Tikal

Tikal (or Tik'al, according to the Yucatec Mayan spelling) is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centers of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, along with Calakmul, Chichén Itzá and Palenque. It is located in the municipality of Flores, in the department of Petén, in the current territory of the Republic of Guatemala and is part of the Tikal National Park, which was declared a World Heritage Site by Unesco in 1979. According to the glyphs found at the site, its Mayan name would have been Yax Mutul. Tikal is one of the most important tourist centers in Guatemala.

Tikal was the capital of a warring state, which became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya. Although the monumental architecture of the site dates back as far as the 4th century B.C. C., Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, between AD 200 and 900. C. During this time, the city dominated a large part of the Mayan region, in the political, economic and military spheres; it maintained links with other regions, throughout Mesoamerica, including with the great metropolis of Teotihuacán, in the distant Valley of Mexico.

After the Late Classic, no major monuments were built.

With a long list of dynastic rulers, the discovery of many of their respective tombs, and the study of their monuments, temples, and palaces, Tikal is the best understood of the great Maya cities of lowland Mesoamerica.

Toponymy

Tikal emblem glyph (Mutul). Estela 31.

The name Tikal may be a derivation of the words ti ak'al, in the Yucatec Mayan language, meaning "in the water well." The name was apparently applied by hunters and travelers in the region and referred to one of the site's ancient water reservoirs. An alternative explanation suggests that the name comes from the Maya language Itzá and that it means "place of voices", or "place of languages".

However, Tikal is not the old name of the site, but rather the name that was adopted shortly after its rediscovery, in the 1840s. Glyphic inscriptions in Maya script on the ruins refer to the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul, meaning "first mutal". It is possible that Tikal was so named to distinguish it from Dos Pilas, which came to use the same emblem glyph. The rulers of the city wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city bearing this name. The kingdom, as a whole, was called Mutul, being the reading of the emblem glyph seen in the included photo. Its exact meaning is unclear, although some scientists think it refers to the reign of the Ku'hul Ahaw, or highest ruler.

Location

Map of the Maya area in the Mesoamerican region. Both Tikal and Calakmul are located near the center of the area.

Tikal is located approximately 64 km northeast of Flores and Santa Elena and approximately 303 km north of Guatemala City. The city lies 19 km south of the ancient Maya city of Uaxactún, 30 km northwest of Yaxhá, 100 km southeast of Calakmul, its great Classic Period rival, and 85 km northwest of El Caracol, Calakmul's ally, now in Belize.

The city, which covers an area of more than 16 km², has been fully mapped and includes around 3,000 structures. The topography of the site is made up of a series of limestone hills, rising above swampy land. The main architecture of the site is grouped into higher elevations, which are interconnected by causeways that cut through the marshes.

The ruins are located in the middle of the tropical jungle, in the Petén Basin, which formed the cradle of the Mayan civilization in the lowlands of Mesoamerica. The city is located amidst fertile soils, with elevated land, and may have dominated the natural trade route that runs east-west through the Yucatán Peninsula.

Despite being one of the largest Classic Maya cities, Tikal had no other sources of water other than rainwater, which was collected and stored in ten reservoirs. Archaeologists working at Tikal during the 20th century restored one of the ancient water reservoirs for their own use. The absence of sources, rivers and lakes in the vicinity of Tikal highlights a prodigious fact: the construction of a great city, relying exclusively on stored deliveries of seasonal rains. Tikal thrived on intensive farming techniques, which were far more advanced than the slash-and-burn methods originally theorized by archaeologists. However, the reliance on seasonal rainfall constituted a vulnerability to prolonged droughts, and some scientists believe that this vulnerability played a role in the Maya collapse.

Urbanization

The population of Tikal experienced continuous growth, beginning in the Preclassic Period (approximately between 2000 BC and 200 AD), reaching its peak in the Late Classic, with rapid growth between 700 and 830 AD. C., followed by a sharp decline.

Population estimates for the city of Tikal vary from 10,000 to over 90,000, with the most likely figure being the upper end of this range. Due to the low salt content of the Maya diet, it is estimated that Tikal had to import 131 tons of salt each year, based on a conservative estimate, from a population of 45,000.

For the 120 km² area (which would demarcate a circle with a diameter of 21.9 km), which is located within the perimeter of the defense embankments, the maximum population is estimated at 517 inhabitants per km². Within a diameter of 24 km from the center of the site, the maximum population is estimated at 120,000 inhabitants and the population density is estimated at 265 inhabitants per km². Within a diameter of 50 km from the center of the site, which includes some satellite cities, the maximum population is estimated at 425,000, with a density of 216 inhabitants per km². These population figures are even more impressive, due to the extensive swamps, which were not suitable for agriculture or housing construction. However, some archaeologists, such as David Webster, consider these figures to be too high.

Rulers

Tikal's dynastic line, founded as early as the 1st century, spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers.

History

Preclassic

Two stelas in the North Acropolis.

There are traces of early agriculture at Tikal, dating to the Middle Preclassic, around 1000 BCE. C. In a sealed chultún, a bottle-shaped underground cavity, a cache of Mayan pottery was discovered, dating to around 700-400 BCE. C.

In the Late Preclassic, for the first time around 400 to 300 B.C. C., important constructions were already carried out in Tikal, including the construction of pyramids and platforms, although the city was being eclipsed by other more powerful sites, located to the north, such as El Mirador and Nakbé.

At that time, Tikal was part of the Chikanel culture, which dominated central and northern Mesoamerica, a region that included the entire Yucatán Peninsula, including northern and eastern Guatemala and the territory of Belize.

Two temples, dating to the late Chikanel, had masonry walls, the superstructures of which may have been Maya arches, although this has not been proven. One of these temples had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a background of decorative figures, painted in yellow, black, pink and red.

In the first century AD. C., rich burials appeared for the first time and Tikal experienced a political and cultural flourishing, after the decline of its powerful neighbors to the north. At the end of the Late Preclassic, Izapa-style art and architecture from the Pacific coast began to influence Tikal, as evidenced by the first murals in the city and a broken sculpture on the acropolis.

Early Classical

Temple IV or Temple of the Bicephalus Serpent, the greatest of Tikal, seen from World Lost.

Dynastic rule, a common regime among the lowland Maya, was strongly entrenched at Tikal. According to later glyphic records, the dynasty was founded by Yax-Moch-Xoc, possibly in the III century. At the beginning of the Early Classic, power in the Maya region was concentrated in Tikal and Calakmul, in the core of the central Maya region.

Tikal may have benefited from the fall of large Preclassic states such as El Mirador. In the Early Classic, Tikal developed rapidly into the most dynamic city in the Maya region, stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities.

However, Tikal was frequently at war, and inscriptions mention alliances and conflicts with other Maya states, such as Uaxactún, El Caracol, Naranjo, and Calakmul. At the end of the Early Classic, Tikal was defeated by El Caracol, which replaced Tikal as the main center of power in the southern Maya lowlands. During the first part of the Early Classic, hostilities also occurred between Tikal and the neighboring city of Uaxactún, of which there are inscriptions in Uaxactún, referring to the capture of Tikal prisoners.

A break in the male succession of the dynasty appears to have occurred in AD 317. C., when Mrs. Une' B'alam performed a katun-ending ceremony, apparently as queen of the city.

Tikal and Teotihuacan

The great metropolis of Teotihuacán in the Mexico Valley seems to have intervened decisively in Tikal's policy.

The fourteenth king of Tikal was Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Claw). Chak Tok Ich'aak built a palace, which was preserved and expanded by subsequent rulers, to become the core of the central acropolis. Little is known about Chak Tok Ich'aak, except that he was assassinated on January 14, 378 AD. C. On the same day, Siyah K'ak' ('Fire is Born') arrived from the west, after passing through El Perú, a site west of Tikal, on January 8. The inscriptions on Stela 31 refer to him as "Lord of the West". Siyah K'ak' was probably a foreign general, who served a figure represented by an atypical glyph for the Maya, composed of a dart-thrower, in combination with an owl, a glyph known from the great metropolis of Teotihuacán, in the distant Valley of Mexico. The Dart-throwing Owl may even have been the ruler of Teotihuacán. These recorded events suggest that Siyah K'ak' led an invasion of Teotihuacán, which defeated the native king of Tikal, who was promptly captured and executed. Siyah K'ak' it seems to have received the support of a powerful political faction, at Tikal itself. More or less coinciding with that conquest, a group of indigenous people from Teotihuacán resided near the Mundo Perdido complex, it seems. He also exercised control over other cities in the area, such as Uaxactún, where he became king, but he did not take the throne of Tikal for himself. Within a year, Spearthrower Owl's son, Yax Nuun Ayiin I (first crocodile), was installed as the tenth king of Tikal, while he was still a boy. His reign lasted 47 years and Tikal remained a vassal of Siyah K & # 39; ak & # 39;, during the time he lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I married one of the pre-existing wives, from the defeated Tikal dynasty, for the purpose of legitimizing the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.

Río Azul, a small site 100 kilometers northeast of Tikal, was conquered by it during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The site became an outpost for Tikal, protecting it from hostile cities in north and also became a link for trade with the Caribbean.

Although the new rulers of Tikal were foreigners, their descendants quickly adapted to Mayan culture. Tikal became Teotihuacán's main ally and trading partner in the Maya lowlands. After its conquest by Teotihuacán, Tikal quickly dominated northern and eastern Petén. Uaxactún, along with the smaller towns in the region, were absorbed into the kingdom of Tikal. Other sites, such as Bejucal and Motul de San José, near Lake Petén Itzá, became vassals of their more powerful neighbor to the north. By the middle of the v century, Tikal had a core territory of at least 25 kilometers in all directions.

Around the v century, an impressive system of fortifications, made up of ditches and earthen constructions, was built along the northern periphery of the interior zone of Tikal, joining the natural defenses, provided by long swampy areas, located to the east and west of the city. Additional fortifications were probably built in the south, enclosing an area of approximately 120 square kilometers. These defenses gave protection to Tikal's core population and its agricultural resources. However, recent research suggests that the earthworks may have been part of a water harvesting system, rather than for defensive purposes.

Tikal and Copán

Copán.

In the v century, Tikal's power expanded southward to incorporate the city of Xukpi (present-day Copán), whose founder, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', had ties to Tikal. Xukpi was not located in an ethnically Mayan region, and the founding of the Xukpi dynasty probably involved direct intervention from Tikal. K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' he arrived at Xukpi (Copán) in December 426 and analysis of the bones of his remains shows that he spent his childhood and youth at Tikal. A person known as Ajaw K'uk' Mo' (lord K'uk' Mo') is mentioned in an early text from Tikal and may well be the same person. His tomb had Teotihuacán features and in later portraits he was depicted dressed in Teotihuacán warrior garb. Glyphic texts refer to him as "Lord of the West", as does Siyah K'ak'. At the same time, in late 426, Copán founded the nearby site of Quiriguá, possibly sponsored by Tikal. The founding of both centers may have been part of an effort to impose authority on Tikal, in the southeastern part of the Maya region. The interaction between these sites and Tikal was intense, for the next three centuries.

In the vi century, a long-lasting rivalry arose between Tikal and Calakmul, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances, in what has been described as a long-running war between the two Mayan superpowers. The kings of the two capitals adopted the title Kaloomte', a term that has not been accurately translated, but has a similar meaning to High King.

In the early vi century, there was another queen as ruler of the city, known only as the Lady of Tikal, who was probably a daughter of Chak Tok Ich'aak II. She appears to have never ruled in her own right, as she was associated with male co-rulers. The first of these was Kaloomte' B'alam, who appears to have had a long career as Tikal's general, before becoming co-regent, being the nineteenth in the dynastic sequence. The Lady of Tikal does not seem to have been counted in the dynastic numbering. Apparently, she was later paired with Lord Birdclaw, presumed to represent the twentieth ruler.

Late Classical

Tikal Hiatus

The main square, during the winter solstice celebrations.

The areas of influence of Calakmul and Tikal during the war between these two cities between 526 and 680 AD.

By mid-century vi, El Caracol appears to have allied with Calakmul, defeating Tikal and marking the close of the Early Classic. The “Tikal hiatus” refers to a period between the late vi century and the late vii, recording a decline in inscription writing and a reduction in large-scale construction, at Tikal. In the second half of the vi century, the city was affected by a serious crisis, in which no new stelae were erected and a deliberate and extensive mutilation of public sculptures. This hiatus (or recess) in activity at Tikal remained unexplained for a long time, until it was determined, through subsequent epigraphic decipherments, that the recess was prompted by the complete defeat of Tikal by the allied states of Calakmul and El Caracol., in the year 562, a defeat that seems to have led to the capture and sacrifice of the king of Tikal. The badly eroded Altar 21, at El Caracol, describes how Tikal suffered this disastrous defeat, in a major war that took place in 562. El Caracol appears to have been an ally of Calakmul, in a broader conflict between that latter city and Tikal, with Tikal's defeat having a lasting impact on the city. Tikal was not sacked, but its power and influence were broken. After their great victory, El Caracol grew rapidly and a part of the population of Tikal may have been forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus, at least one of Tikal's rulers took refuge with Janaab' Pakal from Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul prospered, during the long period of recess experienced by Tikal.

The start of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists frequently subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early Classic and Late Classic.

Tikal and Dos Pilas

In 629, Tikal founded Dos Pilas, a military outpost, about 110 kilometers to the southwest, in order to control trade along the course of the La Pasión River. In 635, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost, at the age of four, and for many years served as a loyal vassal of his brother, the king. from Tikal. Approximately twenty years later, Dos Pilas was attacked and defeated by Calakmul. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was reinstated on his throne, as a vassal of his former enemy and attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily leave the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the "mutal," Tikal's emblem glyph, and probably felt they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For whatever reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal and stayed in Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked Dos Pilas, in the year 672, forcing B'alaj Chan K'awiil into exile, for five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by his allies, such as El Perú, Dos Pilas and El Caracol.

In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil erected the first monument, dated at Tikal to 120 years, and awarded himself the title Kaloomte', thus ending the hiatus. He initiated a program of new construction and reversed the relationship with Calakmul, when in 695 he captured the ajaw Yuknoom Yich 'aak K'ahk', leaving the enemy state in a long decline, from the that he never recovered. After this defeat, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating any military victory. With this defeat of Calakmul, Tikal's pre-eminence in the central Maya region was restored, but never again in southwestern Petén, where Dos Pilas maintained his presence.

Tikal after Teotihuacan

In the 7th century, there was no active Teotihuacán presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacán had been razed, by 700 AD. C. However, the formal war dress, illustrating the monuments, remained in the Teotihuacán style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and his allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today.

In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's key ally in the south, switched allegiances, favoring Calakmul, defeated Copán, and gained his own independence. This was apparently the effect of a conscious effort on the part of Calakmul to bring about the collapse of the allies south of Tikal. This upset the balance of power in the southern Maya region and resulted in the decline of Copán.

In the 8th century, the rulers of Tikal collected monuments from all over the city and moved them to the front of the north acropolis. At the end of the 8th century and beginning of the ix century, the construction activity in Tikal. Impressive architecture was still built, but few glyphic inscriptions refer to later rulers.

Terminal Classic

The center of the site seen from the south, with Temple I in the center, the north acropolis to the left and the central acropolis to the right.

By the nineth century century, the crisis of the Classic Maya collapse was sweeping the region, with a population in free fall and a city after another falling into silence. Increasingly, endemic warfare in the Maya region forced the rural population that supported Tikal to concentrate near the city itself, accelerating the use of intensive agriculture and the corresponding deterioration of the environment. Construction continued early in the century, with the erection of Temple 3, the last of the city's major pyramids, and the erection of monuments, to commemorate the 19th k'atun in 810.

The beginning of the 10th bak'tun, in 830, passed without celebration and marks the beginning of a 60-year hiatus, probably as a result of the collapse of central control of the city. During this recess, satellite sites, traditionally under Tikal's control, began to erect their own monuments featuring local rulers and began to use the Mutul emblem glyph, while Tikal apparently lacked authority, or power., to suppress these attempts to gain independence. In 849, Jewel K'awiil is mentioned in the scriptures of a Seibal stela, as the "divine Lord of Tikal" visiting this city, but this visit is not recorded elsewhere and the power of Tikal, once so big, it was little more than a memory. The sites of Ixlu and Jimbal had now inherited the Mutul emblem glyph, previously unique to Tikal.

As Tikal and its surroundings reached their peak population, the area was affected by deforestation, erosion, and nutrient loss, followed by a rapid population decline. Tikal and its environs apparently lost most of their population between 830 and 950, and central authority may have quickly collapsed. There is not much evidence that the city of Tikal was directly affected by endemic warfare, which affected parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although the influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems stemming from insufficient of resources available in the environment.

In the second half of the ix century, there was an attempt to reinstate royal power in the much-reduced city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II, in the year 869. This was the last monument erected in Tikal before the city finally fell silent. Tikal's former satellites, such as Jimbal and Uaxactún, did not last much longer, erecting their final monuments in 889. By the end of the nineth century century, the vast majority of Tikal's population had left the city. Its palaces were occupied by squatters and simple, thatched-roof dwellings were built in the city's ceremonial squares. The new occupants blocked some entrances into the rooms of the monumental structures on the site and left trash, which included a mixture of household waste and non-utility items, such as musical instruments. These inhabitants reused the monuments for their own rituals, far removed from those of the royal dynasty that had built them. Some monuments were damaged and some were moved to new locations. Before the final abandonment of the city, all respect for the ancient rulers had disappeared, as the tombs in the northern necropolis were explored for jade and the most accessible ones looted. After the year 950, Tikal was almost deserted, although a remnant population may have remained in perishable huts, interspersed among the ruins. In the x or xi century, these last inhabitants also left the city and the jungle claimed the ruins for the next thousand years. A portion of Tikal's population may have migrated to the Petén lake region, an area that remained densely populated, despite a drop in population levels in the first half of the century ix.

The most likely cause of Tikal's collapse was overpopulation and agrarian decline. Tikal, with its ancient dynasty, had been at the forefront of court life, art, and architecture for over a thousand years. Its fall was a heavy blow to the heart of the Classic Maya civilization.

Research by Kohler et coll. They showed that the city reached unsustainable levels of social and economic inequality at the end of its heyday, which undoubtedly contributed to its collapse.

Modern history

Modesto Méndez, governor of Petén who discovered the ruins of Tikal in 1848, in his military uniform
National Museum of History of Guatemala

First photographs of Tikal taken by Alfred Percival Maudslay in 1882.

In 1525, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés passed within a few kilometers of the ruins of Tikal, but did not mention them in his letters.

As is often the case with large ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost to the region. The people of the region apparently never forgot Tikal and, in the 1840s, led Guatemalan expeditions to the ruins. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in the press, beginning in the xvii and were followed by the writings of John Lloyd Stephens, in the 19th century. (During their 1839-1840 travels in the region, Stephens and Frederick Catherwood, his illustrator, heard rumors of a lost city, with white buildings whose upper parts overlooked the jungle.)

Due to the remoteness of the site, no explorer visited the Tikal ruins until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut, respectively the mayor and governor of Petén, visited them in 1848, along with Vicente Díaz, Bernabé Castellanos, and the teacher Eusebio Lara, who accompanied them, to make the first illustrations of the monuments. In the last paragraph of the report that he sent to the Carrera government, he wrote: «I must fulfill my duty, since it would be sensitive to me that other curious foreigners come to publicize all the objects that I am seeing and feeling. Come in good time those travelers with greater possibilities and intellectual faculties, make excavations at the foot of the statues, break the palaces and remove the curiosities and treasures that they will never be able to carry, without due permission; but they will never be able to nullify or eclipse the place that corresponds to me, having been the first to discover these ruins; Without taxing public funds, I opened the way for them, and I had the honor of communicating to the supreme government of the republic, how interesting and superior is found in the capital of this empire; without regard to personal or particular interest, only satisfied and persuaded that my person and few assets belong to the country, to the government and to my children".

In 1853, after the publication of Méndez's diary in the Gaceta de Guatemala, the rediscovery was made known to the scientific community, through a publication of the Berlin Academy of Sciences.>

At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the xx century, several other expeditions followed to further investigations, including the Alfred P. Maudslay expedition in 1881-82 and pioneering archaeologists began clearing, mapping and recording the ruins in the 1880s.

Archaeologist Edwin M. Shook, field director of the Tikal Project, was crucial in the recognition of Tikal as the first national park in Guatemala.

In 1951, a small airstrip was built near the ruins, which previously could only be accessed after a multi-day journey through the jungle, on foot or by mule. In 1956, the Tikal Project began drawing maps of the city, on a scale never before seen in the Maya region. From 1956 to 1970, major archaeological excavations were conducted by the Tikal Project of the University of Pennsylvania; they mapped the most of the site and excavated and restored many of the structures. From 1957 to 1969, excavations directed by Edwin M. Shook and later by William R. Coe of the University of Pennsylvania focused on the North Acropolis and the Central Plaza. The Tikal Project managed to record more than 200 monuments in the deposit.

In 1979, the Guatemalan government began a new archaeological project at Tikal, which continued until 1984.

An illustration of Tikal Temple I was included on the reverse of the 50-cent note of the Guatemalan Quetzal.

The ruins of Tikal, as part of the Tikal National Park, were the first archaeological site to be declared a World Heritage Site, in 1979, and also the first mixed (ecological and archaeological) World Heritage Site in the world. Today, Tikal, in the middle of its own national park, has become a major tourist attraction, and has a museum, built in 1964.

In 2018, the PACUNAM initiative carried out mapping studies on Tikal, using the LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) scanning technique to digitally remove the trees that hide said Mayan city. This contributed to the discovery of more than 12,000 urban structures in the Tikal area, that is, 8,000 more than those estimated, even before applying LIDAR.

Description of the city

Map of the city center.

Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the Government of Guatemala. It was one of the most important Mayan cities of the Classic period and one of the largest in the American continent. The architecture of the ancient city is built of limestone and includes the remains of temples, which rise more than 70 meters, great royal palaces, as well as a series of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and monuments of stone with inscriptions. There is even a building with wooden bars on the windows and doors, which seemed to have been a prison. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ball game, including a set of three courts, in the Plaza of the Seven Temples, a unique feature in Mesoamerica.

The limestone used for the construction was extracted from quarries on site. The depressions that were formed by the extraction of the stone were covered and waterproofed to be used as water deposits or reservoirs, along with some natural waterproofed depressions. The main plazas, whose surface was covered in stucco, were laid out on a gradient to channel rainwater into a system of canals that fed the reservoirs.

The residential area of Tikal covers an area of approximately 60 km², much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. In the 1960s, an extensive set of embankments was discovered, encircling Tikal with a 6-meter-wide ditch behind a wall. It may have enclosed an area of about 125 km² (see below). Population estimates put the demographic size of the site at between 10,000 and 90,000, and possibly as high as 425,000 when the surrounding area is included. Recently, the exploration of defense embankments has shown that its magnitude is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential, as a defensive element. In addition, some parts of the embankments are integrated into a channel system. The Tikal set of causeways varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed, and appears to be much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought.

Roadways

At the end of the Late Classic, a network of sacbéob (causeways), several kilometers long, crossed the urban core, linking the different parts of the city. These causeways were wide and were built of limestone and gypsum. They not only served as a communication route during the rainy season, but also as dikes. They have been named, in honor of the first explorers and archaeologists, the Maler, Maudslay, Tozzer and Mendez causeways.

The Maler causeway runs north of the city, behind Temple I, to Group H. A large bas-relief, carved in limestone, is found along part of the causeway, just south of Group H. It dates to the Late Classic and shows two bound prisoners.

The Maudsley Causeway runs northeast, about 0.8 km, from Temple IV, to Group H.

The Méndez Causeway runs southeast from the Plaza del Oriente to Temple VI, over a distance of approximately 1.3 km.

The Tozzer Causeway runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV.

Architectural ensembles

Temple I or Temple of the Great Jaguar, seen from North Acropolis, 'Central acropolis deep down.

North Acropolis

The Great Plaza is located in the center of the city, flanked by two large pyramidal temples on its east and west sides. To the north, it is bordered by the North Acropolis and, to the south, by the Central Acropolis.

The Central Acropolis is a palace complex, located just south of the Great Plaza.

The North Acropolis, next to the Great Plaza, immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural complexes in the Mayan region. The Tikal Project dug a long trench throughout the complex, thoroughly studying the history of construction. It is a complex set, whose construction began in the Preclassic period, around 350 B.C. It became a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of classical times, with each royal burial adding new temples, on top of older structures. After the year 400 AD. C., a row of tall pyramids was added to the old North platform, measuring 100 by 80 meters, gradually hiding it from view. Eight pyramid temples were built in the 6th century. Each of them had an elaborate cresting and a stairway, flanked by masks of the gods. By the nineth century century, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected on the North Acropolis. 18 of these monuments were carved with Mayan script and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials, in the Postclassic period.

The Temples I, II, III and V seen from Temple IV

The South Acropolis is located next to Temple V. It was built on a large foundation platform covering an area of more than 20,000 square meters.

The Seven Temples Square is located to the west of the South Acropolis. Its eastern boundary is bordered by a series of almost identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides, and by an unusual triple ballcourt on the north side.

The Conjunto G is located just south of the Mendez causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and is made up of palace-like structures and is one of the largest groups of its kind at Tikal. It has two floors, but most of the rooms are on the ground floor, a total of 29 vaulted rooms. The remains of two more rooms belong to the upper floor. One of the entrances to the set was marked by a gigantic mask.

The Set H is centered on a long plaza, to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic.

The Square of the Seven Temples

There are nine twin pyramid complexes at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others partially destroyed. They vary in size, but all consist of two pyramids, facing each other, on an east-west axis. These pyramids are flattened and have stairs on all four sides. One row of smooth stelae lies immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and another to the north of the pyramids. Located at the same distance from the pyramids, is a series of pairs of structures, composed of an altar and a sculpted stela. On the south side of these complexes is a long vaulted building, containing a single room with nine doors. The entire complex was built at one time and these complexes were built during the Late Classic, at intervals of one k'atun (20 years). The first twin pyramid complex was built in the early vi century, in the Eastern Plaza. These twin pyramids were previously thought to be unique to Tikal, but a few other examples have recently been found, at sites such as Yaxhá and Ixlu, which may reflect the degree of Tikal's political dominance, in the Late Classic.

Set Q is one of the largest twin pyramid complexes at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II, in the year 771, to mark the end of the seventeenth K'atun. Most of the complex has been restored and its monuments have been reconstructed.

Set R is another twin pyramid complex, dating from 790. It is located near the Maler causeway.

Structures

Tikal has thousands of ancient architectural structures, of which only a fraction have been excavated, after decades of archaeological work. The most prominent buildings include six very large pyramids, each supporting a temple structure, on top. Some of these pyramids have a height of more than 60 meters. They were numbered sequentially (temple I - VI), during the initial field survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these great temples could have been built in as little as two years.

The pyramids of Tikal were positioned one in front of the other and the rooms that were built on top of the pyramids have depressions in the stone walls, which serve as amplifiers for the sound of the voice. Here, the Mayan architectural design is fully realized and the voice of the Ahau acquired almost divine qualities. Due to the stone resonators at the top of a pyramid, the voice of one person, speaking at a normal volume, can be heard by another person standing at the top of another pyramid, a surprising distance away.^{[citation required]}

Most of the pyramids visible today were built during the resurgence, after Tikal's hiatus; that is, from the end of the vii century, to the beginning of the ixth century. However, it should be noted that most of these architectural structures have substructures, which were built before the Tikal Hiatus.^{[citation needed]}

The Temple I (also known as Temple of Ah Cacao or Temple of the Great Jaguar) is a funerary pyramid, dedicated to Jasaw Chan K'awil, who was entombed in this structure, in 734. The pyramid is 47 meters high, and its construction was completed around 740 to 750. The massive cresting that tops the temple, it was originally decorated with a gigantic sculpture of the king on his throne, but little of this decoration survives. The king's tomb dates to the Late Classic and was discovered in 1962. Among the objects recovered from the tomb is a large collection of tubes of human and animal bones, with inscriptions and trays with scenes representing deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with vermilion, as well as jade ornaments, shells and ceramic containers, filled with offerings, such as food and drink. The sanctuary at the top of the pyramid has three consecutive chambers, with the entrances cr supported by wooden lintels, made of multiple beams. The outer lintel was smooth, but the two interior ones were carved. Some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their current location is unknown. Others were taken to some museums in Europe.

Isometric images of the Temple IV crestry, using the data acquired by a CyArk laser scanner.

The Temple II (also known as the Temple of the Masks) was built around the year 700, and is 38 meters high. Like other great temples at Tikal, the sanctuary at its summit had three consecutive chambers, with the entrances crossed by wooden lintels, only half of which were carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awil, although her grave was not found. The queen's portrait was carved on the lintel across the entrance to the hilltop sanctuary. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

Temple III (also known as Temple of the Great Priest or Temple of the Jaguar Priest) was the last of the great pyramids to be built in Tikal. It stands 55 meters high and contained an elaborately carved but damaged ceiling lintel, possibly showing the Dark Sun King engaging in a ritual dance, circa 810. The temple sanctuary has two chambers.

The Temple IV (also known as the Temple of the Two-Headed Serpent), is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal. It measures 70 meters, from the ground level of the square, to the top of its crest. Its creation marks the reign of Yik'in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I); two carved wooden lintels over the doorway leading to the temple at the top of the pyramid, shows a long count date (9.15.10.0.0), corresponding to the year 741. By the viii century, Temple IV was the It is the second largest pyramid built in the entire Mayan region and is currently the third tallest pre-Columbian structure on the American continent, only surpassed by the 75-meter-high Toniná pyramid and the 72-meter-high pyramid of La Danta. height at present.

Temple V is located to the south of the Central Acropolis and is the funerary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple has a height of 57 meters and is the second tallest structure in Tikal - only Temple IV is taller. The temple dates to the Late Classic and has been dated to around AD 700, using radiocarbon dating. The pottery associated with the structure places its construction in the reign of Nun Bak Chak, in the second half of the vii century.

The Temple VI, also known as the Temple of the Inscriptions, was dedicated in the year 766. It is noted for its crest, which rises 12 meters. Glyph panels cover the back and sides of the cresting. The temple is in front of a plaza located to the west and its façade has not been restored.

Temple 33 is a funerary pyramid, erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil I, (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. Its construction began in the Early Classic, as a wide basal platform, decorated with large stucco masks, which flanked the staircase. Always in the Early Classic, a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Tikal Hiatus, a third stage was built on top of the previous constructions, the stairway was demolished, and the royal burial of an unidentified ruler was included in the structure (Burial 23). During the construction of the new pyramid, the tomb of another high-ranking person (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was completed later, with a height of 33 meters.

Structure 34 is a pyramid on the North Acropolis, which was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three-chambered sanctuary, the rooms situated one behind the other.

Detail of images related to Teotihuacan, decorating the sections on the slope of Structure 5D-43.

Structure 5D-43 is an unusual radial temple, located in the Oriental Plaza. It was built on top of a twin pyramid complex, at the end of the Oriental Ball Court Plaza, and had four entrance gates and three stairways. The fourth stairway, on the south side, was not built, probably because it was too close to the Central Acropolis to have a stairway on that side. The building has the profile of a talud-tablero platform, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacán and possibly more similar to the style of El Tajín and Xochicalco, than of Teotihuacán. The vertical panels of the board are positioned between inclined talus panels and have pairs of disc symbols, as decoration. Symbols of large flowers, linked to the symbols of the planet Venus and the star used at Teotihuacán, are placed on the inclined talus panels. The ceiling of the structure was decorated with friezes, although only fragments remain today, showing a monstrous face, possibly that of a jaguar, with another head protruding from its mouth. The second head has a forked tongue, but it is probably not that of a snake. The temple and associated ballcourt probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak, or his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, to the late century. vii.

Structure 5C-49 dates from the iv century and is clearly related to the architectural style of Teotihuacán. It has a talud-tablero façade and balustrades, a very rare architectural element in the Maya region. It is located near the pyramid of the Lost World.

Structure 5C-53 is a small platform in the Teotihuacan style, dating from around the year 600. It had stairs on all four sides and did not have a superstructure.

A stucco mask that adorns the substructure of Temple 33.

The Lost World Pyramid (Structure 5C-54) is located in the southwestern part of the central core of Tikal, south of Temple III and west of Temple V. It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the Late Preclassic. This pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures, which remained intact and were not affected by later construction activities at Tikal. In the late Late Preclassic, this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region. It obtained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ich'aak, in the iv century, in the Early Classic and has a height of 30 meters, with stairs on its four sides. The upper part is flat and possibly supported a superstructure made of perishable materials. Although the plaza was affected by significant later alteration, the organization of a group of temples, on the eastern side of this complex, adheres to the arrangement of the so-called "E Sets", identified as solar observatories.

Structure 5D-96 is the central temple, on the eastern side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and the exterior of the rear wall is decorated with skull and crossbones patterns.

The Set 6C-16 is an elite residential complex, which has been extensively excavated. It is located a few hundred meters south of the Mundo Perdido complex, and excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, mural paintings of baseball players, relief sculptures, and buildings with Teotihuacán-style features.

The Great Plaza Ball Court is a small ball court, located between Temple I and the Central Acropolis.

The Palace of Bats, also known as the Palace of Windows, is located to the west of Temple III. It has two floors, with two series of chambers on the lower floor and a single series on the upper floor, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and has low windows.

The Complex N is located to the west of the Palace of Bats and Temple III. The complex dates from 711.

Altars

Altar 5 shows two carved noblemen, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual, with the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 is located in Complex N, which is located to the west of Temple III.

Altar 8 shows the sculpture of a bound prisoner. It was found inside Complex P, in Conjunto H. It is currently in the National Museum of Archeology and Ethnology in Guatemala City.

Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound prisoner. It is located in front of Temple VI.

Altar 10 shows a sculpture of a prisoner tied to scaffolding. It is located in the northern precinct of Conjunto Q, which consists of a twin pyramid complex, which has been affected by erosion.

Altar 35 is a simple monument, associated with Stela 43. The altar-stela is located at the base of the Temple IV stairway.

Lintels

Temple IV's lintel 3. It shows the celebration of a military victory of Yik'in Chan K'awiil in 743 AD.

In Tikal, carved beams, made of Manilkara zapota wood, were used as lintels for the interior entrances of the temples. They are the most elaborate carved lintels to survive in the entire Maya region.

The Lintel 3 of Temple IV was moved to Basel, Switzerland, in the 19th century. It depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated in a palanquin and is in near mint condition.

Trails

Stelas are carved stone slabs, often sculpted with figures and glyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae from Tikal, includes the following:

Stela 1 dates to the v century and depicts King Siyaj Chan K'awiil II standing.

The Stela 4 dates from 396 AD. c.; that is, from the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin and after the intrusion of Teotihuacán into the Maya area. The stela shows a mixture of Mayan and Teotihuacan characteristics, as well as a mixture of deities from both cultures. It includes a portrait of the king, with the Jaguar God of the underworld under one of his arms and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacán War Serpent. Yax Nuun Ayiin is represented with his face facing the front and not in profile, something unusual for a Maya sculpture, but typical of Teotihuacán,

Estela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II.

Stela 5 was dedicated in 744, by Yik'in Chan K'awiil.

Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument, dating to AD 514. C. It is named after the Lady of Tikal, who is celebrating the end of the fourth K'atun of that year.

Stela 10 is paired with Stela 12, but is badly damaged. He described the consecration of Kaloomte & # 39; B'alam, early vi century and earlier events of his career, including the capture of a prisoner, depicted on the monument.

Stela 11 was the last monument erected in Tikal. It was dedicated in 869 AD. C., by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II.

Stela 12 is associated with the queen known as the Lady of Tikal and King Kaloomte' Balam. The queen is described as carrying out the year-end rituals, but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king.

Stela 16 was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture is limited to the front of the monument and includes the portrait of the king and a glyphic text. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III.

Stela 19 was dedicated in 790, by Yax Nuun Ayiin II.

Stela 20, found in Complex P, of Group H, was transferred to the National Museum of Archeology and Ethnology in Guatemala City.

Stela 21 was dedicated in 736, by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the lower part of the stela was left intact. The rest have been mutilated in ancient times. The remaining part of the sculpture is of good quality and consists of the feet of a figure and the corresponding glyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and stands in front of Temple VI.>

Stela 24 was erected, along with Altar 7, at the foot of Temple III in AD 810. Both were broken in ancient times, though the name of the Dark Sun ruler survives, on three of the fragments.

Stela 29 includes a long count date (8.12.14.8.15) equivalent to AD 292. C., the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands. The stela is also the oldest monument to include Tikal's emblem glyph. It has a sculpture of the king, turned to the right, holding the head of a jaguar god of the underworld, one of the protective deities of the city. The stela was deliberately destroyed, in the vi century, or some time later. The upper part was dumped in a garbage dump near Temple III, only to be discovered by archaeologists in 1959.

Stela 30 was the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus of Tikal. Its style and iconography is similar to that of El Caracol, one of Tikal's most important enemies.

Stela 31 is the monument that marks the consecration of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. It also includes two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, dressed as a young warrior from Teotihuacán. He carries a dart-thrower in one hand and a shield decorated with the face of Tlaloc, the Teotihuacán god of war. In ancient times, the sculpture was broken and the upper part moved to the top of Temple 33, where he was ritually buried. Stela 31 has been described as the most important of Tikal's surviving sculptures, from the Early Classic. A long glyphic text is carved on the back of the monument, the longest known from the Early Classic. Describes the arrival of Siyah K'ak' in El Perú and Tikal, in January 378 and it was the first stela from Tikal to be carved on its four faces.

The Stela 32 is a fragmented monument, with a sculpture in Teotihuacan style, which seems to represent the ruler of the city with attributes of Tláloc, the storm god of central Mexico, including his googly eyes and headdress.

Stela 39 is a broken monument, which was erected in the Mundo Perdido complex. The upper part of the stela is missing, but the remaining part shows the legs and lower body of Chak Tok Ich'aak, holding a flint ax in his left hand. He is trampling on the figure of a bound and richly dressed prisoner. The monument dates from 376 AD. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate an end to the Katun. The stela also identifies the name of Chak Tok Ich'aak's father as K'inich Muwaan Jol. Stela 40 bears the portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468. C.

Stela 43 is paired with Altar 35. It is a simple monument, located at the base of the Temple IV stairway.

Burials

A pottery incense that represents a greater deity, found at bury 10.

Burial 1 is a tomb, located in the Mundo Perdido complex, where a fine ceramic bowl was recovered, with the handle formed by the head and neck of a bird, which emerges from the body painted on the lid.

Burial 10 is the tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin. It is located below Structure 34, in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a wide range of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine young men were sacrificed, to accompany the late king. A dog was also entombed with the deceased king. The pots found in the tomb were stuccoed and painted, many in a mix of Mayan and Teotihuacan styles. Among the offerings was a censer, in the form of an old god of the underworld, sitting on a bench of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands. The tomb was sealed with a vault, on top of which the pyramid was built.

Burial 48 is generally accepted as the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awil. It is located under Temple 33, in the North Acropolis. The tomb chamber was carved out of the bedrock and contained the king's remains, along with those of two adolescents, who had been sacrificed to accompany the deceased ruler. The walls of the tomb were covered in white stucco with painted glyphs that included the long count equivalent of 20 March 457, probably the date of the king's death or burial. The king's skeleton was missing his skull, his femurs, and one of his hands, while the skeletons of the sacrificed victims were intact.

Burial 85 is a tomb dating from the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained the skeleton of a male, lacking a skull and femurs. The founder of the Tikal dynasty, Yax Ehb' Xook, has been linked to this tomb, which lies at the heart of the North Acropolis. The deceased had probably been killed in battle, in which his body was mutilated by his enemies, before being recovered and buried by his followers. The bones were carefully wrapped in textiles, to form an upright package. The head was replaced by a small green stone mask inlaid with shell, to represent teeth and eyes, wearing a three-pronged royal diadem. This mask has a ruler's emblem on the forehead and is a rare portrait of a Preclassic Maya king. The contents of the tomb also included the spine of a stingray, a shell of the genus spondylus, and twenty-six ceramic containers.

Burial 116 is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber, located in the middle of the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite, ceramics, shells, and works of art. The king's body was covered with a large number of jade ornaments, including a necklace with very large beads, as shown in the carved portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces that was recovered from the tomb was a jade container, adorned with the portrait of the king himself, carved on the lid.

Burial 195 is a tomb that was flooded with mud in ancient times, covering the wooden objects, which had completely rotted away, when the tomb was excavated, leaving holes in the dried mud. Archaeologists later filled these holes with stucco, thus obtaining four effigies of the god K'awiil, despite the fact that the original wooden ones had long since disappeared.

Burial 196 is a Late Classic royal tomb, containing a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the maize god.

Tikal at the cinema

• In 1969, Mexican-guatemal production The ogre, starring the first Mexican actor Germán Valdez and the first Guatemalan actor Herbert Meneses was filmed in Tikal, whose ruins are shown for fifteen minutes as an essential part of the plot.
• American filmmaker George Lucas used Tikal as a scene for the rebel base in his first Star Wars film, Episode IV: A new hope that was released in 1977.
• In the British film Moonraker of the secret agent James Bond, filmed in 1979, the protagonist—interpreted by Roger Moore— arrives at Tikal in a glider, descends in the Temple of the Great Jaguar and discovers that it is from this Mayan city from where secret ships are thrown into space. as additional information in Tikal was filmed part of the Documentary Lost Worlds in Balance in English.

1999-2001 a production with a scientific focus Imax, voice Narrative Harrison Ford Edited in 5 languages,

Additional bibliography