Triguarantor Army
The Ejército de las Tres Garantias, also called the Ejército Trigarante, was a military corps that existed between 1821 and 1823 and was headed by Agustín de Iturbide during the Independence of Mexico. It arose as a result of the union in a common objective (the independence of New Spain) between the Mexican royalists of Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgents of Vicente Guerrero after the so-called Embrace of Acatempan.
Background
Since the execution of José María Morelos (insurgent leader between 1811 and 1815, Hidalgo's successor) on December 22, 1815, the Mexican insurgent troops dispersed throughout the Viceroyalty and a struggle ensued for power, which became a guerrilla war. Guadalupe Victoria was fighting in the Sierra de Veracruz and Vicente Guerrero in the mountains of the Sierra Madre del Sur.
When Félix María Calleja was relieved as viceroy in September 1816, the captain general of Cuba, a sailor: Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, took office.
Apodaca implemented a different policy from his predecessors Venegas and Calleja. He created the pardon, which was granted to most of the insurgent leaders, such as Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón. Only Pedro Moreno, Guerrero, Victoria, Andrés Quintana Roo and Leona Vicario refused to take advantage of this policy. Thanks to this policy, New Spain lived almost peacefully until the end of 1819.
On January 1, 1820 in Las Cabezas de San Juan (Andalusia, Spain) Colonel Rafael de Riego rose up in arms, proclaiming that King Ferdinand VII should swear to the Constitution of Cádiz, which the Cortes Generales proclaimed in 1812 On May 26, the mayor of the province of Veracruz, José Dávila, proclaimed the Constitution of Cádiz. Apodaca did the same in the capital on May 31, sparking protests and riots.
In Mexico this news took New Spain by surprise. It was feared that the privileges of the clergy and the army would be abolished, and that a new liberal age would come to the country. The Creoles, led by the Inquisitor General Matías de Monteagudo and by Apodaca, met in the Iglesia de la Profesa, and there they conspired and resolved to secede from Spain.
When Guerrero learned of the situation, he tried to convince Colonel José Gabriel de Armijo, a royalist commander in the south, to join his movement. Armijo remained loyal to the Spanish government. Guerrero tried again to persuade him through a letter dated August 17, which was sent to Armijo with Colonel Carlos Moya.
On November 9, Armijo, commander of the operations in the south of the country, resigned due to differences with Viceroy Apodaca, who immediately transferred him to Seville.
Guadalupe Victoria, on the other hand, hid in the caves of the Sierra de Veracruz. In this way, the front remained calm, but the capture of the guerrilla leader seemed almost impossible.
Apodaca, on the advice of Monteagudo, appointed Iturbide as Armijo's replacement, and on November 16 Iturbide left Mexico City and established his headquarters in Teloloapan. He had with him twelve thousand gold pesos.
The Embrace of Acatempan
Iturbide's intentions, before taking command of what would later become the Trigarante Army, have been the subject of great debate among historians from different historical perspectives. Much of the official history has always stated that Iturbide set out seeking to carry out the orders of Viceroy Apodaca to destroy the insurgent remnant under Guerrero's command. However, epistolary evidence recently discovered by the historian Jaime del Arenal Fenochio, in 2006, shows that Iturbide was in correspondence with Guerrero since November 26, 1820, and said letter still refers to a previous one from Guerrero to Iturbide, where Iturbide he tries to persuade Guerrero to abandon his cause on civil terms. This shows that Iturbide, even before being placed in command of his military forces, sought a conciliation with Guerrero to carry out his plan for the independence of New Spain, refuting the belief that he only sought this alliance once it was defeated.
Iturbide began his march towards the hot land, where the remnants of the insurgency were active. He had previously alerted the men under his command of his true intentions to gain independence in his country, a cause that the military secretly also wanted. This is how the Trigarante Army began to be formed. In their search for Guerrero, the rear of Iturbide's forces suffered attacks by the insurgent chief Pedro Ascencio, which were unfavorable for Iturbide's forces. In the letters from this time between Iturbide and Guerrero, Iturbide asks the insurgent to stop his fight and lay down his arms, which Guerrero refuses, clarifying that only if Iturbide swears to fight for independence he would become his subordinate and military under his orders.
After new military encounters unfavorable to Iturbide who was seeking conciliation, as a result of slow communication by letters, Iturbide and Guerrero enter into an agreement after the former exposed his plan for the independence of the country. Both commands decide to meet, what followed afterwards is a matter of historical debate.
The supposed meeting took place in the town of Acatempan, on February 10, 1821, before the troops of Iturbide and Guerrero. According to Lorenzo de Zavala's account, a brief dialogue took place between the two leaders, after which they embraced. Guerrero explained to his soldiers the presence of Iturbide in the following terms:
""Soldiers! This Mexican you have in mind is Mr. Don Agustín de Iturbide, whose sword has been fatal to the cause we defend for nine years. He today he swears to defend the national interests; And I, who have led you in combat, and who you cannot doubt that I will die supporting independence, am the first to recognize Mr. Iturbide as the First Chief of the National Armies: Long live independence! Long live freedom!"". Lucas Alamán denies this version. According to him, Iturbide failed to inspire enough confidence in Guerrero, and he sent in his place Lieutenant José Figueroa, who was empowered by Guerrero to arrange all conditions. Modern historians question the veracity of the event called El Abrazo de Acatempan, suggesting other places where the meeting could have taken place, which would have been more favorable for both commands. It is also disputed whether there was a personal meeting between Guerrero and Iturbide, and if there was, whether the aforementioned hug really existed.
Their foundation
The idea behind the creation of this army was to march throughout the country spreading the Plan for Iguala and Disarmament, to unite more people to their cause. On February 24, the decree for the creation of this army was promulgated as it appeared in the Plan of Iguala, and it was called Trigarante, due to the three guarantees it defended: Catholic Religion as the only one tolerated in the new nation, Independence from Mexico towards Spain, and Union between the sides of the war. Also, on that date, the tailor José Magdaleno Ocampo gave Iturbide the triguarantor banner, which had been made by order of the colonel. Now that day is celebrated as Flag Day, and the Trigarante Flag is considered the first banner of the independent era.
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The Triguarantor Army from the Plan of Iguala to the Treaty of Córdoba
Iturbide had the Plan of Iguala reproduced to make it known to all the inhabitants of New Spain. The document reached the hands of the viceroy and the archbishop of Mexico. When the authorities learned of the Plan de Iguala, they launched a campaign against Iturbide, but they could do little to stop the ideas of freedom from continuing to circulate.
Iturbide began a trip through the Bajío region to spread the movement. Several royalist soldiers adhered to the Plan of Iguala. So did some insurgent leaders who had withdrawn, such as Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón.
Trigarante Army Campaign
On March 16, Iturbide sent two letters containing copies of the Plan de Iguala to Spain. The first was addressed to King Ferdinand VII whom he invited to govern the kingdom of North America or the Mexican Empire. The second was addressed to the deputies of the Spanish Cortes whom he asked to peacefully accept the independence of New Spain, warning them that he had a disciplined army ready to defend this cause.
Before the Triguarante Army (religion, union and independence) began its campaign, the royalist troops were commanded by Colonel Samaniego in La Mixteca; Colonel Manuel de Obeso in Oaxaca; Colonel Zarzosa in San Luis Potosí; the Extremadura battalion in Puebla; Brigadier Joaquín Arredondo in the Internal Provinces of the East; field marshal Alejo García Conde in the Western Internal Provinces; his brother, Brigadier Diego García Conde with the help of Colonel Rafael Bracho in Durango; Field Marshal José de la Cruz in Nueva Galicia; Brigadier Pedro Celestino Negrete in Colima; the Navarra battalion in Zacatecas; Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Rodríguez de Cela with the help of Miguel Barragán in Michoacán; Brigadier Domingo Estanislao Luaces with the help of José María Novoa in Querétaro and the Sierra Gorda; Colonel Francisco Hevia in Córdoba; the captain of the frigate Juan Bautista Topete covering the leeward coast in Alvarado, Tlacotalpan and the Sierra de Tuxtepec; Captain Antonio López de Santa Anna covering the windward coast; Captain Carlos María Llorente in Tampico and the Huasteca Potosina; Colonel José María Calderón in Xalapa; Captain Juan Horbegoso in Veracruz; and Colonel Agustín de la Viña in Perote.
During the month of March and the first days of April 1821, the reactions were diverse. They enthusiastically welcomed and proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, Captain Horbegoso in Veracruz; the junior Celso de Iruela in Perote; José Joaquín de Herrera who advanced to Tepeyehualco and San Juan de los Llanos; Luis Cortázar in Los Amoles who traveled to Salvatierra, Pénjamo and Valle de Santiago; Anastasio Bustamante who went to Guanajuato, where he ordered the skulls of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez to be taken down from the Alhóndiga de Granaditas to bury them. Later he managed to gather an army of six thousand men in Salamanca, Irapuato, Silao, León and San Miguel el Grande, the sergeant major Juan Domínguez in Apatzingán; Lieutenant Colonel Miguel Barragán in Ario; as well as Vicente Filisola and Juan José Codallos in Tusantla. The plan was rejected by Vicente Marmolejo in Cuernavaca, Tomás Cajigal in Taxco, Martín Almela in Tixtla, José María Armijo and José de Ubiella in Iguala, all of whom were under the orders of of Iturbide, but they defected to join the royalist troops. On the other hand, Antonio Linares did not accept the plan in Celaya and went to Querétaro; Agustín de la Viña was equipped in the Fortress of San Carlos de Perote, like Colonel Quintanar in Valladolid.
The first military actions took place when the priest of Xalapa, José Martínez, forced Colonel José Rincón to retreat towards Orizaba in search of the help of Antonio López de Santa Anna. On March 25, the former insurgent Francisco de Miranda in combination with José Joaquín de Herrera achieved the capitulation of Santa Anna and Rincón, who from that moment on swore to the Plan of Iguala. Herrera entered the city of Córdoba on April 1, forcing the capitulation of the royalist commander Alcocer. Former insurgent Nicolás Bravo began his campaign in Chilpancingo, Tixtla, Chilapa de Álvarez, and Izúcar. Juan Álvarez began the siege of Acapulco; Vicente Guerrero, José Antonio Echávarri were assigned to confront the royalist forces of Pascual de Liñán; meanwhile, Iturbide crossed the Tierra Caliente in the direction of Cutzamala where he was joined by the former insurgent Ramón López Rayón who was assigned to strengthen the Cóporo hill in Zitácuaro. In April, Iturbide's entourage arrived in Acámbaro to meet with Bustamante, Cortázar and Joaquín Parres, after which the former insurgent Epitacio Sánchez was his escort. In El Bajío, the insurgents Francisco Ortiz, Encarnación Oriz, Miguel Borja, José Durán, and some others who were still up in arms, joined the Trigarante Army.
The Army of the South led by Márquez Donayo and Gabriel de Armijo went to Zacualpan to unsuccessfully confront the insurgent forces led by Pedro Ascencio and Father José Manuel Izquierdo, on April 9 and 10 in the Sierra de Sultepec. On April 14, the royalist captain Ignacio Inclán proclaimed the Plan of Iguala in Lerma attacking the rear of the Army of the South, however he was captured by captain Jorge Henríquez in the vicinity of Toluca. José Joaquín Herrera began his advance towards Puebla; In order to stop him, General Ciriaco del Llano ordered Lieutenant Colonel Zarzosa to meet him, but a large part of the royalist troops deserted to join the trigarantes in the Ixtapa ravine and seeing his army diminished, Zarzosa returned to Puebla.. In contrast, Herrera, with a larger contingent, was able to position himself in Chalchicomula and Tepeaca.
Colonel Francisco Hevia pursued the forces of Nicolás Bravo, but when they passed through Atlixco he was joined by Francisco Osorno and other former insurgents who had fought in the Llanos de Apan and together they headed for Huejotzingo. Believing that Bravo and Osorno would attack the city of Puebla, Hevia returned to Izúcar to prepare the defense, but Bravo headed for Huamantla, where he was joined by Captain Francisco Miranda Palacios. When Hevia and Ciriaco del Llano met When they found out that Herrera was in Tepeaca, they marched with a force of 1,400 soldiers to besiege it; Bravo went to the same place with four hundred men to help Herrera, but after three days of combat, on April 26, the trigarantes abandoned the plaza. Bravo headed for the Llanos de Apan and Herrera returned to Córdoba.
On April 25, Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed independence in Alvarado, allowing royalist captain Juan Bautista Topete to retreat with some of his men to Veracruz. On May 15, Francisco Hevia began the assault on Córdoba; The day after the combat began, he was killed in action, succeeded in command by Lieutenant Colonel Blas del Castillo y Luna, who was able to penetrate the city but was repelled. On May 18, Santa Anna with a force of five hundred and fifty men arrived at the location to help the besieged, and two days later, the besiegers fled to Orizaba to unite with the royalist colonel Samaniego, who, upon evaluating the situation, decided to withdraw to Puebla. Days later, Santa Anna and Joaquín Leña attacked the city of Xalapa by surprise; after six hours of combat, Captain Juan Horbegoso asked for capitulation. On April 20, after having been in hiding, Guadalupe Victoria joined the trigarante movement by publishing a proclamation; the guerrillas of the coast rose up in arms again, in such a way that the fort of La Antigua was abandoned by the royalists. The Puente del Rey was taken over by the independentistas, and the indigenous people of Coxquihui took up arms in the Huasteca region against the army of Carlos María Llorente. By the end of May, the entire province of Veracruz, except for the capital, had declared itself in favor of independence.
On May 1, Iturbide was in León, from there he sent a letter to José de la Cruz to negotiate his adhesion to the independence movement. On May 8, in the vicinity of Yurécuaro, both characters met, agreed to a provisional armistice and Iturbide asked De la Cruz to convince Apodaca to accept the Iguala Plan. After the meeting, the chief of the Trigarante went to Huaniqueo and De la Cruz returned to Guadalajara. As agreed, he sent a messenger to the capital, but Apodaca strongly rejected the proposal. The town of Huniqueo was defended by 1,600 royalists under the command of Colonel Luis Quintanar, who initially refused to surrender, however a large force trigarante, which grew day by day, settled both in the surroundings of Huniqueo and Valladolid. In addition to this situation, part of the royalist troops deserted to join the trigarantes. On May 19 both cities were capitulated by Luis Quintanar and Manuel Rodríguez de Cela, the surrender was peaceful, without a single shot being fired. In contrast, the doctor José Antonio Magos who had proclaimed the Plan of Iguala in Ixmiquilpan suffered a defeat on May 23 inflicted by the royalist colonel José María Novoa; and near Tetecala, the regiments of Captain Dionisio Boneta and Commander Cristóbal Húber defeated the forces of Pedro Ascencio on June 3, during the combat the former insurgent died, his head was sent to Cuernavaca where it was exhibited in public by order of Gabriel de Armijo.
The defeat of Ascencio was welcomed by Apodaca, but the surrender of Valladolid dismayed him. Desperate, he published a proclamation whereby he canceled the freedom of the press and called for the conscription of males between the ages of sixteen and fifty. But none of these measures prevented part of the troops from the capital from deserting and fleeing to join the trigarantes. Excited by the news of the capture of Valladolid, Pedro Celestino Negrete proclaimed independence on June 13 in San Pedro Tlaquepaque; He was immediately joined by Captain Eduardo Laris, who was occupying the Hospicio barracks, who was supported by a troop of trigarantes by Colonel José Antonio Andrade. Laris was appointed to take the port of San Blas, which would capitulate on July 25. Seeing himself without protection, José de la Cruz fled from Guadalajara to meet with Hermenegildo Revuelta's division, both headed for Zacatecas. After a brief stopover, he continued his march to Durango, where he was well received by Bishop Juan Francisco Castañiza on July 4; During the march of the royalist contingent, in Saín Alto, part of the troop harangued by battalion corporal José María Borrego defected and returned to Zacatecas, proclaiming the Plan of Iguala the same day. On July 6, Negrete carried out the same action in Aguascalientes, whose population cheered him.
The plaza of San Juan del Río, guarded by 1,100 royalists under the command of Colonel José María Novoa, began to be surrounded by the trigarantes; From Toluca, a battalion led by Lieutenant Colonel Almela arrived at the scene to help him, but the forces led by Anastasio Bustamante, Juan Domínguez Manso and Luis Quintanar —who had joined the independence movement— intimidated the royalist troops due to their numbers. who deserted en masse. On June 7, Novoa negotiated the capitulation and with only four hundred faithful retreated to the capital. In a similar situation, but with six hundred and fifty men, was Brigadier Luaces in Querétaro. A contingent of eight hundred royalists under the command of Colonels Bracho and Pedro Pérez de San Julián departed from San Luis Potosí in order to help him. Again this march was surrounded by the troops of the trigarantes of José Antonio de Echávarri, Gaspar López, Zenón Fernández, Juan José Codallos, Luis Cortázar and Anastasio Bustamante; Without much alternative, Bracho and Pérez de San Julián surrendered at will on June 22 in San Luis de la Paz. Shortly after, the royalist brigadier Torres Valdivia abandoned the city of San Luis Potosí, which was taken by colonels Zenón Fernández and Gaspar López. On June 27 the Trigarante Army, which surrounded the city of Querétaro, was made up of ten thousand men. Without much hope of military support, Brigadier Luaces capitulated the plaza peacefully. On the other hand, on June 18 the city of Toluca was defended by Colonel Ángel Díaz del Castillo, but he was defeated by the forces of Vicente Filisola, Felipe Martínez and Father José Manuel Izquierdo; Three hundred royalists died in the battle and the survivors retreated to the capital.
Since the end of May, the San Carlos de Perote Fortress was besieged by the eleventh division of the Trigarante, led by Antonio López de Santa Anna and defended by the royalist Agustín de la Viña. On June 11, Colonel Saturnino Samaniego broke the siege, forcing the trigarantes to retreat to Xalapa. Santa Anna planned to take the port of Veracruz; in early July, he managed to capture the Santa Bárbara bastion, the La Merced bastion and the Santa Lucía bastion. But he failed in his simultaneous attempt to assault the Santiago bastion, the Artillery Practical School, and the Fijo barracks that were defended by Lieutenant Colonel José Rincón. Poor coordination by his men, coupled with a heavy downpour that wet the gunpowder, gave brigadier José García Dávila the victory. The casualties of the trigarantes amounted to almost one hundred men. Seeing his plans frustrated, Santa Anna went to Córdoba and Orizaba, from where he ordered an expedition to Puente del Rey with the aim of cutting off communications to the port to avoid a possible advance of the royalists towards Xalapa.
Shortly thereafter, Apodaca was forcibly removed as viceroy and unofficially replaced by Francisco Novella as viceroy, however his authority was not legitimate and conferred by Spain. Therefore, the Spanish courts sent Juan O'Donojú, as Supreme Political Chief (no longer as Viceroy) who would be the last representative of the Crown. Iturbide met with him in Córdoba, on August 24, and made him see that the royalist cause was already lost and that they had few (less than a tenth of the army) on his side. O'Donojú understood and the Treaties of Córdoba were signed, which ended the War of Independence and which recognized the sovereignty of Mexico. The Trigarante Army, from its creation on February 24, 1821, continued fighting against the royalist troops (Spanish) who refused to accept the Independence of Mexico. These battles continued until August 1821 when Iturbide together with Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaties of Córdoba
Finally, on September 27, 1821, the Trigarante Army entered Mexico City in different directions, forming a column headed by its leader, Agustín de Iturbide, dressed in civilian clothes. The entry of the Triguarante Army was the reason for a great celebration in the capital, with the people wearing the green, white and red that Iturbide designated as the national colors, and which included a parade, Te Deum in the Cathedral, various speeches, banquets and the delivery of the key to the city to Agustín de Iturbide. September 27, 1821 was described as the happiest day in national history by Lucas Alamán.
The army troops that marched were made up of 16,000 men, of which 7,282 were infantry, 7,955 were cavalry, and 763 were artillery with 70 cannons of different calibers. Among the officers were Domingo Estanislao de Luaces, Pedro Celestino Negrete, Epitacio Sánchez, José Morán, Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Anastasio Bustamante, José Joaquín Parrés, José Antonio de Echávarri, José Joaquín de Herrera, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán, Vicente Filisola, José Antonio Andrade, Felipe de la Garza, Manuel Ruiz de la Peña Iruela, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Gaspar López, Mariano Laris and Juan José Zenón Fernández:
| Infantry Section | Regiment | Men | Cavalry Section | Regiment | Men |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | Crown Regiment | 453 | First | Iturbide Snail | 300 |
| First | Celaya Regiment | 490 | Second | Dragons of Mexico | 305 |
| First | Imperial farms | 258 | Second | Cavalry of Echávarri | 186 |
| Second | Three Villas | 368 | Second | Dragons of Santander | 190 |
| Second | Guadalajara | 134 | Third | Potosi Faithful | 300 |
| Second | Santo Domingo | 162 | Third | Dragons of the King | 159 |
| Third | Cazadores de San Luis | 47 | Third | Sierra Gorda | 155 |
| Third | Regiment of Fernando VII | 382 | Fourth | San Carlos | 310 |
| Third | Light of the Empire | 153 | Fourth | Provincials of Mexico | 80 |
| Fourth | Ligero de Querétaro | 318 | Fifth | Dragons of Valladolid | 448 |
| Fourth | Second Freedom | 195 | Fifth | Moncada | 240 |
| Fifth | Battalion of San Fernando | 239 | Sixth | Toluca Regiment | 250 |
| Fifth | Light of Morelos | 129 | Sixth | Cavalry Father Left | 300 |
| Fifth | Second Union | 176 | Seventh | Queretaro Regiment | 283 |
| Fifth | First Freedom | 485 | Seventh | Regiment of the Prince | 241 |
| Sixth | Fijo de Puebla | 265 | Eighth | Dragons of Puebla | 119 |
| Sixth | Cazadores de la Patria | 62 | Eighth | Dragons of Tulancingo | 324 |
| Sixth | Trade in Puebla | 157 | Eighth | Apan | 132 |
| Sixth | Tlaxcala | 54 | Ninth | Freedom Dragons | 400 |
| Seventh | Loyalty Battalion | 205 | Tenth | Atlixco Dragons | 83 |
| Seventh | Guanajuato | 91 | Tenth | Union Dragons | 389 |
| Seventh | Zacualtipán | 94 | Tenth | Valley Volunteers | 130 |
| Eighth | Trade in Mexico | 339 | Tenth | National Volunteers | 247 |
| Eighth | First American Battalion | 359 | Eleventh | Dragons of America | 150 |
| Ninth | Fixed Regiment of Mexico | 516 | Eleventh | Guanajuato Dragons | 263 |
| Tenth | Constance | 100 | Eleventh | Dragons of the Sierra | 37 |
| Tenth | Valladolid | 95 | Duodécima | Dragons of San Miguel | 126 |
| Tenth | Potosi Battalion | 200 | Duodécima | Chilpancingo | 124 |
| Eleventh | First of the Union | 220 | Duodécima | South | 92 |
| Eleventh | Mexico Second | 270 | Third | Champions Dragons | 166 |
| Duodécima | Infantry of Father Left | 500 | Third | Santa Rita | 130 |
| subtotal infantry | 7.282 | Third | South companies | 60 | |
| Artillery | 68 pcs. several calibers | 763 | Third | Snail of General Guerrero | 146 |
| Fourth | Flanker | 87 | |||
| Fourth | Montealto, Tehuacán and Temascaltepec | 189 | |||
| Tenth fifth | Dragons |
The End of the Army
After the triumph of the Revolution of Independence and the enthronement of Iturbide as emperor of Mexico supported by the Trigarante Army, this armed force became the base for the Imperial Mexican Army, which would later become the National Mexican Army and as such it fulfilled its fundamental mission of defending and sustaining the sovereignty of the new nation with arms, especially in the face of the expansionist ambitions of its northern neighbor.
The flag
Flag of Mexico.
This army, being the result of the union of all the Mexican armed forces, needed a flag that expressed this fact.
The case had been foreseen, and so, on the day set for the promulgation of the plan, José Magdaleno Ocampo, the tailor in charge of making it, gave Iturbide the tricolor flag, whose essential elements remain in the current one.
The flag during the Iguala plan was divided by three diagonal bars and not vertical ones, and in the center of each band there was an eight-pointed golden star. These three stars were placed diagonally, but in the opposite direction to that of the bars. It was, then, that, a flag that meant union and harmony. The first stripe, starting at the top, was white and symbolized the purity of the Catholic religion, the active principle of national unity; the second was green and symbolized the ideal of political independence of Mexico, not only in relation to Spain, but also from all other nations; the third was red and represented the ideal of union between the indigenous, mestizos, criollos and Spaniards residing in Mexico and, in general, among those who made up the Mexican population; the stars represented the three guarantees and the will to fulfill them.
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