Trento council

The Council of Trent was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held in discontinuous periods for twenty-five sessions between 1545 and 1563.

It took place in Trento, a city in present-day northern Italy, then a free imperial city ruled by a prince-bishop. It was called partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, but also in order to clarify various doctrinal points. Its objectives were to define Catholic doctrine and discipline its members by condemning the Protestant Reformation, considered by the Holy See as heresy. It was the most influential council and its historical importance is due to having defined the Church's doctrine on Sacred Scripture, Tradition, the Sacraments and celibacy, prohibiting the marriage of priests, affirming the supremacy of papal authority, the decree of the foundation of the seminaries and the delimitation of the fields of application of the theologians. The council defined the new dogmatic, liturgical and ethical norms of the Church, especially the practices rejected by Protestants: real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, justification by faith and works, conservation of the seven sacraments, indulgences and the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints.

Historical context

Since 1518, German Protestants had demanded the convocation of a German council, and Emperor Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire tried to close the differences between Catholics and reformists to deal with the Turkish threat. At the Diet of Worms (1521) attempts were made to settle the disputes, but without success. Martin Luther (whom Carlos V allowed to be summoned to said Diet) accused Rome of exercising tyranny, and the Emperor undertook in writing to defend the Catholic faith, even with arms. In subsequent Diets, the German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, continued to insist on a council.

In view of the situation, there was great pressure from the Emperor on Pope Clement VII to summon him, to which he resisted. After a time, in 1529, the Pope committed to it, but the opposition of the papal legate at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 delayed the project again. However, the main person responsible for not convoking it was the fierce opposition of King Francis I of France, since the approval of the majority of the monarchs was necessary for the council to be successful.

Since before this extreme crisis, the Catholic Church had tried to do better. We can mention the cardinals Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros and Pedro González de Mejía or the archbishop of Granada Hernando de Talavera, who in the XV century /span>, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs in Spain, they dedicated themselves to improving the morale of the institution, naming bishops of great qualities and founding educational centers. In Italy, an association of pious laymen and clergy had been created, called the Oratory of Divine Love, which began its secret activities in 1517, on the basis of love for one's neighbor. These attempts, however, were not enough. In Germany, the work of Bishop Nicholas de Cusa stood out.

It was Paul III, who had lived through the struggles in Italy, who assumed the commitment to unify the Catholics, achieving the meeting of a Council, after several Popes had tried without success. At first he was an admirer of the humanist and Christian theologian Erasmus of Rotterdam and saw a possible reconciliation with the Protestants as feasible, but later he ended up discarding that possibility.

Summon

Paul III attempted to convene the council first in Mantua, in 1537, and then in Vicenza, in 1538, at the same time as he was negotiating a peace between Charles V and Francis I in Nice. After various delays, he convened in Trento (Italy) a General Council of the Church on December 13, 1545, which outlined the alignments of the Catholic reforms (later known as the Counter-Reformation). The first session was attended by twenty-five bishops and five superiors general of religious orders. The meetings, which totaled 25, with sporadic suspensions, lasted until December 4, 1563.

The spirit and idea of the council was embodied by the management of the Jesuits Diego Laínez, Alfonso Salmerón and Francisco Torres. The philosophy was inspired by Cardillo de Villalpando and the practical norms, on conduct sanctions, had as main exponent the Bishop of Granada, Pedro Guerrero.

In this council, which culminated under the mandate of Pope Pius IV, it was decided that the bishops should present impeccable ethical capacity and conditions, they ordered the creation of specialized seminaries for the formation of priests and the requirement of clerical celibacy was confirmed. Bishops could not accumulate benefits and had to reside in their diocese.

Contrary to the Protestant opinion, the need for the mediating existence of the Church, as the Body of Christ, was imposed to achieve the salvation of man, reaffirming the ecclesiastical hierarchy, with the Pope being the highest authority of the Church. It was ordered, as an obligation of the parish priests, to preach on Sundays and religious holidays, and to teach catechism to children. In addition, they had to register births, marriages and deaths.

They reaffirmed the validity of the seven sacraments and the necessity of the conjunction of faith and works, added to the influence of divine grace, to achieve salvation, discrediting Luther who maintained that man is saved by single faith without conjunction with the works that he carried out. He also opposed Calvin's thesis of predestination, who asserted that man is predestined to his salvation or his damnation. In refutation of this idea, the church maintained that man can perform good works, since original sin does not destroy human nature, but only damages it.

The saints were vindicated as was the mass, and the existence of purgatory was affirmed. To fulfill its mandates, the Congregation of the Council was created, making its provisions known through the "Catechism of the Council of Trent".

The practice of the Inquisition, which had arisen in the 13th century, was reinstated to purge France of heretics Albigenses. Established in Spain in 1478, it spread to several European countries under the name of the Holy Office, with the aim of promoting and protecting the doctrine of faith and morals in the Catholic world, and pursuing any possible heresy or doctrinal deviation. Protestantism was persecuted by the Inquisition in various countries, but it was mainly effective against them in Spain, Italy, and Portugal.

He also created the Index, in 1557, by which a censorship was established against the publication of thoughts that could be contrary to the Catholic faith, burning many books considered heretical.

After the Council, in 1592, a definitive edition of the Bible was published, maintaining it as a source of the revelation of divine truth, but also granting that character to Tradition, denying its free interpretation, considering it a task of the Pope and the bishops, heirs of Saint Peter and the apostles, to whom Christ assigned that mission. ^{[citation required]}

Development

Finally, a difficult council was convened with continuous interruptions, in which up to three periods with three different Popes can be distinguished: Paul III, Julius III and Pius IV.

Paul III had always been very favorable, as a cardinal, to the celebration of a general council, which he finally convoked for May 1537 in the city of Mantua. But it suffered successive postponements and changes of venue for various reasons:

• Most prelates were reluctant to hold a council at that time.
• The Protestant German princes, gathered in the city of Esmalcalda in 1535 (the Esmalcalda League), changed their strategy and also opposed them.
• The impediments placed by Henry VIII of England and, above all, by Francis I of France.
• The progressive distance of Carlos I and Pope Paulo III. The two most important Christian monarchs of that time, Carlos I of Spain and Francisco I of France, were continually intertwined among them in military disputes and conflicts. The French monarch had a changing and ambiguous attitude towards the Pope, the Turkish threat and the Protestants, while Carlos I was clear and determined on these issues. Despite this, the Pope always appeared neutral in his disputes, which deeply irritated the emperor.

Finally, on December 13, 1545, the council could be declared open in the city of Trento. In March 1547 he moved to Bologna due to a plague, although part of the bishops refused to move. After several disputes, it ended up being extended indefinitely in September 1549. Paul III died in November 1549.

Julius III, appointed pope in 1550, immediately entered into negotiations with Charles I to reopen the council, which took place in Trent on May 1, 1551, but only a few sessions were held. Elector Mauricio de Saxony, an ally of Carlos I, launched a furtive attack on him. After defeating the imperial troops, he advanced on Tyrol, thereby endangering the city of Trento itself. This threat caused a new interruption in April 1552. Julius III died in 1555.

After the short papacy of Marcelo II (23 days), Paul IV was elected in 1555. He carried out reforms in the Church, but did not call the continuation of the council. Carlos I of Spain abdicated in 1556 and divided his estate between his son Felipe (Philip II of Spain) and his brother Ferdinand of Austria.

Pius IV was elected pope in 1559 and immediately expressed his willingness to continue the council. However, Ferdinand I and Francisco I preferred a new council in a city other than Trent and, furthermore, the Protestants were directly opposed to a council. After further delays, it reopened on January 18, 1562 and continued until its closure on December 4, 1563. It constitutes the most important of the three conciliar periods.

The Emperor tried, as he did at the time with the Diet of Worms, to have all parties represented, including Protestants, so that the council would be truly ecumenical. He reiterated the invitations to the Protestants in the three periods and offered them safe conduct. However, they only had the right to speak; having been excommunicated, they did not have the right to vote. This, together with the frequent military skirmishes and the complicated German political map, meant that in the end Protestant delegates did not attend.

The number of attendees varied considerably between the three periods. The names that deserve to be highlighted for their contributions are Domingo de Soto O.P., Diego Laínez S.J., Alfonso Salmerón S.J., Reginaldo Pole, Jerónimo Seripando O.S.A., Melchor Cano O.P. and Johannes Azra. The Spanish and Italian theologians and prelates were the most important, both for their number and for the influence they exercised.

Methodology of the Council

Trent had an attitude of openness to listen to the different theological schools; that is to say, it is not true that the council closed itself to theological pluralism. The Council of Trent will address two fundamental issues:

A session of the Council of Trent in Saint Mary Maggiore.

1. The foundations of faith where revelation is contained. Protestants will say that the only principle of faith is Sola ScripturaBut this cannot be admitted by Catholics for going against the Magisterium of the Church. Therefore, Trento promulgates a decree on sacred books and traditions. Where is the revelation contained? The Council affirms that it is contained in libris scriptis et sine scripto traditionibus (in written books and unwritten traditions). What is the relationship between Scripture and Tradition?, that is, is revelation contained as part of Holy Scripture and part of Tradition? The council is not pronounced. The first wording of the decree read partim... partimBut this was replaced by a et in the final wording.
2. What traditions are these? For Protestants are human creations/ecclesiastical habits. The council says it's about the Traditiones tum ad fidem tum ad mores pertinent (traditions concerning faith or customs). The problem is the traditions belonging to ad mores /customs or the foundations of Christian action. Do the ecclesiastical customs contain Revelation? Do they belong to the Constitutive Tradition of Revelation? The council does not detail more.

The problem is to distinguish which elements belong to the ecclesiastical traditions and which elements to the constitutive Tradition. So you have to interpret.

Agreements adopted in the sessions

Acta Concilij Tridentini1546.

Sessions I and II: Held on December 13, 1545 and January 7, 1546, respectively. Preliminary questions and order of the council.

III: Held on February 4, 1546. The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed was reaffirmed.

IV: Celebrated on April 8, 1546. Acceptance of the Sacred Books and the Apostolic Tradition. The Apostolic Tradition and the Holy Scriptures were declared as the two sources of revelation. The Vulgate was considered the accepted translation of the Bible.

V: Held on June 17, 1546. Decree on Original Sin.

VI: Celebrated on January 13, 1547. Decree of Justification in 16 chapters (the value of faith was reaffirmed along with that of good works). Canons on justification. This was the most important session of the first period.

VII: Celebrated on March 3, 1547. Canons on the sacraments in general. Canons on the sacrament of baptism. Canons on the sacrament of confirmation. Reform of pluralities, exemptions and legal issues of the clergy.

VIII: Held on March 11, 1547. The transfer to Bologna to escape the plague was accepted.

IX: Held on April 21, 1547 in Bologna. Extension of the session.

X: Held on June 2, 1547 in Bologna. Extension of the session.

Suspension of the Council by the Pope.

XI: Held on May 1, 1551. Continuation of the council.

XII: Held on September 1, 1551. Extension.

XIII: Held on October 11, 1551. Decree and canons on the sacrament of the Eucharist. Reform of the episcopal jurisdiction and the supervision of the bishops.

XIV: Celebrated on November 25, 1551. Doctrine and canons on the sacrament of penance and extreme unction.

XV: Held on January 25, 1552. No decisions are made.

XVI: Held on April 28, 1552.

Agreement to suspend the Council.

XVII: Held on January 18, 1562. Reopening of the council.

XVIII: Held on February 26, 1562. Need for a list of prohibited books.

XIX: Held on May 14, 1562. Extension.

XX: Held on June 4, 1562. Extension.

XXI: Celebrated on July 16, 1562. Doctrine and canons on communion under both species and the communion of infants. Reform of the ordination, the priesthood and the foundation of new parishes.

XXII: Celebrated on September 17, 1562. Doctrine about the most holy sacrifice of the Mass. The Eucharist was dogmatically defined as an authentic expiatory sacrifice in which the bread and wine were transformed into the authentic flesh and blood of Christ. Reform of the morality of the clergy, the administration of religious foundations and the requirements to assume ecclesiastical positions.

XXIII: Celebrated on July 15, 1563. Doctrine and canons on the sacrament of Holy Orders (ordination). ecclesiastical hierarchy. Residency obligation. Regulation of Seminars.

XXIV: Celebrated on November 11, 1563. Doctrine on the sacrament of marriage. The excellence of celibacy was reaffirmed. Reform of bishops and cardinals.

XXV: Held on December 3 and 4, 1563. Decree on purgatory. The existence of purgatory and the veneration of saints and relics are reaffirmed. Reform of the monastic orders. Suppression of concubinage in ecclesiastics. The task of drawing up a list of prohibited books, the elaboration of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and the Missal were left to the Pope. Of the Trinity and Incarnation (against the Unitarians). Tridentine profession of faith. Closing of the council.

Final comments

Although it failed to reunite Christianity, the Council of Trent brought about a profound catharsis for the Catholic Church.

It was convened in response to the Protestant Reformation to clarify various doctrinal points. He also abolished the local Eucharistic rites, respecting only those that were more than two centuries old (Mozarabic rite, Lyon rite, Ambrosian rite) and established the rite of the city of Rome known as the Tridentine Mass, as the rite of the entire Latin Church.. From a doctrinal point of view, it is one of the most important and influential councils in the history of the Catholic Church.

On the other hand, the reform of ecclesiastical administration and discipline was addressed. The council eliminated some actions, such as the misnamed "sale of indulgences" or the education of the clergy, and forced the bishops to reside in their bishoprics, thus avoiding the accumulation of positions.

Their decisions revolved around four main points:

1. Against the Protestants, who admitted as the only infallible authority the Scriptures, affirmed that tradition (the teachings received by the Apostles by oral means, and preserved through the centuries in the texts of the Apostolic Fathers, the Fathers of the desert and the Fathers of the Church, the uninterrupted petrine succession of the Primate of Rome and the Councils) constitutes, with the Scriptures, one of the foundations of the Bible.
2. He confirmed and defined the dogmas and practices rejected by Protestants (actual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, justification for faith and works, preservation of the seven sacraments, indulgences, veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints, etc.), sharply setting the border between orthodoxy and new heresies, consummating the clear differentiation between the Apostolic Church and the reforming movements that emerged.
3. It took measures to assure the Church a more moral and more educated clergy (prohibition of the marriage of priests, prohibition of accumulating benefits, obligation of residence for bishops and priests, creation of seminars for the formation of priests, etc.).
4. He fortified the hierarchy and, thus, Catholic unity, by vigorously affirming the supremacy of the Pope, "Universal Pastor of the whole Church" and, implicitly, his superiority over the councils.

He further taught that:

The Catholic doctrine, as explained by the Council of Trent, is that those who come out of life in grace and charity, but nevertheless debtors of the penalties that divine justice reserved, suffer them in the other life. This is what we intend to believe about souls detained in purgatory.

Art. "Purgatorio," in the Encyclopedic Dictionary Hisp.-Amer.

The Council teaches: a. That after the remission of guilt and eternal punishment, there remains a temporary penalty. b. That if it has not been satisfied in this life it must be satisfied in purgatory. c. That the prayers and good works of the living are useful to the dead to relieve and abbreviate their sorrows. d. That the sacrifice of the Mass is propitiatory and takes advantage of the living as well as the dead in purgatory.

Art. "Purgatorio," in the Dictionary of Ecclesiastical Sciences, by Perujo and angle (Barcelona, 1883-1890).