Steve Jobs
Steven Paul Jobs (San Francisco, February 24, 1955-Palo Alto, October 5, 2011) was an entrepreneur, industrial designer, business magnate, media owner, and American investor. He was the co-founder and CEO of Apple and the largest single shareholder of The Walt Disney Company.
He founded Apple in 1976 with a boyhood friend, Steve Wozniak, with the help of Jobs' former Atari teammate Ronald Wayne, in his garage at home. Boosted by the success of the Apple II, Jobs gained great public prominence, being on the cover of Time in 1982. He was 27 years old and already a millionaire thanks to the company's successful IPO at the end of the last year. The 1980s saw the entry of powerful competitors into the personal computer market, which caused the first business difficulties.
His reaction was to innovate, or rather implement: In early 1984 his company released the Macintosh 128K, which was the first successfully commercialized personal computer that used a graphical user interface (GUI) and a mouse instead of a mouse. from the command line. After running into problems with the top management of the company he founded, Jobs resigned, and Jobs sold all but one of his shares. That same year he received the National Medal of Technology from President Ronald Reagan, closing his first stage as an entrepreneur with this recognition. He returned to the company in 1997, which was in serious financial difficulties, and was its CEO until August 24, 2011. In that summer, Apple surpassed Exxon as the company with the largest capitalization in the world.
During the 1990s, it transformed a subsidiary company acquired from Lucasfilm into Pixar, which revolutionized the animation industry with the release of Toy Story. The integration of this company into Disney, of which he was a supplier, would make Jobs the largest single shareholder of the entertainment giant. In the year of his death, he was worth $8.3 billion and ranked 110th on the Forbes magazine's wealth list.
In his second stint at Apple, he also changed the business model of the music industry: he approved the launch of the iPod in 2001, and in 2003 the iTunes online music store, which in seven years sold more than 10 000 million songs and completely dominated the online music business, at a price of USD 0.99 per downloaded song. music store by sales volume in history. According to the United States patent registry, 323 Jobs patents are held by Apple.
Biography
Early Years
Steve Jobs was born in San Francisco, California in 1955, the result of a relationship between Abdulfattah Jandali, a Muslim Syrian immigrant, later a doctorate in political science, and Joanne Carole Schieble, an American of German and Swiss descent, then two young university students who gave him up for adoption to a middle-class couple, Paul Jobs and Clara Hagopian, she of Armenian descent. His biological parents later married and had another daughter, the novelist Mona Simpson, whom Steve would not meet until adulthood. In this new family Steve grew up with his other sister, Patricia (Patty). His adoptive father, Paul Jobs, was a machinist at the state rail transport company and his mother was a housewife.
In 1961 the family moved to Mountain View, a city south of Palo Alto that was beginning to become a major center of the electronics industry. There he attended Cupertino Middle School and Homestead H.S. High School, also in Cupertino. Jobs was interested in electronics and gadgets, which led him to join a club called the Hewlett-Packard Explorer Club, where Hewlett engineers -Packard showed young people their new products. It was there that Steve saw his first computer, at the age of 12. He was so impressed that he knew immediately that he wanted to work with computers.
In high school, he attends Hewlett-Packard talks. On one occasion, Steve asked the company's then president, William Hewlett, about some parts he needed to complete a class project. William was so impressed that he provided them and offered to do a summer internship at his company, Steve would later be hired as a summer employee, joining Steve Wozniak there through a mutual friend, Bill Fernandez.
In 1972 he entered Reed College in Portland (Oregon). He attends her for only 6 months before leaving, due to the high cost of his studies.Instead of returning home, he continues to attend classes as a listener for another 18 months, living on jobs with tiny incomes. Interestingly, her studies in calligraphy, taught by Robert Palladino, would come in handy when she designed the fonts for the first Mac.
After two years away from home, in the fall of 1974 he returned to California with the aim of making a spiritual retreat in India and got a job as a technician at Atari Inc., a video game manufacturer, where he helped create from the game Breakout. Led by Steve Wozniak, he began attending meetings of the Homebrew Computer Club, where Wozniak told him that he was trying to build a small home computer. Jobs was especially fascinated with the commercial possibilities of Wozniak's idea and convinced him to make and sell one. Steve Jobs is in charge of sales and negotiations and Steve Wozniak secretly builds the electronic machine.
According to Nolan Bushnell, after his return from India, where he was accompanied by a former high school classmate and later early Apple employee, Daniel Kottke, he decided to resign from Atari and found Apple Computer. Steve offered Bushnell a percentage of Apple, $50,000, which he declined. During this time, he experimented with psychedelic drugs, LSD, calling his experiences "one of the two or three most important things he had ever done in his life."
Starting Apple Computer
Due to the demands of his contract with Hewlett-Packard, Wozniak had to make his intention to build a personal computer known to the company, which rejected the idea as ridiculous. Thus, in 1976 the Apple Computer Company was born After achieving the first personal computer, named Apple I, Jobs dedicated himself to promoting it among other computer enthusiasts, digital electronics stores and fairs, selling about 200 copies. From then on, Apple's growth was remarkable. In just 10 years, Apple grew to a company with 4,000 employees and Jobs, at 27, was the youngest millionaire in 1982. [citation needed]
At the beginning of 1983, the Apple Lisa, the first personal computer with a Graphical User Interface designed especially for people with little computer experience, saw the light of day. Its price, more expensive than that of most competing personal computers, did not make the new product exactly a sales success, with Apple losing approximately half of its market share to IBM.
In an attempt to keep the company competitive, Steve Jobs, now an executive, convinced John Sculley, CEO of Pepsi-Cola, to take the reins of Apple. At Apple's annual conference on 24 On January 1, 1984, Jobs introduced with great expectations the Apple Macintosh, Apple's first personal computer with a mouse. However, Macintosh did not reach the expected commercial expectations. Towards the end of 1984, the differences between Sculley and Jobs became increasingly insurmountable, to the point of deteriorating the relationship, mainly due to the Macintosh project[quote required]. In May 1985, in the midst of a deep internal restructuring that resulted in the layoff of 1,200 employees, Sculley removed Jobs from his role as head of the Macintosh division.
Steve was never fired, he took a sabbatical and was still president of the council. I was out, nobody ran it, but I was out of the Macintosh project, which was his dream, and he never forgave me for that. Then he founded NeXt and was sued by the board for hiring Apple engineers, but he was never actually fired.John Sculley,
After several months of resignation, on September 17, 1985, Steve Jobs left the company that he himself had founded.
By this time Jobs had developed an aggressive management style and disrespectful leadership towards his employees, despite everything he was considered the most successful businessman of his generation.
Pixar Foundation
After leaving Apple in 1986, Steve Jobs bought The Graphics Group for $5 million, allocating an additional $5 million as an investment, hereinafter known as Pixar, a Lucasfilm subsidiary specializing in the production of computer graphics. Steve Jobs began to sign several agreements to produce animated films for the Walt Disney Company. rendering, RenderMan. Toy Story was the biggest box office success of 1995 and the first Walt Disney-Pixar film to win an Oscar.
In November 2001, Pixar released Monsters, Inc., grossing $780 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing animated film to date. His hits continued with Finding Nemo (2003), Cars (2006), WALL E (2008) and Up (2009), among others, which obtained the approval of critics and the public.
In 2003 and 2004, as Pixar's contract with Disney was running out, Disney CEO Michael Eisner tried unsuccessfully to negotiate a new deal, and in early 2004, Jobs announced that Pixar might seek a new deal. new partner to distribute his films after his contract with Disney expired. In October 2005, Bob Iger replaced Eisner at Disney and quickly worked to mend relations with Jobs and Pixar. On January 24, 2006, Jobs and Iger announced that Disney had agreed to buy Pixar in a stock transaction worth $7.4 billion. When the deal closed, Jobs became the largest single shareholder in the Walt Disney Company, with approximately seven percent of the company's shares. After the merger was complete, Jobs received that 7% and joined the Board of Directors as the largest individual shareholder. After Jobs' death, his shares of Disney were transferred to the Steven P. Jobs Trust, headed by Laurene Jobs.
Creation of NeXT Computer
After leaving Apple, at the age of 30, he decided to continue his business career in the computer industry and founded the company NeXT Computer Inc., with an investment of 7 million dollars. He brought together 7 of his former employees at Apple for the new project: Bud Tribble, George Crow, Rich Page, Susan Barnes, Susan Kare and Dan & # 39;l Lewin. In the business plan it was established that, as was done in Apple, the company would sell the client not only the hardware, but also the operating system and part of the user software.
The first NeXT workstation was introduced on October 12, 1988. It would officially receive the name NeXT Computer, although it was widely known as The Cube (The Cube, in English) for its distinctive aluminum alloy case. cube-shaped magnesium. The operating system of the new machine was named NeXTSTEP.
Sales of NeXT's computers were relatively modest, totaling an estimated 50,000 units in the 10 years the hardware division was in operation. Its object-oriented operating system and development environment were instead very influential. Despite its low market penetration, one of these teams was used by the scientist Tim Berners Lee to create the concept of the World Wide Web that would revolutionize the Internet.
As a consequence, Jobs in 1993 focused his company's strategy on software production, changing the company name to Next Software Inc. One of the most striking decisions was the sale of NeXT equipment built around the Intel 486 and SPARC microprocessors.
Apple Computer announced on December 20, 1996, the acquisition of NeXT Software for 400 million dollars in order to update the operating system of Macintosh computers, after the company's failure with Copland, a project that never came. to finish. Thus, Steve Jobs returned to be part of the Apple company.
The return to Apple
Steve Jobs's return to the Apple company occurred when the company was in decline, so he decided to regain control of it, he gained the trust of the company's management to the detriment of the then CEO, Gil Amelio, managing to be appointed interim director on September 16, 1997.
Some of Jobs's first actions in his new position were to sign an agreement with Microsoft, whereby Microsoft would invest money in Apple in exchange for 4% of its shares, even if this percentage did not give him voting rights in the decisions of the board of directors of the company; the provision of office software Office for Macintosh computers and the end of disputes over the graphical interface.[citation needed] The news of this measure was not well received.
Similarly accepted were the cancellation of the Mac OS licensing program for other hardware manufacturers, such as Power Computing, a company that would eventually be acquired by Apple, which prevented the popularization of this computing platform and discontinuing the Apple Newton, a device with features similar to a personal digital assistant. These measures, however, allowed the company to focus its efforts on improving its products and testing new lines of business, such as the digital music store iTunes Store, iPod audio players and iMac computers, which turned out to be a great success.
In 2006 Jobs signed a contract with Intel to use x86 architecture processors in all of its desktop and laptop computers.
In December 2009 Steve Jobs was named CEO of the Year by the Harvard Business Review magazine for "increasing Apple's stock market value by $150 billion over the past 12 years."
Resignation
On August 24, 2011, he resigned as CEO of Apple, and was replaced by Tim Cook. From this date until his death, he was Chairman of Apple's Board of Directors. Hours later After the announcement, the value of Apple's shares was reduced by 5 percentage points. According to the financial magazine Forbes, the resignation would negatively affect Apple and other companies, including the Walt Disney Company where Jobs was a director On August 24, 2011, the value of Walt Disney Co. shares fell by 1.5 percentage points.
Private life
He has been married since 1991 to Laurene Powell, whom he met at Stanford University. They lived in Palo Alto, California, with their three children. Steve also had another daughter named Lisa, the result of a youthful relationship with Chris Ann Brennan. Her paternity was not recognized until 1991. She suffered several serious health problems. In 2004 he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, a disease that he overcame after treatment at a California cancer clinic. At the beginning of 2009 he announced that he suffered from a hormonal imbalance and that he had to necessarily leave the company, and delegated most of his responsibilities on Timothy Cook, then chief operating officer. In April 2009, he underwent a liver transplant, and in September of that same year he returned to work. On January 17, 2011, Jobs left Apple again due to health problems, just over a month after the presentation of the iPad 2. Meanwhile, the company was left in charge of Tim Cook. Jobs publicly presented the iPad 2 on Wednesday, March 2. However, he declared that from his residence he would continue to deal with the company's most relevant decisions, such as in effect occurred.
Illness
In October 2001, he was diagnosed with cancer, and in mid-2004 he announced to his employees that he had a cancerous tumor on his pancreas. The prognosis for pancreatic cancer is often very poor; Jobs claimed that he had a rare, less aggressive type of pancreatic cancer known as pancreatic islet carcinoma. Despite his diagnosis, Jobs - a Buddhist and vegetarian - she resisted for 9 months to follow the instructions to perform a routine intervention in conventional medicine, and instead followed a special diet of alternative medicine in an attempt to end the disease. Harvard physician Dr. Ramzi Amir, a specialist in this type of cancer, stated:
Given the circumstances it seems clear that the choice of alternative medicine by Steve Jobs led him unnecessarily to early death.Steve Jobs succumbed to the disease more quickly because of his refusal to use conventional medicine.
If Steve Jobs's cancer had been surgically removed soon after his diagnosis, he might have survived without side effects.
Steve Jobs had neuroendocrine tumors of relatively little severity compared to the very aggressive adenocarcinoma that have 95% of patients with pancreatic cancer.
In my series of patients for many subtypes of this cancer the survival rate for more than a decade was 100%.
According to his biographer, Walter Isaacson, "for nine months he refused to undergo surgery for pancreatic cancer – a decision he later regretted when his health worsened." "Instead he used acupuncture, vegetarian diets, herbs medicines and other treatments that he found on the internet, and even consulted a psychic. Until July 2004, when he had surgery, he was also influenced by a doctor who in his clinic applied enemas, fasting, and other pseudoscientific treatments." He finally underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy, or Whipple procedure, which apparently removed the tumor. Jobs did not receive radiation therapy or chemotherapy. During Jobs' absence, Tim Cook, who was Apple's director of sales and operations, ran the company.
In early August 2006 Jobs gave a presentation at Apple's Annual Developers Conference (WWDC). His gaunt, thin appearance and unusually apathetic presentation, along with delegating exposure of important parts to other participants, sparked a flurry of speculation about his health. However, according to an article Ars Technica conference attendees who saw Jobs said he looked good. After the presentation an Apple spokesman said Steve was in iron health.
Two years later, concerns were also raised after the 2008 WWDC presentation. Apple officials claimed that Jobs suffered from a common medical condition and was taking antibiotics, while others blamed his emaciated condition on the Whipple procedure applied to his skin. surgery. During a conference in July discussing Apple's profits, participants responded to questions about Jobs' health being a "private matter." Others opined that shareholders had a right to know more given Jobs's personal style in running the company. The New York Times published an article based on an “off the record” phone conversation with Jobs in which he said that “although his health problems were more than a common ailment, they were not life threatening and he had no recurrences.” Of cancer."
On August 28, 2008, the Bloomberg corporate news service mistakenly published a 2,500-word obituary of Jobs that contained spaces for his age and cause of death. (News agencies usually update obituaries to facilitate news output in the event that a well-known person dies suddenly.) Although the error was immediately rectified, many news outlets wrote about it, intensifying rumors about Jobs's health. Jobs responded in the September 2008 "Let's Rock" keynote address by quoting Mark Twain.: "The news of my death is greatly exaggerated." At a later event, Jobs ended his presentation with a slide reading "110/70," referring to his blood pressure, and said he would not answer any more questions about his condition. health.
On December 16, 2008, Apple announced that Vice President of Marketing Philip W. Schiller would deliver the final speech at the 2009 Macworld Conference. This reignited questions about Jobs' health. In a January 5 statement 2009 on Apple.com, Jobs said that he had been suffering from a hormonal imbalance for several months.
In an internal Apple memo on January 14, 2009, Jobs wrote that he learned the week before that his health issues were more complex than he thought, and he announced a six-month leave of absence until the end of June 2009 so she can focus on her health. Tim Cook, who had previously been CEO during Jobs' absence in 2004, returned to acting CEO, with Jobs involved in "critical strategic decisions".
In April 2009, Jobs underwent a liver transplant at Methodist University Hospital Transplant Institute in Memphis, Tennessee. The diagnosis was described as "excellent."
On January 17, 2011, a year and a half after his liver transplant, Apple announced that he had been granted sick leave. Jobs announced his departure in a letter to his employees, stating that he made the decision for him "so I could focus on his health." As in the 2009 sick leave, Apple announced that Tim Cook would run day-to-day operations and Jobs would remain involved in major strategic decisions. Despite the leave, he made appearances at the iPad 2 launch on March 2, the WWDC presentation introducing iCloud on June 6, and at Cupertino City Hall on June 7.
Jobs announced his resignation as Apple's CEO on August 24, 2011. "Unfortunately, that day has come," Jobs wrote, "because I can no longer fulfill my duties and expectations as Apple's CEO." Jobs became Chairman of the Board of Directors and named Tim Cook as his successor Jobs worked for Apple until the day before his death.
Death
Steve Jobs died at his home in California at 2 pm on October 5, 2011, at the age of 56, as a result of respiratory arrest resulting from metastasis of pancreatic neuroendocrine cancer that was discovered in 2004., for which in 2009 he had received a liver transplant. The day before he had lost consciousness and died with his wife, children and sister by his side. His death was announced by Apple with a statement:
We are deeply saddened to announce that Steve Jobs is dead today.Steve's brilliance, passion and energy were the source of countless innovations that enrich and improve our lives. The world is much better because of Steve.
His love was for his wife, Laurene, and his family. Our hearts are with them and with all those who were touched by their extraordinary gifts.
Jobs leaves Laurene, his wife of 20 years, three children, and Lisa Brennan-Jobs, his daughter from a previous relationship. His family released a statement saying he died peacefully.
As told at the funeral by his biological sister, Mona Simpson, Jobs looked at his sister Patty, then at his children for a long moment, then at his wife Laurene. His last words spoken a few hours before his death were
OH WOW. OH WOW. OH WOW.
- These words were written in capital letters in the pamphlet The New York Times.
In the two weeks after his death, the Apple website featured a page with Jobs' name, his date of birth and death, and a black-and-white portrait. Clicking on the image presented the obituary note that said:
Apple has lost a visionary and creative genius, and the world has lost a wonderful human being. Those who have been lucky to meet him and work with Steve, we have lost a great friend, mentor and inspiring. Steve has left a company that only he could create, but his spirit will always live in Apple.
Pixar also dedicated their website to Jobs. John Lasseter and Ed Catmull, wrote a speech that said:
Steve was an extraordinary visionary, our dear friend and our guiding light in the Pixar family. He saw the potential Pixar could have before any of us and beyond what no one imagined. Steve played it with us and believed in our crazy dream of making movies animated by computer. The only thing I always said was “Do it great.” Pixar evolved in the way he did it for him and his love for life, his strength and integrity made us better people. He'll always be part of Pixar's DNA. Our hearts are with your wife Laurene and her children at this very difficult time.
A small private funeral took place on October 7, 2011, the details of which have not been released out of respect for Jobs's family.
Jobs is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park, Palo Alto's only non-denominational cemetery.
Personal Statements
Senior personalities expressed their sorrow at the death of Steve Jobs, including: Barack Obama (44th President of the United States), Bill Gates and Paul Allen (co-founders of Microsoft Windows), Sergey Brin and Larry Page (co-creators of Google), Steven Spielberg (renowned American filmmaker), Steve Wozniak (co-founder of Apple) and Mark Zuckerberg (co-founder of Facebook) among others.
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Bill Gates:
I'm really saddened by Steve Jobs's death. Melinda and I offer our sincere condolences to his family and friends, and to all that Steve has touched through his work.Steve and I met almost 30 years ago, we have been colleagues, competitors and friends over more than half of our lives. In the world you rarely see someone who has such a profound impact as Steve has had and whose effects will be felt for many generations to come.
For those who are fortunate to have worked with him, it has been an incredibly brilliant honor. I'm gonna miss you so much, Steve.
Steve Wozniak:
People, sometimes, have goals in life. Steve Jobs overcame every one of those he imposed.
Steven Spielberg:
Steve Jobs was the biggest inventor since Thomas Edison. He put the world in our hands.
Mark Zuckerberg:
Steve, thanks for being a mentor and a friend. Thank you for teaching us that what is generated can change the world. I'll miss you.
- However, not all statements were propitious to the Steve Jobs figure:
Richard Stallman is the founder of the free software movement in the world and of GNUPedia, considered a direct predecessor of Wikipedia:
As the mayor of Chicago Harold Washington said of his corrupt predecessor Mayor Daley, “I am not happy that he died, but yes that he is gone.” No one deserves to die (nor Jobs, neither Mr. Bill, nor even people guilty of evils worse than theirs). But we all do deserve the end of the evil influence of Jobs on people's computer. Unfortunately, that influence continues despite its absence. We can only trust that his successors will be less effective than he in trying to continue his legacy.
Free software pioneer Richard Stallman took issue with mainstream hagiography to focus attention on Apple's tight control over computers and handheld devices, how Apple restricted access to journalists, and how it continually violated privacy: “ Steve Jobs, the pioneer of the computer as a prison made attractive, designed to curtail fools of their freedom, is dead."
Relationship with the press
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Silicon Valley reporter Dan Gillmor said:
Apple has taken positions that in my opinion are declared hostile to the practice of journalism.
During the Jobs tenure, Apple sued three small bloggers who wrote news about the company and its future products, and tried to use the courts to force them to reveal their sources. Apple even sued a teenager, Nicholas Ciarelli, who had been writing glowing speculation about Apple products since he was 13 years old. His ThinkSecret blog was a pun on Apple's slogan "Think Different." Rainey wrote that Apple wanted to remove ThinkSecret because "it thought that any leak, even a favorable one, diluted the thump of highly choreographed product launches by Jobs, in his blue jeans and turtleneck, like a star.”
Although reporters wrote glowing eulogies after Jobs' death, critic James Rainey of the Los Angeles Times wrote that:
“They were courtesy of reporters who off-the-record told stories of a company obsessed by the secret to the point of paranoia. They remind us of the silence of a young blogger, punished an editor who dared to print an unauthorized biography of Jobs and repeatedly opposed the most basic principles of the free press. ”
Malcolm Gladwell in The New Yorker stated that:
“The sensitivity of Jobs was editorial, not inventive. His gift was to take what was before him and refine him without mercy.”
Evolution of Apple's stock
On the day of his death, Apple's market capitalization was $350.67 billion. When it went public in 1980, a share cost, according to its adjusted price, what today would be about two euros. On the day he died, a share was worth more than 280 euros ($377) including enviable financial interest. These data support the recognition of him as an executive who accompanied him in the last stage of his career. In the words of Rupert Murdoch, "Steve Jobs was simply the best CEO of his generation." He agreed on this with the Harvard Business Review magazine, which already recognized him as such at the end of 2009.
Acknowledgments
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- In 1985, decorated with the National Medal of Technology by U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
- In 2004, the Visionary Award for the Billboard Digital Entertainment Awards.
- On November 27, 2007 he was named the most powerful person in the business world by the magazine Fortune.
- On December 5, 2007, then governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, included him in the California Hall of Fame, at the California Museum of History, Women and Arts.
- In October 2009 he was chosen "Empresario de la Década" by the magazine Fortune.
- In December 2009 he was elected executive director of the year by the magazine Harvard Business Review by "increasing the value in stock exchange by 150 billion Apple in the last 12 years. »
Posthumous
- In March 2012 he was elected by the magazine Fortune as the best entrepreneur in modern history, followed by Bill Gates.
- On 7 July 2022, he received the posthumous decoration of the Presidential Medal of Freedom of the hands of President Joe Biden for his contribution to strengthening education based on technology and transforming the world around equality.
Criticism
- In the book The Agony and the Ecstasy of Steve Jobs by Mike Daisey shows the existence of an atmosphere of terror in the companies of Hon Hai where most of the components and electronic devices of companies such as Apple are produced.
- For the economist Vicenç Navarro López, the empire of Apple and Steve Jobs has been mounted on research and scientific development funded by public funds and production on the exploitation of workers under inhumane conditions, as well as that Jobs was a clearly hostile person to the workers and despised Bill Gates for his “excessive interest in helping the poor.”
- Eric Alterman, in a public article The Nation on 28 November 2011 Steve Jobs. An American shame (Steve Jobs. An American Disgrace points out the insensitivity to the working conditions of workers in their companies showing great hostility to the working class. Steve Jobs had advised President Obama to remove any kind of protection to workers or the environment.
- In February 2012, the FBI released secret data from an internal research on Steve Jobs in 1991, when the businessman (then president of the NeXT technology) was proposed for an international trade adviser to former President George H. W. Bush. "The FBI investigation comes to include details of the report that the magazine dedicated Time in 1983, to describe his 'superficial and cruel' character in personal relationships. Another source added that 'he had no personal life for his narcissism and superficiality' and that the success within Apple had cost him his 'intelligence and honesty and made him distort reality'. Another friend of Jobs claims that his ambition had angered many company workers...", although many interviewees generally ended up praising their intelligence, vision, tenacity and ability to work.