO-
TG
GuaraníAchéGuarayuSiriono Cocama-
Cocamilla
OmaguaGuaja_
Ha!
Tapi_
rap
Kayabí JúmaKamayuAnambé
'1' peteĩetakrãDope ko-m~~
e-m-
wepewipipitáimaxepe ayŭio oipeiiMojepetetipŭ♪ Ojepete ♪
*pe aviation
'2' mokõimirõñúnioTherémomukwikamkwíkiamokozmokõi mukŭimõ mkõ̃{cHFFFF}{cHFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFFFF}{cHFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF}{mokõimukignan*mo-kõi
'3' Mbohapybrevi-
pʃь
mbo boap bo2+hiri mukaapkarkakamusap・kaNayruzmaaptt muapttmb bharprrmogulapttmuapʔ국ʔ*mo--ap-r
'4' irundygw-ra-
pʃь
iru pacegatu2 + hairuaka≤1⁄4a2+2xairõirõ irupãw transformationmojo bomberje irŭ muk*irunɨ
'5' poipo- Yeah.ñande-o(piritka)(piritka)2+31 x pa -po-jene po
'Mano'
'6' poteĩbuatápa1+oβa(sokta)(sokta)3+33+3 5+15+1*5+1
'7' pokõijtapéta2+oβa(ka)i)(kan)is)3+3+15+2 5+25+2*5+2
'8' poapy・atãpa3+oβa(pusa)(pusa)3+3+25+3 5+35+3*5+3
'9' byundytõvá4+oβa(isku)(iskun)3+3+310-1 5+45+4*5+4
'10' paetakrã
Tapa
()u pacega))u pacega)1+naheta2 x pa -po-
The terms between parentheses for coca-cocamilla and omagua are Quechua loans.

Tupi-Guarani place names

Some common roots in place names of Tupi-Guarani origin are:

  • for... 'río': Paraná, Paraguay.
  • - and or and... 'agua': Iguazú, Ipanema
  • ita- 'piedra, rock': Itaipu, Itatí, Itabira, Itaborai, Itamarati, Itatiba, Itatiaia,
  • ibi- 'wood, forest'
  • Pyra- 'pez'
  • Guyra- 'bird'
  • - one. 'prieto, nigger'
  • - Breathe. or -pitanga 'red'
  • -tinga 'blanco'
  • - obi. 'blue'
  • - Paraguay or -guaçu 'large': Iguazú, Embu-Guaçu. By various phonetic changes (aplology, assimilation) this suffix may appear reduced to - açu Manhuaçu 'lluvia grande', Jaguaraçu ⋅ *Jaguaraguasú 'Jaguar grande'
  • -mirim 'small'
  • -atã 'duro': Butantã
  • - 'good': Botucatu
  • - Panema. 'bad': Ipanema
  • -bira 'empinado, erect, erguido'
  • -sununga "ruid"
  • - Soba 'abundant in...': Curitiba, Itatiba.
  • - I was. abundance: Araçatuba (Araçá abundant), Caraguatatuba (Caraguatá abundant), Catanduva. +

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