Sputnik 1
The Sputnik 1 (in Russian, Спутник-1, pronunciation [ˈsputnʲɪk], which means satellite) launched on October 4, 1957 by the Soviet Union, it was the first artificial satellite in history.
Sputnik 1 was the first of several satellites launched by the Soviet Union in its Sputnik program, most of them successfully. Sputnik 2 followed, as the second satellite to orbit and also the first to carry an animal on board, a dog named Laika. The first failure was suffered by Sputnik 3.
History
The Sputnik 1 spacecraft was the first successful attempt to put an artificial satellite into orbit around the Earth. It was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Tyuratam, 371 km southwest of the small town of Baikonur, in Kazakhstan (formerly part of the Soviet Union). The word sputnik in Russian means "fellow traveler" ("satellite" in astronautics). The full official name, however, is translated as "Artificial Terrestrial Satellite" (ISZ for its acronym in Russian).
Sputnik 1 was the first of a series of four satellites that were part of the former Soviet Union's Sputnik program and was planned as a contribution to the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), established by the United Nations Organization. Three of these satellites (Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2 and Sputnik 3) reached Earth orbit. Sputnik 1 was launched with the R-7 launch vehicle and incinerated during reentry on January 4, 1958.
The actual sequence of decision-making regarding the shape of Sputnik 1 was convoluted. Initially, Academician Mstislav Kéldysh devised a 1.5 t cone-shaped satellite, capable of making many physical measurements in space, but when the Soviets read that the American Vanguard project had designed and planned two satellites, one small Just to see if they could put something into orbit, the Russians decided to do the same, making what translates as "the simplest satellite," which was a centimeter larger in diameter and considerably heavier than the Vanguard. They had to see if conditions in low-Earth orbit could allow a larger satellite to stay there long enough. Four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Vanguard test satellite was launched into orbit, Khrushchev ridiculed it by comparing it to a "grapefruit." Once the Soviets discovered that they could also put test satellites into orbit, they thought about putting the Kéldysh satellite and space laboratory into orbit as Sputnik 3, doing so after an unsuccessful first launch.
Before release
Satellite construction project
On December 17, 1954, Soviet chief rocket scientist Sergei Korolev proposed a development plan for an artificial satellite to Defense Industry Minister Dimitri Ustinov. Korolev forwarded him a report by Mikhal Tikhonravov, with an overview of similar projects abroad. Tikhonravov had stressed that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology.
On July 29, 1955, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that, during the International Geophysical Year (IGY), the United States would launch an artificial satellite. Four days later, Leonid Sedov, a leading Soviet physicist, announced that they too would launch an artificial satellite. On August 8, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On August 30 Vasily Ryabikov - the head of the State Commission for test launches of the R-7 - held a meeting in which Korolev presented calculation data for a space flight path to the Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for launching satellites.
On January 30, 1956, the Council of Ministers approved the practical work of an artificial satellite in Earth orbit. This satellite, named Object D, was scheduled for completion in 1957-58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg (2,204.6 to 3,086.5 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440.9 to 661.4 lb) of scientific instruments. The first test launch of the "Object D" it was scheduled for 1957. Work on the satellite was to be divided among the institutions as follows:
- The USSR Academy of Sciences was responsible for the general scientific direction and the provision of research tools
- The Ministry of Defence Industry and its main design office, OKB-1, were responsible for the construction of the satellite
- The Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry would develop the control system, radiotechnical instruments and the telemetry system.
- The Ministry of Naval Industry would develop gyroscopic devices.
- The Ministry of Machinery Construction would develop means of launch, refueling and ground transportation.
- The Ministry of Defence would conduct the launches.
Preliminary design work was completed in July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be performed by the satellite were defined. Among them, measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ionic composition, the solar wind, the magnetic field and cosmic rays. These data would be valuable for the creation of future artificial satellites; a system of ground stations had to be developed to collect the data transmitted by the satellite, observe its orbit and transmit orders to it. Due to time constraints, the observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and the orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely accurate.
By the end of 1956 it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that "Object D" it could not be launched on time due to difficulties in creating scientific instruments and the low specific impulse produced by the completed R-7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently, the government rescheduled the launch for April 1958. Object D would later fly as Sputnik 3.
Fearing that the United States would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April-May 1957, before IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (220.5 lbs.), and easy to build, giving up complex and heavy scientific equipment in favor of a simple radio transmitter. On February 15, 1957, the USSR Council of Ministers approved this simple satellite, named & #34;PS Object". This version allowed visual tracking of the satellite by ground observers, and could transmit tracking signals to ground receiving stations. Two satellites were approved for launch, the PS-1 and the PS-2, with two R-7 (8K71) rockets, provided the R-7 completed at least two successful test flights.
Preparation of the launch vehicle and selection of the launch site
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The R-7 rocket was initially designed as an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by OKB-1. The decision to build it was taken by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the USSR Council of Ministers on May 20, 1954. The rocket was the most powerful in the world; it was designed with excess thrust as they were unsure how heavy the hydrogen bomb payload would be. The R-7 was also known by its designation GRAU (later GURVO, the Russian abbreviation for " Rocket Forces Main Directorate") 8K71. At that time, the R-7 was known to NATO sources as the T-3 or M-104, and Type A. A special reconnaissance commission selected to Tyuratam for the construction of a rocket test range, the 5th Tyuratam Range, commonly referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet era. The selection was approved on February 12, 1955 by the USSR Council of Ministers, but the site would not be completed until 1958. Actual construction work on the range began on July 20 by military construction units. On June 14, 1956, Korolev decided to adapt the R-7 rocket to "Object D" (Sputnik 3), which would later be replaced by the much lighter 'PS Object' (Sputnik 1).
The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 #5L) occurred on May 15, 1957. A fire started in the Blok D strap-on almost immediately on liftoff, but the booster continued to fly until 98 seconds after launch, when the strap-on detached and the vehicle crashed some 400 km (248.5 mi) away. On June 10 and 11, three launch attempts were made for the second rocket (8K71 No. 6) were carried out on June 10 and 11, but an assembly defect prevented the launch. The failed launch of the third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on July 12. An electrical short circuit caused the the vernier motors put the missile into an uncontrolled swing that caused all the straps to separate within 33 seconds of launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km (4.3 mi) from the pad.
The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 #8), on August 21 at 3:25 p.m. Moscow time, was successful. The rocket core propelled the dummy warhead to the desired altitude and speed, re-entered the atmosphere, and broke up at an altitude of 10 km (6.2 mi) after traveling 6,000 km (3,728.2 mi). On August 27, TASS issued a statement about the successful launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 #9), on September 7, was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric reentry, and thus required a redesign to fully comply. its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for launching satellites, and Korolev was able to convince the State Commission to allow the use of the next R-7 to launch the PS-1, allowing the rocket's military exploitation to be delayed. to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites.
On September 22, a modified R-7 rocket, designated Sputnik and indexed 8K71PS, arrived at the proving ground and launch preparations for the PS-1 began. Compared to military test vehicles R-7, the mass of the 8K71PS was reduced from 280 t to 272 t, its length with the PS-1 was 29,167 meters (95' 8.30') and the thrust at takeoff was 3.9 MN (876,755.2 lbf).
Observation Complex
The PS-1 was not designed to be controlled; could only be observed. Initial data at the launch site would be collected from six separate observatories and telegraphed to NII-4. Located back in Moscow (at Bolshevo), NII-4 was a scientific research arm of the Ministry of Defense dedicated to to missile development. The six observatories were clustered around the launch site, with the closest one located 1 km (0.6 mi) from the launch pad.
A second nationwide observation complex was established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket. Called the Command-Measurement Complex, it consisted of the coordination center at NII-4 and seven remote stations located along the satellite's ground track line. These monitoring stations were located at Tyuratam, Sary-Shagan, Yeniseysk, Klyuchi, Yelizovo, Makat in Guryev Oblast, and Ishkup in Krasnoyarsk Krai. The stations were equipped with radar, optical instruments, and communication systems. Data from the stations was transmitted by telegraph to NII-4, where orbital parameters were calculated by ballistics specialists.
The observatories used a trajectory measurement system called "Tral", developed by OKB MEI (Moscow Energy Institute), by which they received and controlled data from transponders mounted on the central stage from the R-7 rocket. The data was useful even after the separation of the satellite from the second stage of the rocket; Sputnik's location was calculated from the location data of the second stage which followed Sputnik at a known distance. Tracking of the rocket during launch was to be done through purely passive means, such as visual coverage and radar detection. Test launches of the R-7 showed that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of 200 km (124.3 mi), but radar could track it to nearly 500 km (310.7 mi).
Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked by amateur radio operators from many countries. The booster rocket was located and tracked by the British using the Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, the only telescope in the world capable of do so by radar. Canada's Newbrook Observatory was the first North American facility to photograph Sputnik 1. The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from the rocket's second stage; Sputnik's location was calculated from the location data of the second stage which followed Sputnik at a known distance. Tracking of the rocket during launch was to be done through purely passive means, such as visual coverage and radar detection. Test launches of the R-7 showed that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of 200 km, but radar could track it up to almost 500 km.
Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked by amateur radio operators from many countries. The booster rocket was located and tracked by the British using the Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, the only telescope in the world capable of to do so by radar. Canada's Newbrook Observatory was the first facility in North America to photograph Sputnik 1.
Features
Sputnik 1 had an approximate mass of 83 kg, had two radio transmitters (20.007 and 40.002 MHz) and orbited the Earth at a distance of between 938 km at its apogee and 214 km at its perigee. Radio signal analysis was used to obtain information about the concentration of electrons in the ionosphere. The temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of the radio beeps it emitted, indicating that the satellite had not been pierced by a meteorite.
The artificial satellite Sputnik 1 was a 58 cm diameter aluminum sphere carrying four long, thin antennas 2.4 to 2.9 m in length. The antennae looked like long whiskers pointing to the side. The ship obtained information pertaining to the density of the upper layers of the atmosphere and the propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere. The instruments and electrical power sources were housed in a capsule that also included radio transmitters operating at 20.007 and 40.002 MHz. (about 15 and 7.5 m in wavelength), emissions were made in alternating groups of 0, 3 s duration. The telemetry shipment to ground included temperature data inside and on the surface of the sphere.
Because the sphere was filled with nitrogen under pressure, Sputnik 1 had its first opportunity to detect meteorites, although it did not detect any. A loss of pressure inside, due to penetration of the outer surface, would have been reflected in the temperature data.
Operation history
Sputnik 1 was the first of a series of four satellites that were part of the former Soviet Union's Sputnik program and was planned as a contribution to the International Geophysical Year, established by the United Nations. Launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, formerly part of the Soviet Union. Sputnik 1 was launched on an R-7 rocket and incinerated during reentry on January 4, 1958. Three of these satellites (Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Sputnik 3) reached Earth orbit.
The transmitters functioned for three weeks, until the chemical batteries on board failed, and it was monitored with great interest throughout the world. The orbit of the then inactive satellite was later observed optically, until it fell 92 days after its launch (January 4, 1958), after having completed around 1440 orbits to Earth, accumulating a travel distance of approximately 70 million km. The apogee of the orbit dropped from 947 km after launch to 600 km on December 9.
The Sputnik 1 booster rocket also reached Earth orbit and was visible at night from Earth as a first-magnitude object, while the small but polished sphere was barely visible at sixth magnitude, so that it was more difficult to follow from Earth. Several replicas of the Sputnik 1 satellite can be seen in museums in Russia; there is another next to the Russian embassy in Madrid in Spain and one more is on display at the Smithsonian "National Air and Space Museum" (Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum) in Washington D.C.
News
In 2003 a reserve unit of Sputnik 1, called the "model PS-1" it was sold on eBay (without the radio, which was removed during the 1960s as it was classified as military equipment). It had been on display at a science institute near kyiv. It is estimated that anywhere from four to twenty models were built for testing purposes. A model of Sputnik 1 was given as a gift to the United Nations and now decorates the entrance hall of its headquarters in New York.
In 2001 the book Sputnik: The shock of the century, by Paul Dickson, was published.