Soninke

The Soninké are a West African ethnic group that lives in groups scattered between Senegal, Mauritania and Mali, as well as in eastern Gambia, Ivory Coast, Guinea Bissau, Ghana and Burkina Faso. It is estimated that today they can exceed a population of 1,703,000 people. They are a Mande people who descend from the Bafour and are closely related to the Imraguen of Mauritania. They were the founders of the ancient Ghana Empire, Wagadu (750-1240 AD). The Soninke are still the backbone of countries like Gambia, Senegal and Mali today. Throughout history they have been diamond traders in gold, salt and diamonds.

They speak the Soninke language, which belongs to the group of Mandé languages, to which Mandenká (Mandinká, Koniake, Bambara, Dioula, Kagoro, etc.), Bissa, Bozo, Mende, Susu, yacouba, vai and ligbi. This linguistic group is part of the Niger-Congo languages.

After contact with Almoravid merchants from the north around the year 1066, the Soninke nobles embraced Islam, being one of the first sub-Saharan ethnic groups to follow the teachings of Muhammad. They are generally Sunni Muslims. There are some Christian communities and also animist groups.

Etymology

They call themselves soninke, a word that is actually the singular form of soninko, but they are also known by the names given to them by their Wolof neighbors sarakhoulé b> (which literally means white person and was what the Soninke called the French when they came to colonize the region), are called marakas by the Bambara, wangara by the Mandinga, songhai by the Wakoré, aswanik by those of Aswan or Toubakaï. They also include the Maraka and Wangara subgroups.

Geography

The Soninke today live throughout West Africa, especially around the land of the former Empire of Ghana, occupying a territory of about 800 km from east to west from the middle valley of the Senegal River.

The majority of the Soninke live in western Mali and on the country's border with Senegal, between Nara and Nioro du Sahel.

According to the 1988 census in Senegal, the Soninke numbered 113,184, 1.7% of the country's total population estimated at 6,773,417 inhabitants. The search for work during colonial France led many Soninke to build communities in Dakar and other large cities in Africa.

In Mauritania, they live to the south in the Guidimakha and Gorgol regions, along the Senegal River valley. They are without a doubt the largest growers in the country.

It should be noted that there is a large diaspora outside Africa, especially in the Paris region. In the 1970s, the Soninke represented almost 70% of the sub-Saharan emigrant population in France.

History

The Soninke were the founders of the Empire of Ghana - also known as Wagadu -, located south of the Sahara in the middle valley of the Senegal River. Its foundation, according to the oral tradition of the Soninke, is due to a legendary figure, Igo Khass Dingka (meaning "big old man"), who came from the Aswan region in Egypt, from there the name Aswanik, according to which they are called soninko.

Legends

The ancestor of the soninko, Dingka, belonged to the nobility of Egypt and was a lieutenant of the pharaoh. When Dingka arrived in West Africa, in the region now occupied by Mali, Mauritania and Senegal, he encountered a nation of farmers, the Karos, whom he managed to dominate along with his followers, thanks to the fact that his troops were excellent horsemen and were armed with spears, swords and iron shields.

Legend has it that a seven-headed snake called Bida reigned in the region, with whom Igo Khass Dingka had to negotiate to establish the Wagadu State. The snake agreed to leave his empire on the condition that the most beautiful girl in Wagadu be given to him every seven years. In ancient times, the Soninke considered that a person had to be sacrificed to found a town.

By the pact with the snake, it would give Wagadu wealth, gold and rain for crops. Igo Khass Dingka is the ancestor of the soninke surnames Wague, Diaby, Gassama, Doucouré, Cisse, Sylla, Tandia, Sokhona, Touré, Diane, Beret, Sakho Baradji and Bakhayokho.

Expansion and fall of the Empire

The Empire of Ghana controlled, from the 8th century, trans-Saharan trade and its peak came in the 9th centuries. and

In the 11th century, after several Almoravid invasions from the North, the empire progressively weakened until its final fall in the 13th century and a time of diaspora began throughout the West African region. Due to persecution by the Berbers, in the 8th century, the Soninke people migrated southwards, dispersing across very distant from each other, which means that currently they do not occupy a defined territory, but rather mixed with many other peoples. They gave rise to more ethnic groups such as the Bozo, descendants of the Sarakhoulés dispersed from the XII century, who became fishermen in the Niger River.

Through dispersion, they spread Islam, as they are one of the first Islamized peoples in sub-Saharan Africa. The trip is a tradition among the Soninke, which explains all their movements.

Other foundations

The three main Soninke groups are the Marka, Nono and Azer. Other important groups are the Sisse, Drame, Sylla and Kante. Some of the Soninke groups have been diluted over the centuries by their intermarriage with Wolof, Serer and Malinke.

Although oral traditions speak primarily of the Soninke of Wagadu, the Soninke apparently formed other prestigious kingdoms in the region, such as Kaarta, Gajaaga and Gidimaxa. Each of these kingdoms was governed by the “tunka” or king, the only one who was the “owner or master of force, of power”, the “fankama”.

They also created the kingdom of Galam in Senegal, in the valley of the Senegal River, which was an ancient kingdom that was located south of Fouta-Toro and east of the kingdom of Djolof. The kingdom was enslaved several times by the Djolof at the time when they were an empire, by the Fouta-Toro and by the Bambara kingdom of Kaarta. They lived from agriculture, from the gum arabic and gold trade. Galam was the most important slave trading site in Senegal, the Soninke owned Berber slaves. They rarely offered their own slaves to French slavers, giving them those captured in neighboring countries.

The Galam suffered raids by the Moors in search of slaves for the cultivation of rubber. But most of the commercial exchanges were with the European contractors who initiated the transatlantic slave trade and the Moors through trans-Saharan trade.. The city of Bakel is located in the ancient kingdom of Galam. In the 19th century, Mamadou Lamine Drame, a soninke marabout from Galam, presented one of the greatest resistances against colonialism in the Senegal.

Society

Social and political organization

The ancient Soninke Empire was ruled by an emperor who had great power and was in control of trans-Saharan trade. His power was limited by some notable people who were in charge of administration, taxes, the army, justice and the rights of others. So the central government of the empire was made up of the emperor and the nobles who we can consider as important advisors. The peripheral courts had some freedom to decide on their internal problems however, they were supervised by the imperial court on the problems of the entire empire such as the army. At the time of Wagadu there was an Emperor at the head of the Empire followed by the noble families. Even after the fall of the empire most Soninke families still maintain this hierarchy in their villages. In the organization each soninke occupies a place at that level. One cannot be a king or a blacksmith by choice, but the father teaches his children what skills they will develop and these are understood as a merit that is inherited from the ancestors.

Since pre-colonial times, the Soninke society practiced the slave trade and progressively became a slave society. Until the end of the 19th century, in the Soninke regions, a third or half of the population were slaves. To control them, They are confined to specific neighborhoods in towns, a custom that is still maintained.

Social hierarchy

The 'tunka', the king, is the political leader. He owns the land in his country and what grows there. The leaders of the people must have his blessing before exercising.

The current soninke make up a very hierarchical society that includes three levels:

• Them Hooro are free men, the highest social rank. They are the rulers, they have the right to punish and do justice.
  • Among them are the tunkalemmu (principes that are destined to reign). Only they can become king, because they carry that leadership in the blood by inheriting it from their ancestors.
  • Next class are the mango (Courtesans, warriors, confidants of the Tunkalemmu). When there is a problem between the different classes of free man play the role of mediators. When there is a war it becomes the head of the army since its origins are the "kuralemme", which means warrior.
  • The last kind of free man is the modinuThe priest. Its origin derives from the influence of Islam within Soninke society. The priests do justice and educate the population. They teach Islam and protect it with prayers, and are highly respected because of their knowledge of religion.
• The “naxamala” are the caste men dependent on the first (they are artisans, blacksmiths, musicians, historians...)
  • The "tago" or blacksmiths occupy the first class among them. They make weapons, work tools and jewelry. They are respected for their knowledge of iron.
  • After the blacksmith comes the carpenter "sakko". Friends of the inhabitants of the jungle, are the confidants and teachers of demons and are of great importance because of their great knowledge about wood.
  • After them, the singer "jaroo". During the ceremonies they take care of animation, talk and sing. They are the most famous in the dependent class "naxamala". They are the only ones who are allowed to say what they want and are the speakers of society, detailing the history of the most important Soninke families.
  • The last class in the "naxamala" is the "garanko" shoemaker, in charge of leather shoes, assembly seats and sables covers.
• Finally, the “kome” are the descendants of slaves who were released early in the centuryXX.. They work for the teachers, who had to take care of them, but it wasn't always like that. Slaves have always been the main workforce in Soninke society. The prosperity of Soninke society is due to its abundance in the field of agriculture. In the past there were more slaves of free men.

The Soninke social structure and organization are typical of the Mande groups with whom they are ethnically related. The Soninke live in compact towns where houses are built in two different styles:

• A style of round houses with brick walls and straw roofs.
• Other, rectangular with brick walls, with separate rooms inside and flat floor roofs.

It is not uncommon to find Soninke families of more than 100 people sharing daily meals.

Distribution of work

During the rainy season, both men and women cultivate. However, women usually stay at home to cook and take care of their children. They also do jobs like dyeing cotton fabric. Dark indigo blue is considered a typical soninke color. Emigration had a huge place in his life. Most of the time, women and children stay in the house only when young people go to neighboring cities to find money.

In the past, Soninke men were dedicated to preparing the land for crops, while women worked the gardens for family consumption. Today, however, Soninke men have one of the highest rates of labor emigration in West Africa. Approximately 50 to 70% of the male population is away from home for periods that often last two to four years. With such female numerical predominance, in a society of women, the elderly and children, Soninke society is evolving towards a kind of matriarchy.

Marriages

Soninke marriages are made within each social category, classes do not marry each other. It is very important for the soninke to maintain this social organization so that the free man does not marry the man in charge or the slaves. A priest can marry a princess, however, a prince cannot marry a priestess.

There are different steps to follow when celebrating a marriage in Soninke society. If a man likes a woman he has to send his parents to convince the woman's family to give him his daughter in marriage. If both families reach an agreement, they do what is called “I na tamma laga”, the commitment, which takes place in the mosque. After this step every month the fiance must give to her future in-laws her 'Nakhafa', the fiancé's contribution to the family of her future wife for food and other expenses her. Every Tabaski or other holidays, he must also give meat to his future in-laws. This is not mandatory if he does not have the means to do so.

When the two families agree that it is time for the new couple to start living together, they do what is called "futtu" the final marriage agreement. Usually, on a Thursday afternoon, the woman is sent to her husband's house. On that occasion, the new couple's friends spend the day with them in separate rooms at their parents' house. This event is the 'karikompe'. The couple got married and have new advisors. The man's advisor is the "Khoussoumanta-yougo" and the girl's advisor is the "khoussoumanta-yakhare". After a week of celebration, the women gather to show the results of the gifts that the couple received from their parents, especially the woman's mother. Marriages involve the payment of a dowry, but unlike traditional neighboring towns, this dowry is given to the bride in place of her parents.

Polygamy is very common. The society is patrilineal. In the past, inheritances were passed from parents to children. Today, Muslim rules have forced one-eighth to go to the widow, while the rest is distributed equally but taking into account that daughters receive half as much as sons.

Culture

In the past, men had their hair braided or in dreadlocks, smeared with shea. Women often had their heads shaved or also had braided hairstyles, which were very difficult to achieve. They tattooed their lips and gums to highlight the whiteness of their teeth and enhance the beauty of their faces. Women always wore a decorative scarf on their heads.

The Soninkes do not practice facial scarification as much as the Bambara. Both men and women make two scarifications on the temples and women make three more on the cheeks. Circumcision of girls was widely practiced in the past, but is no longer practiced. The woman pierces her ears with several holes in which several gold rings are placed for the richest, silver or bronze in the most modest cases. Jewelry such as necklaces, bracelets and anklets are widely used.

Traditionally, men wear the boubou (soninke robe), often white, beige or indigo blue, tying a leather belt around the waist. They also wear embroidered slippers, called moukhou, or leather sandals, the tepou. Women wore a skirt below the knee, the fendeli, and on top a shirt over which they put on a tunic usually of indigo blue called dorok khor (big clothes). With Islamization, the skirt will reach the ankles. The bazin ("bassa") is the fabric used for parties, it is a noble, high-quality fabric. Under their clothes, women wear pearl necklaces around their waists that are worn as seductive underwear and can only be shown in private called khaño or dieldiele. On their heads, soninké women artistically tie a scarf or scarf, called tikka or kala.

Circumcision

The author Mamadou Soumare assures "Above traditional surgery, the ritual of circumcision makes tests, physical resistance, pain, courage, in a word, the personality of the child.&# 3. 4; Parties are organized for many weeks from the date of the circumcision that has been chosen by the notables of the town. In order to prepare them psychologically, the elders who were circumcised the previous year organize a "tam-tam" to welcome the new one. Throughout the ceremony the "drum" called "Daine" in the center and the young man who is to be circumcised sits around forming a circle together with the other adolescents of the village, the young girls, women, men and slaves. During this time the boys, dressed in beautiful 'Disa' scarves, sing for them.

Clitoral ablation

Clitoral ablation or female genital mutilation is a common practice in the Soninke population, but it is not preceded by public rituals and acts as is the case with male circumcision. According to Sylvie Fainzang and Odile Journet, this operation is performed "at an age ranging from a few weeks to the first months, during the breastfeeding period." According to the same authors, this operation is extremely painful and its sole objective is to correct " biological sex to make it conform to the social representations of femininity, which is seen as exclusively receptive." Thus, this practice would have a more aesthetic than ritual meaning, something that has been criticized by numerous researchers.

Gastronomy

Soninke cuisine is very varied. As an example, breakfast foods include "fonde" (millet porridge, sugar, milk and salt) and "Sombi" rice, millet or corn porridge. For lunch "demba tere" and "takhaya" They are very common, both contain rice and peanuts which are ingredients frequently used by the Soninke. 'Dere', a stew, is a mixture of millet and beans.

Surnames

According to Makhtar Diouf, a researcher at IFAN (Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire), some characteristic names of Soninke origin - although sometimes distant - are: Baradji, Bathily Barro, Diab, Diagana, Diawara, Drame, Gassama, Camara, Fofana, Kebe, Konte, Krubally Touré Bakhayokho, Sakho, Sylla (or Silla), Sankareh, Cissakho (or Sissoko), Soumare, Talla, Dabo. Many others could be added, such as Diakite, Doucoure, Sanogo, Nder, Khouma, Kairi, Loum, Khouli, Diane, Samasa Juwara, Sokhona, or Konate Tounkara. Due to ethnic mixing, many Soninke also carry many other names.

Cissé (and its variants Cise, Sise or Siise) holds a special place because it was the surname of the first six soninke clans of the six sons of Dingka. 'Ci' means "horse", 'cisé' It would be "gentleman".

In addition, each surname is associated with a name of "honor", for example, the Diabys are also called "Gassama", although some people who have the surname Gassama do not use of the other name. It also happens that names such as Diawara and Traore share the same name of honor: Dikko.

Economy

The Soninke have traditionally combined agriculture and commerce, which are their main economic activities. The soninke has reached an adequate high standard of living.

They grow sorghum, rice, peanuts and millet. They raise large herds of goats, sheep, horses and cows. Hunting and fishing are hardly important.

Descendants of an empire dedicated above all to trade, many Soninke of the 21st century are dedicated to the same trade today. They control important plots of local businesses and there are groups that move to important businesses far from their locations. In fact, not only in Senegal, Gambia, Mali and Mauritania do they engage in trade, but also in France – where they are by far the largest Senegalese group – they practice this economic activity.

Trade networks, led by Wangara merchant confederations, spread Soninke culture through people in most of Mali and Senegal, southern Mauritania, northern Burkina Faso, as well as parts of Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. The Maraka - trading communities and plantations Soninke and plantations (just north of the city of Ségou, Mali) were an economic powerhouse under the Bambara empire and built trade routes throughout the region.

Soninké language

Religion

Currently, the majority of Soninké (80%) are Sunni Muslims, except for small Christian groups, and the rest maintain a mixture of various animist religions. Although the soninké are mainly practitioners of the Muslim religion, they retain certain beliefs inherited from the time before Islamization. In fact, apparently, there is a cult of rain and the forces of water, whose origin dates back to the cult of Bida, the protective serpent of the Wagadu empire. They also believe in “suxuna”, beings capable of inflicting fatal diseases on men and women.