Sophist

The sophists (from the Greek σοφία [sophía], and σοφός [sophós], «wise») were students and teachers of rhetoric, who developed their activity in the democratic Athens of the 5th and 4th century B.C. C. They focused on relativism, nature, creation of laws, morality, knowledge of language, the constructivist epistemological conception and skepticism regarding the absolute value of knowledge. His philosophy is known through fragments and testimonies from Plato, Aristotle and Flavio Filostrato. The natural philosophers (physis), the pre-Socratics, had developed different theories to explain the cosmos. The sophists and Socrates are going to change the object of philosophy. Now, the subject of reflection is man (nomos) and society (polis).

Their detractors (such as Plato and Aristotle) believe that, considering only the persuasion of an audience, be it in political assemblies or during legal trials, sophists develop reasoning whose goal is only persuasive effectiveness, and not it. true, and as such they usually contain sophisms (fallacies). Despite negative opinions, from the XIX century various thinkers have tried to vindicate the sophists.

Etymology

The term sophist is the name given in classical Greece to the person who made a profession of teaching wisdom. Already in the Odyssey, Ulysses is described as sophon as «witty». On the contrary, Euripides calls the sophía "cleverness" and the sophon "wisdom", trying to differentiate the intensity and degree of knowledge of the things they have respectively. men and gods. Sophós and Sophía originally denoted a special ability to perform certain tasks as reflected in the Iliad (XV, 412). Later it would be attributed to someone who had "practical intelligence" and was an expert and wise in a generic sense. It would be Euripides who would add a more precise meaning as "the practical art of good government" (Eur. I.Á.749) and which was used to point out the qualities of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. However, as time passed, there were differences regarding the meaning of sophós: on the one hand, Aeschylus names those who make what is known useful, while for others it is the opposite, being the one who knows For nature. From this moment on, a current was created, which can already be seen in Píndar, who gives a derogatory look to the term sophós, assimilating it to "charlatan".

History

The sophists were considered as those intermediaries between the philological ideas exposed in previous literature and the contemporary. Just as the rhapsodes were travelers, they knew different cultures, totally different from the Greek. It was not until the Persian expulsion that they settled in Athens. Curiously, the rhapsodes would become sophist disciples. That is why problems related to customs and laws were raised. Are the customs and laws a simple agreement, a convention, or are they natural? This is how the idea of relativism arose. The truth was what the majority thought, so they went from teaching "wisdom" to oratory. Opinion as a criterion of truth, since they affirmed that objective truth did not exist, a position criticized by contemporaries such as Socrates.

In the city they dedicated themselves to teaching epic and archaic poetry together with existing philological theory and interpretations to their disciples, however, their main focus of interest was Homeric epic. The intention aspired to learn from the great writers of the past and perfect their legacies. They went from city to city teaching to be good citizens and to succeed in politics. The sophists were the first to reflect on language. The art of public speaking, rhetoric, was essential in Greek democracy, where citizens constantly participated. The teachings of the sophists had a practical purpose, knowing how to function in public affairs. They were the first thinkers who charged money for their teachings and precursors of pedagogy, inventors in turn of education in an artificial environment —characteristic of Western civilization— instead of the traditional Greek training given within the social environment of adults (sunusia). One of the main sophists was Protagoras (480-410 BC).

During the 5th and 4th centuries, even in Greek culture, there was resistance to the transition from literature as an oral language to writing. However, the sophists used it a lot to capture their ideals. This approach to writing turned the sophists into notable figures in Athens since they used to compose dramatic texts of tragedy, which, although their main purpose was to be represented in the theater of Dionysus, could also be read in books. In the government of Euclid (403 BC) the Ionic alphabet, originating from writing in Ionia, became popular in Greece and was adopted in Athens in literary texts and documents, possibly due to the sophist influence since many came from this region. On the other hand, the sophists also worked as copyists at the time since they had to provide their disciples with the writings of great works, in turn, they also took advantage of the medium to distribute their writings for practical teaching.

The sophists did a great deal of philological and linguistic work, such as the categorization of verbs and nouns, grammatical analysis of words, interpretation of meanings, correct practice of syntax, distinctions between words, textual corrections, types of sentences, use of gender and word endings, etc. However, they cannot be considered pioneers of the philological discipline since their interest was focused on studying rhetoric in an educational way, but to understand Homeric verses.

Sophists

Among the sophists, certain characters such as Protagoras and Gorgias stood out, considered as the fathers of relativism and skepticism:

Protagoras of Abdera (485-411 BC) appeared in Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, where the phrase "Man is the measure of all things, of all is mentioned. those that are insofar as they are and those that are not insofar as they are not". This expression speaks of the fact that the law (nomos) is a convention and for this reason it can be changed according to the interest of each human community, mentioning that the only judges in whom one must believe are men by majority. Protagoras, also gave his opinion about the gods saying "Regarding the gods I cannot be sure if they exist or not, nor what they look like, because there are many things that prevent certain knowledge: the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of the human life". Protagoras was a defender of customs, although he does not know if the gods really exist. If he will defend that they are revered as a product of the will of the majority. He was interested in developing skepticism in relation to human knowledge and moral relativism, alluding to the fact that it is a conviction. He is credited as the teacher of virtue (knowledge and ability to succeed according to the sophists).

Gorgias (483-375 BC) was known for his interest in stylistic problems. He was born at the turn of the century V a. C. he was a disciple of the philosopher and poet Empedocles. His main interest was to teach rhetoric to his disciples. He wrote two plays; the first, Praise of Helena and Defense of Palamedeses ] in which he proposed a new prose. He was also interested in the tragic theater. It is believed that this sophist influenced the famous Aristophanes according to a reference in his writing The Frogs. He was an advocate of skepticism totally. He wrote about nature or non-being, mentioning three phrases: & # 34; Nothing exists & # 34;, & # 34; If it existed, it could not be known & # 34; and "If it could be known, it could not be communicated". They became a direct attack for Parmenides of Elea, as the "Nothing exists" against "Being is and cannot not be". This occurred since Gorgias managed to demonstrate that what Parmenides said did not make sense. His most renowned disciples were Isocrates and Alcidamante. The first was also a great speaker and teacher of the following generations; however, although he had great learning in literature, he leaned more towards "speaking well". The second, followed more the line of the rhapsodes in oratory, a more improvised way.

Hippias of Elide (443-399 BC) dedicated himself to the investigation of <antiquities> which could be the first attempt to establish the Greek chronology based on cultural practices that could influence the names of different regions. He also pointed out parallels between poets such as Orpheus, Museo, Hesiod, and Homer. It could be considered as the first indications of Greek literary historiography, however, his interest as a sophist was specifically by profession. He also gained other knowledge in areas such as astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music. Hippias is credited with studying the language with music, valuing rhythm and lyrics. He is credited with discovering the quadratrix used in Greek geometry and creating mnemonic systems.

Prodicus of Ceos (460 BC) during his life focused on learning about language and its meanings. His work provides the basis for a theory of religious interpretation and myths according to euhemerism, also characterized the soul as the result of an organization.

Antiphon (480-411 BC) was a critic of the laws and stressed the importance of education. He was a defender of the hedonistic theory, which states that human actions are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure. He devoted himself to writing rhetoric and political speeches. He saw the laws as an artificial convention contrary to human nature, he characterized them as unstable and for this reason they are subject to fluctuations.

Critias (460-403 BC) is said to have been a disciple of Gorgias and related to Socrates. He wrote a catalog of inventors and compilation of the invention of the Phoenician alphabet, customs and constitutions. As a sophist his main interest was education. He also wrote tragic and satirical drama, elegiac poems on themes of & lt; antiquity & gt; and epic poems highlighting as poetae philosophi and poetae docti.

Thrasymachus (459-400) He criticized the law since he considered that the law only sought to favor the strong, these were dictated to exercise a benefit or convenience to them. In turn, he understands that justice benefits and is convenient for the established government, which is the strongest, allowing or justifying abuses of power through laws.

Evolution of the term

The verb sophídsesthai, “to practice sophía”, underwent a similar evolution when it ended up being understood as “to deceive”. The derivation sophistés was given to the Seven Wise Men in the sense of "philosophers" and that is how Herodotus calls Pythagoras, Solon, and those who founded the Dionysian cult. This was also the name given to mousikes and poets and, in general, to all those who performed an educational role. Pejorative usage began to take shape in the V century BCE. C., coinciding with the extension of the use of the term to prose writers. The moment coincides with an increase in the suspicion of the Athenians towards those who showed greater intelligence. Isocrates reviled that the term "had fallen into dishonor" and Sophocles attributes it to the fact that educators and teachers received remuneration for their work. This is the most widespread thesis today.

However, it was accepted in Ancient Greece that poets charged for their services. The contempt with which the sophists were sometimes treated was not born from the very fact of receiving remuneration, but from doing so, above all, through training in the so-called areté, the art of politics and politics. citizenship, which included all the persuasive techniques to gain a place in the administration of the polis. So the term sophist came to be considered as people lacking in principles and morals, corrupt of the young and falsifiers.

Criticism

Due to this written practice, the sophists suffered attacks since many considered it a propaganda for the abandonment of the oral tradition and the use of memory, which would also affect the philosophical reasoning that was based on the word to be transmitted. On the other hand, the Socratic and Platonic ideals demanded a denial of written expression, the Greeks had a great influence in reviving the wisdom of the great authors through the spoken word since in this way it was transmitted by them.

Plato criticized the sophists for their formalism and their dialectical traps, pretending to teach virtue and to be a man, when no one from a purely sectoral knowledge, such as that of rhetorical discourse, can claim such a right. He also criticized the fact of charging, later the State would accuse them of having a lack of morals, which caused them discredit and a bad reputation in the teaching they taught.

The first requirement of that areté was the mastery of words to be able to persuade others. "Being able to make the weakest arguments solid and strong," says Protagoras. Gorgias says that with words one can poison and bewitch. It is a matter, then, of acquiring mastery of deceptive reasoning. The art of persuasion is not at the service of the truth but of the interests of the speaker. They called this art "guiding souls." Plato will say later that it was "capture" of souls.

According to some authors, they were not, therefore, properly speaking philosophers. Plato said: "The sophist looks like a philosopher, but he is not: he is a very strange man whose being consists in not being, and he tries, before anything else, to say and express things in such a way that they convince ". For those who are of that opinion, however, they had in common with the philosophers an attitude that can be called philosophical: skepticism and relativism. They did not believe that the human being was capable of knowing a truth valid for all. Everyone has "his" truth about him. On the contrary, there are those who maintain that they were, and that Plato's acid criticisms correspond to a dispute over the same group of potential disciples and their political and philosophical differences.

The pejorative sense will also come from Aristotle: a sophist is the one who uses sophistry to reason. The most outstanding members of the sophistry were: Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Thrasymachus, Critias and Callicles.

Revindication today

Faced with the philosophical tradition, some authors from the XIX and XX centuries have tried to vindicate the philosophical importance of the sophists. For example, Nietzsche considered them as authentic philosophers against Socrates and Platonism. George Grote made a passionate defense of the movement in his History of Greece. George B. Kerferd, following Grote in part, traced a history of his interpretations from Hegel to the present day, showing that his Thoughts can be analyzed as serious philosophical doctrines. Giorgio Colli has highlighted that the logical rigor of Gorgias de Leontinos is no less than that of Plato. In addition, he hypothesizes that perhaps the sophist was the creator of the refutation by reduction to absurdity.Michel Onfray has also tried to highlight the role of the sophists in Greek philosophy.