Transnistria
The Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, better known as Transnistria (from Moldovan/Romanian Transnistria; in Cyrillic script, Транснистриа), in some cases written as Transdniestria, Transdniestria or —under Russian influence— Pridnestrovia, called by its self-proclaimed government Dniester Moldavian Republic and internationally recognized as part of Moldova under the name Autonomous territorial unit with special legal status Transnistria, it is a state with limited recognition of Eastern Europe. It lies mainly between the Dniester River and Moldova's eastern border with Ukraine. It declared its independence in 1990, which generated the Transnistrian War until 1992. The Republic of Moldova does not recognize secession and considers the territories controlled by the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic as part of the Moldovan autonomous region of Stînga Nistrului (literally, "the shore left of the Dniester"), officially called the Autonomous Territorial Unit with a special legal status Transnistria.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, tensions between the Moldovan government and the authorities of the breakaway state of Transnistria culminated in the Transnistrian War, which ended in a ceasefire in July 1992. As part of that agreement, a joint tripartite control commission (Russia, Moldova and Transnistria) oversaw security measures in the demilitarized zone, comprising twenty towns on both sides of the river.
However, while the ceasefire has been maintained, the political status of Transnistria remains unresolved. Although not recognized internationally, Transnistria is de facto an independent state, organized as a presidential republic, with its own government, parliament, armed forces, police, postal system, and currency (the Transnistrian ruble). Its authorities also adopted a Constitution, flag, national anthem and a shield. Most Transnistrians are citizens of Moldovan nationality, but there are also many with Russian and Ukrainian citizenship.
Following a 2005 agreement between Moldova and Ukraine, all companies from Transnistria exporting goods across the Ukrainian border must be registered by the Moldovan authorities. This agreement was implemented after the border assistance mission of Moldova the European Union in Moldova and Ukraine (EUBAM) began its activity in 2005.
The situation in Transnistria is often described as a post-Soviet conflict frozen by Artsakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The last two have recognized Transnistria as an independent state and have established diplomatic relations with it in exchange for its recognition through the Community for Democracy and the Rights of Nations.
On June 22, 2018, the UN General Assembly approved Resolution A/RES/72/282, where it “urges the Russian Federation to complete, unconditionally and without further delay, the orderly withdrawal of the Operational Group of the Russian Forces and their armaments from the territory of the Republic of Moldova". Russia maintains in Transnistria a group of 1,700 soldiers and an Operational Group of the Russian Army that controls the arsenals that arrived after the disintegration of the socialist bloc. The Kremlin recognizes that Transnistria belongs to Moldova, but does not withdraw its army to preserve its influence in the area.
On March 15, 2022, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution recognizing the Transnistrian region as "Russian-occupied territory of Moldova".
History
In the Early Middle Ages the region was populated by the Slavic tribes of the Uliches and Tivers, as well as Turkic nomads such as the Pechenegs and Cumans. It was part of Kievan Rus' at various times and an integral part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century. The area came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in 1504 and almost three centuries later, in 1792, it was ceded to the Russian Empire. At that time the population was composed mainly of Moldovan-Romanians and Slavs, and there was also a Tatar nomadic population.
The end of the 18th century marked the Russian and Ukrainian colonization of the region, with the intention of defending what was then the southwestern border of the Russian Empire.
The Transnistrian War
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In 1989 the Government of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic proclaimed Moldovan as the country's official language and began negotiations for reunification with Romania. The Slavs on the east bank of the Dniester River proclaimed the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic (PMR) on September 2, 1990, and the Transnistrian War broke out. The war ended after a ceasefire negotiated by Moldovan, Transnistrian, Russian and Ukrainian representatives, with approximately 1,500 deaths.
Apart from the ceasefire agreement, the presence of the Russian 14th Army in the area was made official. The Moldovans consider it a non-neutral element, if not hostile. However, the Moldovan government has no control over the region. Although an agreement was reached with Moldova for the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transnistria in 1994, it has not yet been ratified by the Russian State Duma.
Crisis of 2004
The authorities closed some schools that used the Moldavian language in Latin scripts, and several teachers and parents who protested the measure were detained. The Moldovan government decided to create a blockade to marginalize the rebel area from the rest of the country. Transnistria responded with a series of acts aimed at destabilizing the economic situation in Moldova: with most power plants being built in Transnistria during Soviet times, the crisis led to power outages in various areas of Moldova. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) negotiated a solution.
Last years
The OSCE is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement. Under his auspices, on May 8, 1997, Moldovan President Petru Lucinschi and Transdniestrian President Igor Smirnov signed the "Memorandum on the principles of normalization of relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transdniestria", also known as the Primakov Memorandum, where the establishment of legal and state relations is sustained, although the provisions of the memorandum were interpreted differently by both governments.
In November 2003 Dmitri Kozak, adviser to Russian President Vladimir Putin, proposed a memorandum on the creation of an asymmetric federal state of Moldova, in which Moldova would have more power than Transnistria. Known as the Kozak Memorandum, it disagreed with the position of Transnistria, which sought a level playing field; but, by giving him veto powers over future constitutional changes, he encouraged Transnistria to sign it. Lucinschi's successor as President of Moldova, Vladimir Voronin, initially supported the plan, but refused to sign it after internal opposition and international pressure from the OSCE and the United States, and after Russia backed the demand. of Transnistria to maintain a Russian military presence for the next twenty years as a guarantee for the envisioned federation.
Talks began in 2006 to address the issues, with no results for many years. In February 2011, the so-called “5+2 Talks” (so called because they consisted of representatives from Transnistria, Moldova, Ukraine, Russia, and the OSCE, plus the United States and the European Union as external observers) resumed in Vienna. Following the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, the then head of the Transnistrian Parliament asked to join the Russian Federation, but this was also not carried out.
Government and politics
Transnistria has a multi-party system with a unicameral parliament called the Supreme Council, made up of 43 members elected by proportional representation. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.
Igor Smirnov, a former official of the Moldavian SSR, was the head of state from 1991 to 2011. In the elections held on 10
In December 2006, he obtained 82.4% of the votes. Some international observers who participated in the contest declared that the elections were free and democratic.
The main political parties are the conservative República and the liberal-conservative Renovación, both pro-independence parties. Other opposition forces included the Transnistrian Communist Party (effectively dissolved in 2013), affiliated with the Russian Communist Party of the Soviet Union created in 2001, and the Transnistrian Communist Party, a local successor to the former CPSU.
Despite continuing to use Soviet symbols, such as the hammer and sickle on the flag and national emblem, the government claims not to be communist, emphasizing that the two main political parties are favorable to the development of a market economy with the participation of private companies.
Yevgueni Shevchuk was head of state until 2016, after having obtained 38.5% of the votes in the first round of the elections held on December 11, 2011 and 73.8% of the votes in the second round on December 25. The current head of state is Vadim Krasnoselski, who was elected in the 2021 elections with 87.04% of the vote.
Political Status
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Transnistria is internationally recognized as a part of the Republic of Moldova, although in practice it is controlled by its own government, which declared independence in 1990. Only the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of South Ossetia and the Republic of Artsakh (three states without majority recognition within the international community) recognize the independence of Transnistria.
Between 300,000 and 400,000 citizens (the majority of the population) held Moldovan passports in 2007, as no state recognizes documentation issued by the Transnistrian authorities. Russia has opened a consulate in Tiraspol, against the will of Moldova.
In 2006, the Transnistrian Parliament called a referendum. This was held on December 17, 2006 as a double referendum on the possibility of renouncing independence and integration with Moldova or, as an alternative, independence and a future integration into the Russian Federation - taking the situation in Crimea as an example. —. With a 78.55% turnout (394,861 voters), regarding the first question, “No” won with 96.61% of votes, while that in the second the "Yes" vote was imposed with 98.07%. The Moldovan authorities have not ruled on the fact; the Russians prefer not to rush the issues to be discussed, but insist that if Moldova loses its autonomy, they would enter to recognize the requested annexation.
On June 22, 2018, the UN General Assembly approved Resolution A/RES/72/282, urging “the Russian Federation to complete, unconditionally and without further delay, the ordered withdrawal of the Operational Group of the Russian Forces and its armaments from the territory of the Republic of Moldova".
Independence debate
All major Transnistrian political parties, including opposition parties, support Transnistrian independence or accession to Russia; there is no significant political movement calling for reunification with Moldova. Almost the entire political landscape of Transnistria is characterized by its pro-Russian attitudes.
A 2010 study by the University of Colorado at Boulder revealed that, in fact, a large majority of the population of Transnistria opposes reunification with Moldova. Even among ethnic Moldovans, the proportion in favor of reunification reunification is only around 25%; among all other population groups, this proportion is around 10%. Among the population, regardless of ethnicity, a separate Transnistrian identity is increasingly emerging, which is especially entrenched among the younger generation.
The question of whether Transnistria should continue as a separate state in the long term or join Russia is more contentious. About 50% of the population consider joining the Russian Federation the best option, while about a third prefer full independence. Less than 15% of the population would like to return to Moldova.
Deutsche Welle's Romanian-language program reported in 2014 that the reintegration of Transnistria played an increasingly secondary role in Moldovan politics, and that Transnistria had been all but forgotten by politicians in Chișinău. Moldovan political scientist Aurelian Lavric went so far as to suggest in late November 2014 that the then-EU pro-Moldovan government had no interest in reintegrating "500,000 potentially pro-Russian voters" from Transnistria. In Moldova, the pro-EU parties had only a slim majority, so a regular reintegration of Transnistria into Moldova could easily and permanently shift the balance of political power in Moldova towards a pro-Russian majority. The Moldovan government by that time it seemed he was not interested in reintegrating Transnistria into Moldova.
Human Rights
The human rights situation in the region has been criticized by several governments and international organizations. Some religious communities, such as Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses and Methodists, are denied official registration. In their report For 2016, the American non-governmental organization Freedom House classified Transnistria as a "non-free" territory.
According to the 2006 report presented by the US Department of State: «The right of citizens to change their government has been restricted; the authorities apply torture, promote illegal arrests and detentions, in addition to limiting freedom of expression, freedom of the press and preventing the registration of minority religious groups”. In addition, it adds that "the region is an area conducive to human trafficking", noting that "homosexuality is illegal, and gays and lesbians are subject to governmental and social discrimination".
A 2005 OSCE report describes the general media information climate in Transnistria as quite pro-government and restrictive, but notes the existence of several independent print publications and the relatively free-information trade union newspaper. Threats to journalists are exceptional cases; one case is mentioned during the reporting period.
In 2004, six schools with Romanian as the language of instruction were closed. The official reason was the expiration of the temporary teaching license of these schools. Following negotiations with the Transnistrian government, the schools were licensed and allowed to start teaching at the beginning of the school year.
The human rights situation has improved markedly in the 2010s. In 2012, Thomas Hammarberg, a Council of Europe envoy, traveled to Transnistria for the first time to investigate the situation in the country. The results of the report were published in early 2013. Hammarberg attested to the openness and interest in respect for human rights of the Transnistrian government in office since 2011. However, he also noted the many problems that still exist, some of them serious, and the widespread corruption. However, Hammarberg noted that Transnistria's lack of international recognition clearly complicates the situation.
Trafficking of nuclear material
Transnistria is considered a strategic enclave for the smuggling of radioactive material (much of it coming from the former Soviet Union) due to its special character. As it is a territory with disputed sovereignty, some claim that the Transnistrian authorities could not be brought to trial before an international court without recognizing, de iure, the sovereignty of the region.
In 2005 the British newspaper The Times revealed the alleged sale of Alazan missiles with nuclear warheads for a price of US$500,000, by the hand of an arms dealer from the Tighina region, de facto part of Transnistria. The reporters initially posed as an Algerian group and broke the story in May of that same year.
Transnistria and the Republics of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno-Karabakh recognize each other. In June 2011, the Moldovan authorities arrested several people associated with a criminal group that negotiated the smuggling of radioactive material and operated in territories of the former Soviet Union and in Arab countries. The detainees, six of them of Moldovan nationality, a Russian and a Transnistrian resident, were negotiating the shipment of radioactive material with an undercover security agent posing as a North African buyer. Moldovan officer Vitalie Briceag claimed for his part that the smugglers had claimed to be able to carry out a shipment of one kilogram of uranium.
In May 2014, the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) announced the arrest of nine people who were trying to smuggle 1.5 kg of Uranium-235 into the country through Transnistria. Of the nine people, eight were Ukrainian citizens and one of them was a Russian national.
Foreign Relations
Transnistria is currently recognized by two partially recognized states and one unrecognized state, and is a member of an international organization for Democracy and Peoples' Rights, founded by four states: Abkhazia, Nagorno Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria.
The Russian Federation maintains a consulate in Transnistria, but has not recognized it as an independent state. During a visit to kyiv, then-Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared himself in favor of a "special status" for Transnistria and recognized the "important and stabilizing" of the Russian army.
In 1924, the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Until 1940, the territory that is now Transnistria was part of the Ukrainian SSR. Relations between Transnistria and Ukraine have changed several times depending on the foreign policy orientation of the kyiv government. Until 2014, Ukraine claimed to be "Transnistria's main window to the outside world". Currently, about 29% of Transnistria's population is ethnic Ukrainian.
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During the dissolution of the Soviet Union, political tensions in the Moldovan SSR led to Transnistria's declaration of independence from Moldova, culminating in the 1991-1992 Transnistrian War. As part of the signed ceasefire agreement that ended the war, the Joint Control Commission, made up of Moldovans, Transdniestrians and Russians, was created to oversee the demilitarized zone in the Transdniestrian region. The Mixed Control Commission continues to monitor the area and negotiations continue between Russia, Ukraine, the United States, the European Union and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) to resolve the conflict.
During the administration of Transnistrian President Igor Smirnov (1991-2011), maintaining special relations with Russia was a priority for the country. Russia participates in the "5+2" for the negotiations on the resolution of the Transnistrian conflict, established during the government of Igor Smirnov.
In the 1990s, several Romanian governments supported the idea of unification with Moldova. Many of these proposals did not include the territory of Transnistria. During the 1992 Transnistrian War, Romania provided military support to Moldova against Transnistria.
The official US position on Transnistria is that it supports a peaceful resolution to the Transnistrian conflict, which it views as 'separatist'. The United States supports the territorial integrity of Moldova and considers the democratic and economic development of the Moldovan state important and advocates a credible and sustainable negotiated solution to the Transnistrian conflict. This will contribute to the democratic and economic development of Moldova, as well as to the security of the Black Sea region. The United States calls on the parties, with the help of the international community, to intensify their efforts to find a sustainable and peaceful solution to the conflict.
Disarmament and Arms Control
Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Russian 14th Army left 40,000 tons of weapons and ammunition in Transnistria. In later years it was feared that the Transnistrian authorities would try to sell these stocks internationally, and intense pressure was put on Russia to remove them.
In 2000 and 2001, Russia withdrew by rail 141 pieces of self-propelled artillery and other armored vehicles, and locally destroyed 108 T-64 tanks and 139 other pieces of military equipment limited by the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFACE).. During 2002 and 2003, the Russian military destroyed an additional 51 armored vehicles, all of types not limited by the CFE Treaty. The OSCE also observed and verified the removal of 48 trains containing military equipment and ammunition in 2003. However, no further removal activities have taken place since March 2004 and another 20,000 tonnes of ammunition remain to be removed, as well as some remnants of military equipment.
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In autumn 2006, the Transnistrian leadership agreed to have the munitions examined by an OSCE inspector and further access was agreed upon.
Recent weapons inspections were permitted by Transnistria and conducted by the OSCE. The responsibility for withdrawing the rest of the supplies falls to Russia.
The Transnistrian authorities have stated that they are not involved in the manufacture or export of weapons. OSCE and European Union officials stated in 2005 that there is no evidence that Transnistria "has ever trafficked in weapons or nuclear material" and that much of the alarm is due to attempts by the Moldovan government to put pressure on Transnistria.
In 2007, foreign experts working on behalf of the United Nations claimed that historically low levels of transparency and the continued denial of full investigations to international observers have reinforced negative perceptions of the Transnistrian government, although recent cooperation from the Transnistrian authorities may have reflected a change in attitude in Transnistria. Their report states that evidence of illicit arms production and trafficking to and from Transnistria has been exaggerated in the past, although it is likely that arms trafficking light weapons were produced before 2001 (the last year for which export data showed $900,000 worth of "arms, ammunition, their parts and accessories" exported from Transnistria). The report also claims that the same is true of the production of such weapons, which probably took place in the 1990s, mainly to equip Transnistrian forces.
OSCE mission spokesman Claus Neukirch commented on this situation: "There is often talk of arms sales from Transnistria, but there is no convincing evidence".
In 2010, Viktor Kryzhanivsky, Ukraine's special envoy for Transnistria, stated that at that time there was no arms or drug trafficking through the Transnistria section of the Ukraine-Moldova border.
Corruption accusations
Both organized crime and corruption are very present in Transnistria according to various sources, so that the country was even described in a report by Dirk Schümer as a "small mafia state by the grace of Putin" Especially the government around former President Smirnov was suspected of embezzling state funds.
An official 2002 European Parliament report described Transnistria as a "black hole where arms and people are illegally traded and money laundered". In Moldova's assessment, smuggling is done through the railway on the ukrainian border. In turn, there are also numerous reports, including those from the EU and the OSCE, which assess as exaggerated the rumors of smuggling and human trafficking from Transnistria. OSCE Chairman Leonid Kozhara stated in an interview with the daily Spanish El País in 2013 that "they have not been able to detect a single case of arms smuggling through Transnistria in recent years". Instead, millions of dollars in taxes are now evaded through smuggling, such as falsely declared food products, as stated by Claus Neukirch as Deputy Head of Mission and spokesman for the OSCE Mission in the Republic of Moldova in 2008.
Defense
According to 2009 OSCE estimates, the Transnistrian military is between 4,000 and 4,500 regular strong, with 18 main battle tanks, a significant number of multiple rocket launchers, and several combat zone and transport helicopters. According to its own figures, the army has a strength of 15,000 men and some older Mi-2 and Mi-8 helicopters. A conscription system exists, but Transnistria can also draw on additional Cossack and volunteer corps. Some estimates suggest that a total of up to 120,000 troops could be mobilized (based on 2009 data).
Because of its alliance with Russia, there are 380 soldiers from the International Peacekeeping Force, but also more than 1,000 members of the former 14th Guards Army, who are still stationed in Transnistria. According to independent estimates, 20,000 tons of Russian military hardware was still stored in Transnistria in 2013, and 22,000 tons were removed in 2004. Moldova demands its complete removal.
In early March 2022, the Transnistrian government declared that it would not make its troops available for the Russian attack on Ukraine, a spokesperson for the Ukrainian military confirmed.
Geography
Transnistria is landlocked, but is bordered by Bessarabia (meaning the rest of Moldova) to the west (411 km) and Ukraine to the east (405 km). It is a narrow valley running in a north-south direction along the bank of the Dniester River, which forms a natural border along most of the adjoining (rest of) Moldova. Tiraspol, the capital and largest city of Transnistria, has around 160,000 inhabitants.
The territory controlled by Transnistria is mostly (but not entirely) coincident with the left (eastern) bank of the Dniester River. It includes 10 cities and towns and 69 communes, with a total of 147 localities (without that legal form defined as such). Six municipalities on the left bank (Cocieri, Molovata Noua, Corjova, Pirita, Coșnița and Doroțcaia) remained under the control of the Government of Moldova after the Transnistrian war in 1992, as part of the Dubăsari district. They are located north and south of the city of Dubăsari, which itself is under Transnistrian control. The village of Roghi de Molovata Noua is also controlled by Tiráspol (Moldova controls the other nine out of the ten villages in the six municipalities).
On the west bank, the city of Bender and four communes (containing a total of six villages) to the east, southeast and south, on the opposite bank of the Dniester River from the city of Tiraspol (Proteagailovca, Gisca, Chițcani and Cremenciug), are controlled by the Transnistrian authorities.
Administrative division
Transnistria is divided into five raions (departments or districts):
- Caucasian (in Russian): Каменка, romanization Kámenka);
- Dubăsari (in Russian: ., romanization Dubossáry);
- Grigoriópol (in Russian): Григориополь, romanization Grigoriópol'), capital Grigoriópol;
- Rîbnița (in Russian: Рыбница, romanization Rýbnitsa), capital Rîbnița;
- Slobozia (in Russian): Слободзея, romanization Slobodzéya), capital Slobozia.
And a municipality:
- Tiráspol (in Russian: Тирасполь, romanization Tiráspol').
In addition, Bender (Russian: Бендеры, romanization Bendéry) or Tighina, located on the west bank of the Dniester (in Bessarabia), geographically outside of Transnistria, it is not officially part of the territory of Transnistria – as defined by the central authorities – but is controlled de facto by the Transnistrian government, which considers it part of its administrative organization.
Geology
Geologically, the territory of Transnistria is located on the southwestern slope of the Eastern European Platform. It is complicated by second-order tectonic structures: the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield, the Moldavian Plate, the South Ukrainian Monocline, as well as various third-order and higher structures.
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The subsoil of the Eastern European Platform is composed of crystalline rocks from the Archean-Proterozoic. It dips gently to the southwest, from degree zero in northern Transnistria to −1,400 m in the south, and is complicated by a series of major faults, both old and younger. The modern tectonic activity of the region is confirmed by the seismicity of 6-7 points and the modern uplift of the earth's crust with an amplitude of up to +2 mm/yr and the lowering of the lower Dniester zone at 2 mm/yr in the southern end (80).
The surface of the republic is made up of a mountainous plain, interrupted by river valleys. Its average altitude is 140 m s. no. m. (meters above sea level).
Relief
The formation of the relief occurred in the middle Pliocene, as a result of intense positive epierogenous movements, when the left bank began to clear from the Pontic Sea and the Dniester began to deepen its channel. The oldest relief element is an undulating plateau of great height (up to 274 m), formed by sand and clay deposits of the Baltic Formation, up to 100 m thick, which contributes to the dissection of the territory and the appearance of landslides.. The Dniester estuary is one of the youngest landforms on the left bank of the Dniester basin, ranging in width from a few meters in the north to 10 km or more in the south. The Lower Dniester floodplain is largely covered and therefore not inundated by spring and summer floods.
Mean height on the left bank ranges from 156 m in Camenca and 112.5 m in Dubasari districts to 53 m in Slobozia and 10-12 m in the Lower Dniester floodplain.
Climate
The climate is moderately continental. Winters are mild and short and summers are hot and long. Average temperature in January −4 °C, July +23 °C. Absolute minimum −36 °C, maximum +42 °C. Average annual rainfall ranges from 380 to 550 mm.
The mean annual amount of total solar radiation increases from north to south from 108 to 118 kcal/cm2. The radiation balance changes in the same direction: from 46 to 53 cal/cm2, the duration of insolation during a year goes from 2060 to 2300 hours, and the warm period of a year goes from 260 to 290 days. The frost-free period is not stable and varies between 167 and 227 days a year. The average annual air temperature is +8.3 °C in the north and +9.7 °C in the south of the region. The average annual sum of positive temperatures reaches 3500-3700 °С, and active ones (above +10 °С) −3200-3300 °С.
The main characteristics of the region's climate are determined by the predominance of air masses coming from the Atlantic Ocean. Occasionally cold air is observed from the northern latitudes, warm and humid air from the Mediterranean Sea and dry air from the Asian part of the continent. The circulation of air masses is seasonal and produces clear (90-150 days a year) and cloudy (50-80 days a year) weather.
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Winters in the region are warm and humid. Cold days are usually replaced by thaws and days without frost. This is due to the penetration of warm and humid air masses from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, causing an increase in average daily temperatures above +5 °C. Cloudy weather prevails and covered with precipitation in the form of rain and snow. The snow cover is sparse and unstable. Snowfall and icy ice do occur, but are infrequent. The average monthly temperature in January was −4 °C, with possible frosts down to −33 °C.
Spring is characterized by considerable weather variability. Sudden changes between warming and cooling, rainy and dry periods are not uncommon. At the end of March there is a constant transition from +5 °C to +10 °C in the second decade of April. However, the possibility of frost remains even in May.
Summers are sunny, hot, and dry. Summer rainfall is mostly of a torrential nature, sometimes accompanied by strong winds and hail. High temperatures are stable. The average temperature in July is +21-+22 °С, the maximum reaches +40 °С. Dry winds are frequent (up to 36-38 cases per year in the south), sometimes causing black storms.
Autumn in Transnistria is warm and long. The average daily air temperature drops below +10 °С in October, and below +5 °С at the end of the first half of November. The first frosts sometimes occur at the end of September, more often in mid-October.
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Hydrography
The main river in the region is the Dniester, which is 425 km long within Transnistria. The average annual flow in the city of Bendery is about 310 m3/s.
The smallest rivers in the region, the Camenca (0.77 m3/s of mean annual flow), the Belochi (0.55 m3/ s), the Molokish (0.25 m3/s), the Rybnitsa (0.11 m3/s) and the Iahorlyk (0.76 m3/sec) are all tributaries of the Dniester.
The construction of the dam of the Dubasari hydroelectric power station led to the formation of a reservoir, which became operational in 1954. It is located on the stretch of the Dniester between the cities of Camenca and Dubossary. With a normal containment horizon, its length is about 128 km, its average width is 528 m, and its water surface is 67.5 km2. The total storage capacity of the reservoir has been reduced in recent years, due to silting, from 485.5 to 266 million cubic meters.
The Kuchurgan Reservoir, bordering Ukraine, is used by the Moldavskaya Thermal Power Plant for its technological needs. Currently, its length is 20 km, the width of the dam is 3 km, the water surface is 27.2 km2, the volume is 88 million cubic meters.
On the territory of the region there are 12 explored deposits of underground mineral waters with a flow of up to 22,000 cubic meters per day.
Floors
The current systematic list of soils in the region includes the following soil types and subtypes: black earth, alluvial prairie soils, dealluvial-chernozem (reclaimed) prairie soils, turf-carbonate soils, steppe solonets, of dark gray forest. The dominant soil type in the region is black, which covers more than 90% of the land.
Flora and fauna
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Natural vegetation covers a negligible area. Cropland makes up 90% of the territory, forests are preserved in the form of separate massifs, the total area is 31,100 hectares (8%). Zonal forest vegetation types are represented by broad-leaved forests of the middle European type. The most widespread species is the English oak. The State protects 49 rare and endangered plant species. Medicinal plants are found in all natural areas of Transnistria.
The animal world, despite the relatively small area of the territory, is quite diverse, with more than 12,000 species of invertebrate and vertebrate animals. On the territory of Transnistria, the fauna is closely interconnected with the vegetation and inhabited biotopes and comprises five major faunal complexes: woodland-woodland, open landscapes, rocky slopes, ravines and cliffs, wetlands, and populated areas. The only reserve in Transdniestria It's Iagorlic's.
Demographics
According to the 1989 census, the population was 679,000, including all towns in the security zone, including those under Moldovan control. According to the 2004 census, the population was 555,347, excluding areas under Moldovan control.
In total, in the areas controlled by the Government of Transnistria there were 555,347 people, including 177,785 Moldovans (32.10%), 168,678 Russians (30.35%), 160,069 Ukrainians (28.81%), 13,858 Bulgarians (2.50%), 4,096 Gagauz (0.74%), 1,791 Poles (0.32%), 1,259 Jews (0.23%), 507 Gypsies (0.09%) and 27,454 from other ethnic groups (4.94%). Of these, 439,243 lived in Transnistria and 116,104 lived in localities controlled by the Transnistrian Government, but formally belonging to other districts of Moldova: the city of Bender (Tighina), the communes of Proteagailovca, Gîsca, Chițcani, Cremenciug and the town of Roghi of the commune Molovata Nouă.
Moldovans are the largest ethnic group, representing an absolute majority in the two districts of central Transnistria—Dubăsari district (50.15%) and Grigoriopol district (64.83%)—a relative majority of 47 82% to the north in the district of Cámenca and 41.52% in the district of Slobozia to the south. In the Rîbnița district they were a minority of 29.90%, and in the city of Tiráspol they were a minority of 15.24% of the population.
Russians were the second largest ethnic group, representing a relative majority of 41.64% in the city of Tiráspol, a minority of 24.07% in Slobozia, 19.03% in Dubăsari, 17.22% in Rîbnița, 15% 28% in Grigoriopol and 6.89% in Camenca. Ukrainians were the third largest ethnic group, represented by a relative majority of 45.41% in Rîbnița district, 42.55% in Camenca, 32.97% in Tiráspol, 28.29% in Dubăsari, 23.42% in Slobozia and 17.36 % in Grigoriopol.
Bulgars were the fourth largest ethnic group in Transnistria, although far fewer in number than the three largest ethnic groups. Most Bulgarians in Transnistria are Bessarabian Bulgars, descendants of expatriates who settled in Bessarabia in the 18th and XIX. The main center of Bulgarians in Transnistria is the large village of Parcani, which had an absolute majority of Bulgarians and a total population of around 10,000 Bulgarians.
In Bender (Tighina) and the other localities not under the control of the separatist government, ethnic Russians represented the relative majority of 43.43%, followed by Moldovans at 26.15%, Ukrainians at 17.08 %, Bulgarians with 2.89%, Gagauz with 1.03%, Jews with 0.34%, Poles with 0.17%, Gypsies with 0.13% and other groups with 7.78%.
About 62% of Transnistria's population belongs to some ethnic Slavic group.
Religion
Official statistics show that 91% of Transnistria's population professes Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with a further 4% belonging to Catholicism. Catholics are found mainly in northern Transnistria, where a notable Polish minority lives. The Catholics of Transnistria all belong to the diocese of Chisinau, but are grouped in a "deanery of Transnistria" separate. In Ribnitsa, the underground Catholic community gained official recognition in 1990 (still under Gorbachev) and was granted land on which the parish church of St. Joseph was built. Due to the strong Russification of the originally Polish Catholics, the liturgical oddity there is that the Latin liturgy is celebrated in Russian. In Rashkov, the magnificent Baroque church donated in 1749 by the Polish magnate Josef Lubomirski was renovated with Polish aid money In total, there are six Catholic parishes in Transnistria.
Transnistrian Baptist Protestants are united in 25 local congregations with about 4,000 members. They form one of the nine regional unions of the Union of Evangelical Baptist Christian Churches of Moldova (and Transnistria).
The Transnistrian Jewish community played an important role in the past. Jews were especially strong in the cities of Bendery and Tiraspol, where they sometimes made up more than a third of the population. Transnistrian Jews were largely killed in the Holocaust during the German-Romanian occupation in World War II. Most of the remaining Jews emigrated after the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the 2004 Transnistrian census, 1,259 people were still declaring their origin 'Jewish', corresponding to 0.23% of the total population. There are still four active synagogues in the country.
The Jewish Organization of Moldova and Transnistria estimates that about 1,900 Jews live in and around Tiraspol alone and another 400 in Rybnitsa. Many buildings formerly used as synagogues, Jewish hospitals, religious shops, or Jewish schools have survived the war, but are used for other purposes or are in disrepair.
The local government has supported the restoration and construction of new Orthodox churches. It affirms that the Republic has freedom of worship and that religious beliefs and 114 congregations are officially registered. However, in 2005, alleged registration obstacles were raised for some religious groups, particularly Jehovah's Witnesses. In 2007, the American Christian Broadcasting Network denounced the persecution of Protestants in Transnistria.
Languages
- The only official languages are Moldovan language or Romanian language, Russian language and Ukrainian language.
- The only difference between Moldovan and Romanian is the alphabet they use: the Moldovan cyrillic alphabet and the Romanian Latin alphabet.
According to the Constitution of Transnistria, there are three official languages, which at least de jure have equal rights: Russian, Ukrainian and Moldovan.
In everyday life, Russian is by far the most widely spoken language and clearly dominates public life, the media sector and politics. The dominance of Russian is also aided by its status as a language of regional importance and the consequent large supply of media such as movies, books and Internet offers from abroad, especially from Russia. Being the only one of the three official languages, Russian is also almost universally spoken and understood by all population groups; in ethnically mixed areas, therefore, it automatically serves as the lingua franca.
However, there are schools in all three official languages, and Perwy Pridnestrowski state television also broadcasts programs in Ukrainian and Moldovan. In Transnistrian schools, in addition to Russian, at least one other official language of the country must be learned, that is, Moldovan or Ukrainian. While in the big cities of Transnistria, Russian is mainly heard in everyday life, Ukrainian and Moldovan/Romanian are widely spoken in the countryside. Official documents and official conversations can also be requested in all three languages, although in practice this often fails due to officials' lack of language skills.
Moldovan is identical to Romanian, except for some borrowings from Russian, but it is written with Cyrillic letters. Until 1989, Moldovan was the name of the official language in all of Moldova and it was also written in it with Cyrillic letters. In 1989 it was finally decided to return to the Latin alphabet, but this was boycotted in Transnistria. The name "Moldovan language" it was initially also kept in Moldavia; only since 2013 the official language of that country has been officially designated as Romanian. However, Transnistria insists on using the Cyrillic alphabet and the Moldovan naming. As the language in Transnistria is written only in Cyrillic, there is only a small supply of media in Moldovan Cyrillic, including the state newspaper Adevărul Nistrean.
The dominance of Russian is also evident in the education system. According to a 2009 report by the Moldovan political science institute Institutul de Politici Publice, Russian is the only language of instruction in 70.3% of schools in Transnistria. 17.4% of schools are exclusively Moldovan language (Romanian in Cyrillic script), 8.4% are Moldovan-Russian bilingual, 3.1% of schools teach in Romanian (in Latin script) and 1 % remaining in Ukrainian.
Thus, in 28.9% of schools, teaching is fully or partially taught in Romanian or Moldovan, which is slightly lower than the percentage of Moldovans in the population of Transnistria (31.9%). The six schools that teach classes in Romanian and the Latin alphabet repeatedly come into conflict with the Transnistrian authorities. They are run and partly funded by the Moldovan Ministry of Education, and their teaching staff are often critical of Transnistria. In some cases, attempts were made to place schools under Transnistrian administration, force the use of the Cyrillic alphabet, or prevent ceremonies that were considered "provocative," such as the singing of the Moldovan national anthem. It came to a head in 2004, when the Transnistrian Minister of Education, Yelena Bomeshko, forcibly closed four of the six Romanian-language schools and suggested that affected parents send their children to Moldovan Cyrillic schools. Following harsh criticism from Moldova and international organizations such as the OSCE, the decision was reversed and schools were reopened.
Only 1% of schools in Transnistria teach in Ukrainian. Russian is still considered the language with the highest social prestige; furthermore, throughout the 20th century, large sections of Transnistrian Ukrainians assimilated linguistically by becoming Russian-speaking and therefore also prefer Russian-language schools for their children. Ukrainian is also the weakest official language of Transnistria in other areas. Street signs, for example, are rarely trilingual, but mostly bilingual (Russian and Moldovan). This weak position of Ukraine is due to the region's history: Unlike the other two official languages, Ukrainian did not achieve this status until 1990 with the de facto independence of Transnistria. Until then, the language had no official status, there were no Ukrainian-language schools and no signs with Ukrainian inscriptions. In contrast, Moldavian and Russian were already anchored in the school system at the time of the Soviet Union. Ukrainian was then a language used exclusively in private and informal settings, so the status of the language has improved since 1990. In the northern rural areas there are many villages inhabited mainly by Ukrainians, where Ukrainian is the everyday language. Surshyk, a hybrid of Ukrainian and Russian, is also widespread. Transnistria publishes the state newspaper "Homin" in ukrainian.
Education
Romanian-language public education in Transnistria is done using the Soviet-created Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet. The use of the Latin script was restricted to only six schools. Four of these schools were forcibly closed by local authorities, who claimed this was due to the schools' refusal to apply for official recognition. These schools were later registered as private schools and reopened. This process may have been accelerated by pressure from the European Union.
The OSCE mission in Moldova has urged local authorities in the Transnistrian city of Rîbnița to return a confiscated building to the city's Moldovan Latin writing school. The unfinished building was nearing completion in 2004, when it seized control of Transnistria during that year's school crisis.
In November 2005 Ion Iovcev, director of a Romanian-language school in Transnistria and an active defender of human rights, as well as a critic of Transnistria's leadership, received threatening calls which he attributed to his criticism of the separatist regime.
In August 2021, the Transnistrian government refused to register the Lucian Blaga Theoretical High School in Tiraspol and forced it to cease its activities for three months, which affected the school year of the school's students and constitutes a violation of various articles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Economy
Transnistria's economy is mixed. During the 1990s a process of privatization of the companies was carried out. The economy is based on heavy industry, electricity production and textile manufacturing. These three sectors add up to 80% of the total industrial production. The GNP stood at over 420 million dollars in 2005, according to own sources.
After World War II, Transnistria became heavily industrialized, to the point that, by 1990, it was responsible for 40% of Moldova's GDP and 90% of its electricity, although it had only 17% of its power. the people of Moldova. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Transnistria wanted to return to a 'Brezhnev-style planned economy', but several years later decided to turn to a market economy.
On November 11, 2014, the Russian and Transnistrian governments signed a memorandum of cooperation in the development of the financial sector. A memorandum of cooperation was also signed between the Ministry of Telecommunications of Russia and the State Information and Communication Service of Transnistria in the field of information technology.
Currency
The currency used is the Transnistrian Ruble (TRR), available in metal coins and banknotes. Plastic coins are also used.
Some ATMs cannot be used with foreign bank cards. Likewise, card payments in shops are usually restricted to local holders. It is possible to withdraw Transnistrian rubles, euros or dollars at most of the newly installed ATMs, especially in the capital.
The Transnistrian Republican Bank is responsible for issuing the local currency, the Transnistrian ruble, which is convertible on a floating exchange rate.
Macroeconomics
According to the government of Transnistria, GDP for 2007 was 6,789 million rubles (about $799 million) and GDP per capita was about $1,500. The GDP increased by 11.1% and the inflation rate was 19.3%, with the GDP per capita being $2,140, higher than the GDP per capita of Moldova, which is $2,040. The Transnistrian government budget for 2007 it was $246 million, with an estimated shortfall of about $100 million that the government planned to cover with revenue from privatizations. The budget for 2008 is $331 million, with an estimated shortfall of about $80 million.
In 2004, Transnistria had a debt of US$1.2 billion (two-thirds is with Russia) which was about six times greater per capita than Moldova (excluding Transnistria). As of March 2007, the debt to Gazprom for natural gas procurement increased to $1.3 billion. On March 22, 2007, Gazprom sold Transnistria's gas debt to Russian businessman Alisher Usmanov, who controls Moldova Steel Works, Transnistria's largest company. Transnistria's President Igor Smirnov has announced that Transnistria will not pay its gas debt because "Transnistria has no legal debt to Gazprom". As of November 2007, Transnistria's total public sector debt amounted to 1.64 billion dollars.
According to a 2007 interview with Yevgeny Shevchuk, then president of the Supreme Council of Transnistria, this country was in a difficult economic situation that year. Despite the 30% tax increase in 2007, the pension fund is still short of money and emergency measures needed to be taken. However, Shevchuk mentioned that the situation was not hopeless and could not be considered a crisis, as a crisis means delays of three months in the payment of pensions and salaries.
Foreign trade
In 2020, Transnistrian customs declared exports of $633.1 million and imports of $1,052.7 million. In the early 2000s, more than 50% of exports went to the CIS, mainly Russia, but also Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova (which the Transnistrian authorities consider foreign). The main non-CIS markets for Transnistrian products were Italy, Egypt, Greece, Romania and Germany. The CIS accounted for more than 60% of imports, while the EU's share was about 23%. The main imports were non-precious metals, food products and electricity.
After Moldova signed the Association Agreement with the EU in 2014, Transnistria - being claimed as part of Moldova - enjoyed duty-free exports to the EU. As a result, in 2015, 27% of $189 million worth of Transnistrian exports went to the EU, while exports to Russia dropped to 7.7%. This shift towards the EU market continued to grow in 2016.
Economic sectors
The main industry is steel, due to the Moldova Steel Works (part of the Russian holding company Metalloinvest) in Rîbnița, which accounts for about 60% of Transnistria's budget revenue. The largest company in the textile industry is Tirotex, which claims to be the second largest textile company in Europe. The energy sector is dominated by Russian companies. The largest power company, Moldavskaya GRES (Cuciurgan Power Station), is in Dnestrovsc and owned by Inter RAO UES, and the gas transmission and distribution company Tiraspoltransgas is probably controlled by Gazprom, although ownership has not been officially confirmed by Gazprom.. Transnistria's banking sector consists of 8 commercial banks, including Gazprombank. The oldest alcohol producer, KVINT, located in Tiraspol, produces and exports brandy, wine and vodka.
Mineral Resources
The base of mineral resources is formed by non-metallic minerals, represented by cement raw materials, natural construction materials and groundwater. There are 79 known solid mineral deposits and 88 underground freshwater and mineral deposits.
The most important solid mineral is cement, based on carbonate and clayey rocks. They are used at the Rybnitsa cement and slate works. The total reserves of cement raw materials amount to 235 million tons. An equally important mineral is wallstone, mined from Middle Sarmatian limestone. Its reserves amount to 95 million cubic meters. Carbonate rocks are also used as raw material for the production of lime, crushed stone, bute, and for the technological needs of the sugar industry.
The sugar industry uses "sakhkamen", a chemically pure limestone with a calcium content of at least 95%. The two fields, Ribnitsa and Gidirimskoe, meet the industry's requirements. Its reserves amount to 39 million tons. In the Republic, 11 deposits of clay and marl have been prospected, suitable for the production of ceramic raw materials such as bricks, tiles and keramzite gravel. Its reserves amount to 24.5 million cubic meters. The sand and gravel deposits are mainly associated with the alluvial deposits of the Dniester River. There are 25 deposits in the balance of the State. In Sarmatian and Quaternary sediments, two sinkhole sand deposits have been explored. The sands are used in construction and the gravels are used as ballast fill for 200 and 300 grade concrete. The volume of sand and gravel reserves exceeds 140 million cubic meters. The Karagash deposit of glassy sands suitable for producing dark-colored glass has been explored. When enriched, they can be used to produce light-colored glass and glass containers. Seven siliceous rock deposits have been explored in the Republic. These are trepels and diatomites. All of them are located in the valley of the Dniester River. Trepels from the Kamenskoye deposit are used to make liquid glass. Diatomite deposits are not mined.
Sports
As of 2021, six football clubs from Transnistria—FC Sheriff (and its subsidiary Sheriff-2), FC Dinamo-Auto, Iskra, FC Tighina, FC Sucleia and FC Cruiz—participate in the football league system of Moldova, with FC Sheriff being the first team in this league to qualify for a group stage of the UEFA Champions League (in the 2021-22 edition).
Transnistrian athletes who participate in international tournaments often compete under the Moldovan, Ukrainian or Russian flags and compete in cycling, horse riding, swimming, rowing, canoeing, boxing, track and field, weightlifting, powerlifting, archery, baseball, basketball, volleyball, rugby, judo, kickboxing, handball and soccer. Competitive sports teams, due to the non-international recognition of the national federations, play in the Moldovan and Ukrainian championships, with the exception of the Transnistrian Futsal Federation, which has been accepted into the European Futsal Union.
Tiraspol is home to the club with the most titles in the history of Moldovan football, Sheriff, which has been a 19-time Moldovan champion, a seven-time Moldovan Cup winner, a five-time Moldovan Super Cup winner and the first Moldovan club to reach the group stage of the Europa League and the Champions League.
Bender has the most titled club in the history of Moldovan basketball, Tighina. Previously, the coach was the Knight of the Order of Honor, the honorary coach Anatol Pogorelov. His team competed in the former Soviet Union First League championship, where they won bronze in the 1991-1992 season. In the Moldovan championship they won twelve times. The Ukrainian championship of the highest league in the 2000-2001 season gave Bender's team a bronze medal. The BC Floare youth team took first place at the 1997 European Championship in Andorra.
Culture
Music
Music education in the republic is represented by a number of music schools, study centers, art schools, as well as the local State Institute of Arts. Musical life is represented by the activities of professional musical groups, such as the State Symphony Orchestra of the Republic, the Transnistrian State Choir, the Viorica ensemble and other pop artists such as Chris Vivatsky, as well as musical groups: such as Langeron and others.
Theater
In 1934 it was decided to build a special building for the theater in the capital of the republic: Tiraspol. It was a compact and symmetrical complex, designed in the neoclassical style.
Three professional theater groups had already been formed by that time: Moldovan, Russian and Ukrainian, who were historically assigned to work in a new building until 1940. After the formation of the autonomous republic, two of them moved to the new capital, Chisinau.
Some prominent masters of Moldovan theater art began their career in Transnistria: actors such as Konstantin Konstantinov, Ekaterina Kazimirova, Kirill Shtyrbul, Domnika Dorienko, Evgeny Kazimirov, Evgeny Diordiev, Mifodiy Apostolov; the head of the local music department Valery Polyakov, David Gershfeld; the director Víctor Gerlak, among others.
Holidays
February 23 is celebrated as "Guardian of the Fatherland Day," a patriotic holiday for military personnel. Competitions are organized and their readiness for action is demonstrated. Another patriotic holiday is on May 9, when parades celebrate the Soviet Union's victory over Nazi Germany in the "Great Patriotic War" (the Second World War). For war veterans, a drinking party is held in Tiraspol, on the banks of the Dniester. The most important holiday is September 2, the day the Republic of Transnistria was proclaimed in 1990. Military parades, concerts and dance performances are held in Tiraspol. It is also traditional to place flowers at the monument to the heroes of the Second World War in front of the Parliament.
December 31 celebrates the New Year as a family. Christmas is celebrated on January 7, according to the Russian Orthodox tradition.
Media
There is a regular mix of modern media in Transnistria with various TV stations, newspapers and radio stations.
According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the media climate in Transnistria is restrictive and the authorities continue a long-standing campaign to silence independent opposition groups and voices.
According to a 2006 US State Department report, "the two main newspapers in the region were controlled by the authorities. There was an independent weekly in Bender and another in the northern city of Rîbnița. The separatist authorities harassed independent newspapers for their reporting critical of the Transnistrian regime. Most radio and television stations and the print media were controlled by the Transnistrian authorities, which largely dictated its editorial policy and financial operations.
Some television and radio stations, such as the TSV channel and the INTER-FM radio station, were owned by Transnistria's largest monopoly, Sheriff, which also has a majority in the region's legislative power. In July 2005, the Supreme Council of Transnistria amended the electoral code to prohibit media outlets controlled by the Transnistrian authorities from publishing poll results and election-related forecasts".
In the late 1960s, the Soviet Union began building a powerful broadcasting facility in Grigoriupol, in the Maiac region, for propaganda against Western countries. In 2007, the "Moldovan Republic of Pridnestrovie" (Transnistria) sold the facilities to the Russian state media company RIA Novosti. Since then, the company has leased the transmitters to large international broadcasters, such as the missionary company Trans World Radio. The Russian Federation also contracted the Moscow-based pro-government Vesti FM broadcasting network to broadcast through Grigoriupol's powerful medium-wave transmitters. Vesti FM began broadcasting on 1413 kHz with a power of 500 kW in 2014, shortly before the start of the Ukraine crisis. In this way, the station reached not only the whole of Ukraine, but also a large part of Eastern and Western Europe without problems. On April 26, 2022, both Vesti FM broadcast antennas were blown up by unknown persons.
Philately
Stamps have been issued since 1991, but they are not recognized by the UPU (Universal Postal Union) or by most states in the world. For the UN, this territory must use Moldovan stamps. For domestic shipments, only Moldovan stamps are allowed and used. For most international shipments, Moldovan stamps are required, but for shipments to Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Transnistrian stamps are accepted. On the other hand, Ukraine refuses to accept Transnistrian stamps in the mail, as it is facing pro-Russian independence and irredentist movements in the east of its territory as well.
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