Slovenia

Sloveniawhose official name is Republic of Slovenia (in Slovenian, Republika Slovenija (?·i); former Carantania) is one of the twenty-seven sovereign states that are part of the European Union. It borders with Italy to the west; with the Adriatic Sea to the southwest; with Croatia to the south and to the east; with Hungary to the northeast; and with Austria to the north. It has a population of 2 080 908 inhabitants as of 1 January 2019. The most populous capital and city is Ljubljana.

The current Slovenia was formed on June 25, 1991 upon gaining independence from Yugoslavia, after a relatively short armed conflict called the Ten-Day War (which was the first war of the dissolution of Yugoslavia), in which it opposed the army of the former Yugoslav federation. At that time it was already the most developed country in that federation.

In 2004 it joined the European Union. Slovenia joined the euro on January 1, 2007 and the Schengen area in 2004. In 1993 it had joined the Council of Europe and since July 2010 it has part of the OECD.

Etymology

The Slovene people had preserved the ancestral designation of the mythical Slavs as their ethnonym, also included in the name of the state. The word «Slovenia» (Slovenija) is a cognate coined in the XIX century by the movement romantic nationalist who sought independence of the traditional territories of Slovenia into a single nation. However, most Slovene academics preferred to refer to the lands inhabited by ethnic Slovenes as "Slovene lands", as there are several provinces belonging to other countries.

The words «Slovenia» (Republika Slovenija) and «Slovakia» (Slovenská republika) have the same etymological origin and are often confused with each other in many languages, including they Spanish.

History

Prehistory and antiquity

In ancient times the current territory of Slovenia was covered by the culture of the urn fields, later, in the iron age, the Hallstatt culture developed in the region.

In the II century B.C. C. historical sources record the existence of the Kingdom of Noricum in the Eastern Alps. This kingdom maintained friendly relations with the Romans, to whom they sold iron. This iron was, in fact, the key for the Romans to produce effective weapons, necessary in their wars against the Celts. In the year 16 BC, Noricum was associated with the Roman Empire where it preserved its autonomy under the terms of the "ius gentium". This law allowed Noricum to preserve its own social organization until the fall of the Roman Empire. However, Roman culture and Romanization spread in Noricum.

The most important Roman-era cities in the area were Celeia (now Celje), Emona (Ljubljana), Nauportus (Vrhnika) and Poetovio (Ptuj). The Slovenian territory was divided between the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Italy, Noricum and Pannonia.

The castle of Brdo dating from the centuryXVI.

In the IV century, Noricum was divided into two Roman provinces, Noricum ripense and Noricum mediterraneum, the latter also called Interriore Noricum. While the first of these provinces was invaded by Germanic tribes at the Fall of the Roman Empire, the second was able to maintain its social structure and, after the occupation by the Ostrogoths, declared its own independence.

Some believe that the Slavic ancestors of present-day Slovenes settled in this area around the VI century. However, there are others who maintain that they descend from the indigenous peoples of the Eastern Alps.

Middle and Modern Ages

In the year 595, the Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus cites the first stable Slavic and Slovene state as "Provincia Sclaborum", which would later be known as Carantania. In the year 623, the Slavs were united in an alliance under a king named Samo, also known in historical sources as Marca Vinedorum, which included the territories of Carantania. In 658, after Samo's death, the Slavic Alliance disintegrated, but Carantania survived and maintained its independence.

The Great Carantania towards the year 800 AD.

In the year 745, Charantania, which until then was a pagan nation, was seriously threatened militarily by the Avars from neighboring Pannonia. That is why Duke Borut requested military aid from the friendly Bavarians, who were already Christianized. The Bavarians belonged to the political dominance of the King of the Franks, who was the protector of Christianity in Europe. The King of the Franks gave Bavaria permission to help the pagan Carantania, but only on condition that the latter accept Christianity. Duke Borut accepted the condition and with the help of the Bavarians Carantania definitively defeated the Avars. This is how Duke Borut sent his son Gorazd and his nephew Hotimir to be educated in the Christian faith in Bavaria. In the decades following the defeat of the Avars, the Bishop of Salzburg, Saint Virgil, sent a series of Irish monks to Carantania, highlighting Saint Modestus as an apostle of the Carantanians. After the death of San Modesto there was a brief pagan restoration due to the fact that the Treaty by which Carantania had agreed to assume Christianity was violated. Thus it was that the Bavarian army entered the country and suppressed the pagan government. Because of this, distrust of Christianity grew among the pagan people.

Representation of an ancient democratic ritual of the Slovenian tribes held in the Prince's Stone until 1414.

Thanks to the work of Duke Domitian (Domicijan), the conversion to Christianity was complete. Finally, in the time of Charlemagne, in the year 802 Duke Domitian died; he would then be recognized as a saint. Around the year 828 the Duchy of Carantania occupied the current territory of Austria and Slovenia.

Carantania joined the kingdom of the Franks with its own law (Consuetudo Sclavorum) and preserved the proclamation of its knez (prince) in the Slovene language until 1414 on the Prince's Stone (knezji kamen). Until 1651 the naming ceremony of the lord took place at the Duke's Throne (vojvodski stol) and until 1728 at the count's mansion in Klagenfurt (Celovec). The coronation ritual of the Carinthian ruler is described in Jean Bodin's book Six livres de la République.

Around the year 1000 the Freising Manuscripts were written, representing the first document written in Slovene and the first in Slavic dialect in Latin script.

During the 14th century, most of the regions of Slovenia passed into the ownership of the Habsburgs whose lands would later form In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Slovenes inhabited wholly or mostly the provinces of Carniola, Gorizia, and Gradisca, and parts of the provinces of Istria and Styria.

Contemporary Age

Proclamation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs at the Plaza del Congreso in Ljubljana (20 October 1918).

Yugoslav Tank in Slovenia, June 26 at the beginning of the Ten-Day War that would give Slovenia its independence in 1991.

During the Napoleonic wars, the Illyrian Provinces (dependent on France) were constituted with capital in the Slovenian city of Ljubljana. After the collapse of the French Empire and the end of the Napoleonic Wars, they returned to control of Austria-Hungary. In 1848, a strong program for a united Slovenia emerged as part of the "Spring of Nations" within Austria-Hungary.

Towards the end of the 19th century and during the first decade of the XX, one in six inhabitants emigrated from Slovenia to other parts of Europe, the United States and Latin America, especially Paraguay. The industrial and mining centers attracted them mainly, such as Pittsburgh, Chicago, Butte in Montana, and Salt Lake (Salt Lake) in Utah. The largest group of emigrants to the United States is in Pueblo, Colorado, where they still celebrate each year picnics, folk dances of their ethnic group and displays of special women's clothing.

With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, the Slovenes joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which changed its name in 1929 to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the re-establishment of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, officially declared on November 29, 1945. At that time its official name was the Socialist Republic of Slovenia.

Modern Slovenia was formed on June 25, 1991 due to its independence from Yugoslavia. To enforce its independence, Slovenia faced the federal armed forces of Yugoslavia in a brief armed conflict called the Ten-Day War, also commonly known as the "Slovenian War" (Slovenian: Slovenska osamosvojitvena vojna, "Slovenian War of Independence"; or desetdnevna vojna, "Ten Day War").

Slovenia joined NATO on March 29, 2004 and the European Union on May 1, 2004. It adopted the euro as its official currency on January 1, 2007.

In 2013, the Republic of Slovenia experienced the largest protests in its history. The government's austerity measures were denounced by the unions, but also by many citizens outraged by the corruption of the political class. Many of the protesters denounced the European Union, with many waving the flag of the former federal Yugoslavia.

On May 14, 2020, Slovenia was the first European country to officially declare the end of the COVID-19 epidemic.

Politics

Government and presidential palace, Ljubljana.

Slovenia is a parliamentary republic according to its constitution. The President of Slovenia is, since 2022, Nataša Pirc Musar. The president is the head of state and is elected every five years by popular vote. The head of government is the prime minister, who is elected by Parliament. Since 2022, the prime minister is Robert Golob.

Parliament is bicameral, made up of the National Assembly and the National Council. Currently no one has a parliamentary majority. The main parties are the Slovenian Democratic Party and the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia.

Judicial branch

The judiciary in Slovenia is vested in judges, who are elected by the National Assembly. It is carried out by courts of general competence and specialized courts that deal with matters related to specific legal areas. The State Prosecutor is an independent state position charged with prosecuting cases brought against those suspected of committing crimes. The Constitutional Court is made up of nine magistrates who are elected for a period of nine years, they are in charge of deciding the conformity of the laws with the Constitution. All laws and regulations must conform to the general principles of international law and ratified international agreements.

Defense

Slovene soldiers during a military exercise.

The Slovenian Armed Forces are responsible for military defense independently or in alliance, according to international agreements. Since conscription was abolished in 2003, they are organized as a fully professional army. The commander-in-chief is the president, while the operational command is under the domain of the head of the General Team. In 2018, spending on the military was approximately 1.0% of national GDP. Since joining NATO, the Armed Forces have been more active in international peacekeeping missions. They participated in support operations and humanitarian activities. Among others, Slovenian soldiers are part of international forces serving in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Afghanistan. According to the 2019 Global Peace Index, Slovenia is one of the most peaceful countries in the world, ranking eighth in the world. a total of 163 countries, above some such as Japan, Switzerland or Australia.

Foreign Relations

Since Slovenia declared its independence in 1991, its governments have underlined their commitment to enhance cooperation with neighboring countries and to actively contribute to international efforts aimed at bringing stability to south-eastern Europe. However, limited resources have been a problem that has hampered the effectiveness of Slovenian diplomacy. In the 1990s, foreign relations, especially with Italy, Austria and Croatia, caused internal political controversies. Over the past eight years, however, a broad consensus has been reached among the vast majority of Slovenian political parties to work together to improve the country's diplomatic infrastructure and avoid politicizing foreign relations, making them an issue of internal political debates.

Austrian Embassy in Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Slovenia's bilateral relations with its neighbors are generally good and cooperative. However, some unresolved disputes remain with Croatia. They are mostly related to the succession of the former Yugoslavia, including the demarcation of their common border. Furthermore, unlike the other successor states of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia did not normalize its relations with the "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (Serbia and Montenegro) until after the departure of Slobodan Milošević from power; although the Slovenes opened a representative office in Podgorica to work with the government of Montenegrin President Milo Đukanović.

Succession issues, particularly those relating to the liabilities and assets of the former Yugoslavia, remain a key factor in Slovenia's relations in the region. In general, no conflict tarnishes relations with neighbors, which remain on a solid foundation. There are numerous ongoing or planned cooperation projects, and bilateral and multilateral partnerships are deepening. The differences, many of which stem from the Yugoslav days, have been dealt with responsibly and are being resolved.

Human Rights

In terms of human rights, regarding membership of the seven bodies of the International Bill of Human Rights, which include the Human Rights Committee (HRC), Slovenia has signed or ratified:

Status of major international human rights instruments

Slovenia	International treaties
	CESCR		CCPR			CERD	CED	CEDAW		CAT		CRC			MWC	CRPD
	CESCR	CESCR-OP	CCPR	CCPR-OP1	CCPR-OP2-DP			CEDAW	CEDAW-OP	CAT	CAT-OP	CRC	CRC-OP-AC	CRC-OP-SC		CRPD	CRPD-OP
Pertenence
Signed and ratified, signed, but not ratified, neither signed nor ratified, without information, it has agreed to sign and ratify the body concerned, but also recognizes the competence to receive and process individual communications from the competent bodies.

Territorial organization

Traditional Regions

Slovenia has traditionally divided into eight regions

According to the Enciklopedija Slovenije (Encyclopedia of Slovenia), the traditional Slovenian regions, based on the division made by the Habsburgs (Carniola, Carinthia, Styria and the Littoral), are:

Gorizia and Slovenian Istria are known as the Littoral region (Primorska). White Carniola (Bela krajina), which is part of Lower Carniola, is often considered a separate region, as are Zasavie and Posavina (the former territory being part of Lower, Upper Carniola and Styria, while the latter is part of Lower Carniola and Styria).

Statistical Regions

The statistical regions of Slovenia were created for legal and statistical purposes. There are twelve:

The twelve statistical regions of Slovenia.

Slovenian statistical regions have been grouped into two large regions

• Eastern Slovenia (Vzhodna Slovenija - SI01), which includes the regions of Mura, Drava, Carintia, Savinia, Sava Central, Lower Sava, South-East Slovenia, and Litoral-Carniola Interior.
• Western Slovenia (Zahodna Slovenija - SI02), comprising Central Slovenia, Alta Carniola, Gorizia, and Litoral-Karst.

Municipalities

Slovenia is divided into 210 municipalities (občine, singular občina), of which eleven have the status of cities.

Geography

Topographic map of Slovenia.

Slovenia is a small Central European state with an area of 20,273 km². It lies between Italy, Austria, Hungary, and Croatia. It is a country with a very small coastline to the Adriatic Sea through the Gulf of Trieste of about 46 km, through the port of Koper/Capodistria, on the Istrian peninsula. It is an area populated in part by Italian-speaking Slovenes.

The Slovenian relief includes the Karavanke mountains, the crystalline massif of Pohorje and the calcareous plateaus of Notranjsko and Dolenjsko. The Julian Alps, with the highest elevation in the country, Mount Triglav (2,864 m), preserve traces of Quaternary glacial erosion, with lakes such as Bled. Karst formations, stretching from Ljubljana to the coast, are carved out by underground rivers and form huge cavities, such as the 19 km long Postojna caves. Apart from the Drava and the Sava, it is worth mentioning the Kolpa river.

The climate is basically alpine, except in the areas near the sea. The climate varies from the temperate of the coast, to the most extreme of the eastern plateaus and of the mountains, here with more rains in summer.

About half of the country (11,691 km²) is covered in forests, making Slovenia the third most forested country in Europe, after Finland and Sweden. There are still remnants of original forest, the largest in the Kočevje area. In turn, the grazing areas occupy 5,593 km² and the fields and gardens 2,471 km². There are 363 km² of orchards and 216 km² of vineyards.

According to WWF, the territory of Slovenia can be divided into four ecoregions:

• Tempered hardwood
  • Mixed forest of Panonia, east and southeast
  • Mixed forest of the Dináric Alps, in the mountains of the center and south
• Coniferous temperate forest
  • Forest of the Alps, in the mountains of the north
• Mediterranean forest
  • Iliria deciduous forest in the southwest

• 

  Alpine landscape in the Krnica valley.

• 

  Location of Cerkno in the region of Goriška.

• 

  Sub-Mediterranean Slovenia in Brda.

• 

  Cerknica.

• 

  Mount Triglav in the Julian Alps.

Natural Regions

Geographers Anton Melik (1935-1936) and Svetozar Ilešič (1968) were the first to regionalize Slovenia. A later regionalization, the work of Ivan Gams, divides Slovenia into the following macro-regions:

• Alpes (Alpes)visokogorske Alpe).
• Prealpine hills (predalpsko hribovje).
• Ljubljana BasinLjubljanska kotlina).
• Under-Mediterranean (Litoral) Slovenia (submediteranska - cousinrska Slovenija).
• Dynaric Karst of Slovenian interior (dinarski kras notranje Slovenije).
• Subpanonian Sloveniasubpanonska Slovenija).

According to a more recent natural-geographical regionalization, the country consists of four macro-regions: Alpine, Mediterranean, Dinaric, and Pannonian. They are defined by important features of the relief (the Alps, the Pannonian Plain, the Dinaric Mountains) and by types of climate (continental, alpine, Mediterranean), although they often intermingle and overlap.

Macroregions consist of multiple and diverse mesoregions. The main factor that defines them is the relief and geological composition. Mesoregions, in turn, comprise numerous microregions.

Climate

The climate is Mediterranean on the coast, alpine in the mountains, and continental with mild to hot summers and winters in the eastern plateaus and valleys of the country. The average temperature is -2 °C in January and 21 °C in July. Rainfall is 1,000 mm on the coast, 3,500 mm in the Alps, 800 mm in the southeast and 1,400 mm in the center of the country.

Compared to other countries in the region, there is not much wind in Slovenia as it is surrounded by the Alps. The average wind speed is lower than in the plains of neighboring countries. Due to landforms, local vertical winds with daily periods are frequent. In addition to these there are three winds of regional importance, bora, sirocco, and the foehn. The sirocco and the bora are characteristic of the coast, being that the first is humid and warm, and the second is generally cold and dry. Foehn is typical of the alpine regions in the north of the country. In general, the winds in Slovenia come from the northeast, the southeast and the north.

Different types of clouds in the Julian Alps (northwest of Slovenia), seen from the Mangart peak in September 2007.

Biodiversity

Slovenia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on June 13, 1992 and acceded to it on July 9, 1996. Subsequently, it developed a National Biodiversity Strategy and an Action Plan, which were received by the agreement on May 30, 2002.

Slovenia is distinguished by an exceptionally wide variety of habitats, due to the contact of geological units and biogeographical regions, and by human influence. The country is home to four terrestrial ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains Mixed Forests, Pannonian Mixed Forests, Alpine Mixed and Coniferous Forests, and Illyrian Deciduous Forests. About 12.5% of the territory is protected, with 35.5% in the Natura 2000 ecological network. Despite this, due to pollution and environmental degradation, diversity has been declining. In 2019, Slovenia had an average Forest Landscape Integrity Index score of 3.78/10, ranking it 140th in the world out of 172 countries.

Flora and fauna

Modern shepherding of Lipizzaner horses.

The country's biological diversity is high, with 1% of the world's organisms on 0.004% of the Earth's surface, There are 75 species of mammals, including marmots, alpine ibex and chamois. There are numerous deer, roe deer, wild boar and hares. The edible dormouse is often found in Slovenian beech forests. The hunting of these animals is a long tradition and is part of the Slovenian national identity.

Some important carnivores include the Eurasian lynx, European wildcats, foxes (especially the red fox), and the European jackal. There are hedgehogs, martens, and snakes such as vipers and grass snakes. According to recent estimates, Slovenia has about 40-60 wolves and about 450 brown bears.

Slovenia is home to an exceptionally diverse number of cave-dwelling species, with a few dozen endemic species. Among cave-dwelling vertebrates, the only known cave-dwelling vertebrate is the olm, which lives in Karst, Lower Carniola and White Carniola.

The only regular species of cetacean found in the northern Adriatic is the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

There is a wide variety of birds, such as tawny owls, long-eared owls, eagle owls, hawks, and short-toed eagles. Other birds of prey have been recorded, as well as increasing numbers of ravens, ravens, and magpies migrating to Ljubljana and Maribor, where they thrive. Other birds include black and green woodpeckers and the white stork, which nests mainly in Prekmurje.

There are 13 domestic animals indigenous to Slovenia, of eight species (chicken, pig, dog, horse, sheep, goat, honey bee and cattle) including the Karst shepherd, Carniolan honey bee and the Lipizzaner horse The marble trout or marmorata (Salmo marmoratus) is a native Slovenian fish. Extensive breeding programs have been introduced to repopulate marble trout in lakes and streams invaded by non-native trout species. Slovenia is also home to the Wels catfish.

Ducks at Lake Bohinj.

Slovenia is the third most forested country in Europe, with 58.3% of the territory covered by forests. Forests are an important natural resource, and logging is kept to a minimum. In the interior of the country are the typical Central European forests, in which oak and beech predominate. In the mountains, fir and pine trees are more common. Pine trees grow on the Karst Plateau, although only a third of the region is covered by pine forests. The lime tree, common in Slovenian forests, is a national symbol. The treeline is between 1,700 and 1,800 m.

In the Alps there are flowers such as Daphne blagayana, gentians (Gentiana clusii and Gentiana froelichi), Primula auricula, edelweiss (symbol of Slovenian mountaineering), Cypripedium calceolus, Fritillaria meleagris (snakehead fritillaria) and Pulsatilla grandis.

Slovenia is home to many ethnobotanically useful plant groups. Of the 59 known species of ethnobotanical importance, some species such as Aconitum napellus, Cannabis sativa and Taxus baccata are in restricted use, according to the Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia.

Economy

Evolution of real GDP per capita in Slovenia.

Slovenia is considered a developed country, with a GDP per capita of $23,335. Although in 2006 the relatively high inflation fell to 2.3% (before the adoption of the euro), in 2007 it presented a year-on-year variation of 5.1 %. In recent years the Slovenian economy has increased the rate of growth it has maintained since its independence, registering 4.3% in 2004 and 2005, 5.9% in 2006 and 6.8% in 2007. ^{[citation required]} In the first three quarters of 2008, the economy expanded at an annual rate of 5%.^{[citation required]} Since January 1, 2007, Slovenia has belonged to the euro zone, abandoning the tolar for the common currency of the European Union, the euro. Together with Croatia, Slovenia were the most developed countries of the former Yugoslavia and the first former socialist countries to join the European Union.^{[citation needed]}

Business of the central market of Ljubljana.

During EU accession negotiations, Slovenia insisted on numerous exceptions, refusing to open up certain key sectors of the economy to full competition. Thus, the country is the only one in Central and Eastern Europe that has retained control of its banking sector. The country has also preserved an important public service built during the socialist period; Slovenia continues to have one of the best healthcare systems in the world, and education is free up to postgraduate level.

In 2013, the Republic of Slovenia experienced the largest protests in its history. The government's austerity measures were denounced by the unions, but also by many citizens outraged by the corruption of the political class. Many of the protesters denounced the European Union, with many waving the flag of the former federal Yugoslavia.

In August 2012, the year-over-year contraction was 0.8%, however, there was 0.2% growth in the first quarter (relative to the previous quarter, after adjusting for the season and business days). The year-on-year contraction has been attributed to falling domestic consumption and slowing export growth. The decline in domestic consumption has been attributed to fiscal austerity, a budget spending freeze in the final months of 2011, failed efforts to implement economic reforms, inadequate financing, and declining exports.

Fiscal measures and legislation aimed at reducing spending and various privatizations supported an economic recovery beginning in 2014. The real economic growth rate was 2.5% in 2016 and is expected to reach 3.5% in 2017. The construction sector has seen a recent increase, and the tourism industry is expected to see continued rising numbers. The country took nine years to recover its 2008 per capita income.

Agriculture

A vineyard in Slovenia.

The independence of Slovenia brought with it a phase of "market shock" in the country's agriculture. The number of farms decreased rapidly: a development that only stopped in the early 2000s. In 2005, the total agricultural area was 648,113 ha and the total number of farms was 77,000, 85% of which had less than ten hectares of agricultural land. The total value of agricultural production in 2005 was 959 million euros, which at that time represented just under 2% of the country's GDP. The Slovenian government is concerned about the age structure of farmers: only 18.8% of them are under 45, while 56.9% are over 55.

An important branch of Slovenian agriculture is animal husbandry. It contributes more than 50% of production (2005: 511 million euros). The percentage of meadows and pastures and fodder growing areas is correspondingly large, representing 60% and 20% of the agricultural area of Slovenia, respectively. Despite a slight decline since the mid-1990s, cattle and pigs account for the majority of livestock production (452,517 cattle and 547,432 pigs, respectively, in 2005). The number of goats and sheep (combined) and of horses has roughly doubled since 1997, but is still much lower at 154,832 and 19,249 respectively.

A maize in Slovenia.

The food and beverage sector in Slovenia has had to face two major crises in the last twenty years: on the one hand, the collapse of the sales markets in the former Yugoslavia since the early 1990s and, from 2004, the strong competition of the big European groups after the accession of the country to the EU. Accession to the EU was advantageous for less-favored agricultural areas (according to the definition of Council Directive 75/268/EEC of April 28, 1975, on mountain agriculture and agriculture in certain less-favored areas). For these hard-to-reach and often low-yielding areas, of which Slovenia has 440 349 hectares, the EU offers support measures to prevent the abandonment of agriculture in these areas. Forestry is considered to have significant potential for economic growth.

59.8% of the area of Slovenia is covered with forests, which in a European comparison is only surpassed by Sweden and Finland. Fir (32%) and beech (31%) dominate in the forests, which have grown predominantly as mixed forests. Despite the large extent of Slovenian forests, forestry only contributes 0.2% to the country's GDP. The fact that forests are highly fragmented in terms of ownership hinders further economic use. 72% of the total area is privately owned, with some 489,000 owners, which is an average size of less than three hectares per owner. This fragmentation makes optimal forest use of the forests in Slovenia difficult.

Viticulture occupies a relatively high part of agricultural land. Some 40,000 private and professional viticulturists cultivate the vine, often in the fifth or sixth generation. The improvement of technical knowledge and the selection of grapes have made it possible to increase the quality of the wines offered. The amounts of the Habsburg and pre-Communist periods were again reached.

Services and industry

Almost two thirds of the population work in services, and more than a third in industry and construction. Slovenia benefits from a well-trained workforce, well-developed infrastructure and its location at the crossroads from the main trade routes.

Outdoor market in Ljubljana.

The level of foreign direct investment (FDI) per capita in Slovenia is one of the lowest in the EU, and labor productivity and the competitiveness of the Slovenian economy remain well below the EU average. Taxes are relatively high, the labor market is viewed by business interests as inflexible, and industries are losing sales to China, India, and other countries.

The high level of openness makes Slovenia extremely sensitive to the economic conditions of its main trading partners and changes in its international price competitiveness. The main industries are motor vehicles, electrical and electronic equipment, machinery, pharmaceuticals and fuels. Examples of major Slovenian companies operating in Slovenia include the home appliance manufacturer Gorenje, the pharmaceutical companies Krka and Lek (a subsidiary of Novartis), the oil distribution company Petrol Group, the power distribution company GEN-I and Revoz, a manufacturing subsidiary of Renault.

Energy

In 2018, net energy production was 12,262 GWh and consumption 14,501 GWh. Hydroelectric power plants produced 4,421 GWh, thermal power plants produced 4,049 GWh, and Krško nuclear power plant produced 2,742 GWh (50% share going to Slovenia; the other 50% going to Croatia due to joint ownership). National electricity consumption was covered by 84.6% with national production; the percentage decreases from year to year, which means that Slovenia is increasingly dependent on imported electricity.

A new 600 MW block of Šoštanj Thermal Power Plant was completed and commissioned in autumn 2014. The new 39.5 MW HE Krško hydropower plant was completed in 2013, and has since been the largest single power producer, accounting for gross power production in 2018. The 41.5 MW HE Brežice and 30.5 MW HE Mokrice hydropower plants were built on the Sava River in 2018 and construction of another ten hydropower plants with a cumulative capacity of 338 MW are to be completed by 2030. A large Kozjak pumped-storage hydropower station on the Drava River is in the planning phase.

At the end of 2018, at least 295 MWp of photovoltaic modules and 31.4 MW of biogas plants were installed. Compared to 2017, renewable energy sources contributed 5.6 percentage points more to total energy consumption. There is interest in increasing production in the field of solar and wind energy sources (subsidy schemes are increasing economic viability), but microlocation settlement procedures greatly affect the efficiency of this initiative (dilemma between preservation of nature and energy production facilities).

Tourism

Slovenia offers tourists a wide variety of natural and cultural services. Different forms of tourism have developed. The area of tourist gravitation is considerably large, but the tourist market is small. There has been no large-scale tourism or acute environmental pressures; in 2017, National Geographic Traveller's Magazine declared Slovenia the country with the most sustainable tourism in the world.

InterContinental Hotel in Ljubljana.

The capital of the country, Ljubljana, has many important Baroque and Vienna Secession buildings, with several important works by the native architect Jože Plečnik, and also by his student, the architect Edo Ravnikar.

In the far northwest of the country lie the Julian Alps with Lake Bled and the Soča Valley, as well as the country's highest peak, Mount Triglav, in the center of the Triglav National Park. Other mountain ranges are the Kamnik-Savinja Alps, the Karawanks and Pohorje, popular with skiers and hikers.

The karst plateau of the Slovenian coastline gave its name to karst, a landscape formed by water dissolving carbonate bedrock, forming caves. The best-known caves are the UNESCO-listed Postojna and Škocjan caves. The Slovenian Istria region meets the Adriatic Sea, where the most important historical monument is the Venetian-Gothic Mediterranean town of Piran, while the settlement of Portorož draws crowds in summer.

The hills surrounding Slovenia's second largest city, Maribor, are famous for their wine production. The north-eastern part of the country is rich in spas, with Rogaška Slatina, Radenci, Čatež ob Savi, Dobrna and Moravske Toplice, which have grown in importance in the last two decades,

Other popular tourist destinations include the historic towns of Ptuj and Škofja Loka, and several castles, including Predjama.

Among the most important sectors of tourism in Slovenia are congress tourism and gambling tourism. Slovenia is the country with the highest percentage of casinos per 1,000 inhabitants in the European Union. The Perla de Nova Gorica is the largest casino in the region.

Most foreign tourists visiting Slovenia come from the main European markets: Italy, Austria, Germany, Croatia, Benelux, Serbia, Russia and Ukraine, followed by the United Kingdom and Ireland. European tourists create more than 90 % of tourism revenue in Slovenia. In 2016, Slovenia was declared the world's first green country by the Netherlands-based organization Green Destinations. Being declared the most sustainable country in 2016, Slovenia had a great role at the ITB in Berlin to promote tourism sustainable.

Transportation

The port of Koper.

Map of railways in Slovenia.

The main routes in Slovenia were traced in antiquity, whose course was established thanks to its location in the Mediterranean, in the Alps, in the Pannonian plain and due to the main rivers that cross the region. Another great geographical advantage of the country is its location in the European transport corridors V (the fastest link between the North Adriatic, and Central and Eastern Europe) and X (connecting Central Europe with the Balkans) in the country. This gives the country a social, economic and cultural integration in Europe.

With about 80% usage, land transport, both public and personal, is the most widely used in Slovenia. Personal cars are much more popular than public transport, which has decreased significantly.

There are three ports on the Slovenian coast. The traffic is mostly international. The main one is the port of Koper, built in 1957, it is a port dedicated mainly to the transport of food. Nearly 100,000 passengers have registered in this port in 2011, the other two smaller ports used for international passenger transport are in Izola and Piran. The port of Piran is also used for the international transport of salt, while the port of Izola is used for landing fish. Passenger transport in Slovenia is carried out mainly with Italy and Croatia.

Demographics

Novo Mesto, the largest population in the region of Jugovzhodna Slovenija (sister of Slovenia).

In 2002, Slovenia had a population of 2,009,000. Although it increases slowly, it remains quite stable since in 2005 it was 2,011,614 inhabitants and in 2009, 2,047,000. years. 99.7% of the population is literate. The average number of children per woman is only 1.26, as a result of which its population is reduced by 0.06% each year.

With 95 inhab/km², Slovenia ranks in the bottom of European countries in terms of population density (compare with 320 inhab/km² for the Netherlands or 195 inhab/km² for Italy). Approximately 50% of the total population lives in urban areas.

The official language is Slovene, which belongs to the South Slavic group of languages. Hungarian and Italian enjoy official language status in the nationally mixed regions along the Italian and Hungarian border. The city of Nova Gorica, for example, is almost entirely Italian-speaking.

The predominant religion in Slovenian territory is Catholic, with 57.8% of the population saying they profess that creed; the Muslim 2%; the Eastern Orthodox Church, with 2.8%; Protestants, 0.9%; others, 3.7%; agnostics and atheists 10.1% and did not declare 22.8%.

The ethnic composition is made up of: Slovenes, 87.8%; Croats, 3%; Serbs, 2.2% Bosniaks, 1.4%. There are also Hungarian (0.4%), Italian (0.1%) and Roma minorities.

Religion

Before World War II, 97% of the population declared themselves Catholic (Roman Rite), about 2.5% were Lutheran, and about 0.5% of residents identified as members of other denominations.

Catholicism was an important feature of social and political life in pre-communist Slovenia. After 1945, the country experienced a gradual but constant process of secularization. After a decade of persecution of religions, the communist regime adopted a policy of relative tolerance towards the churches. After 1990, the Catholic Church regained some of its former influence, but Slovenia remains a largely secularized society. According to the 2002 census, 57.8% of the population is Catholic. In 1991, 71.6% were self-declared Catholics, which means a drop of more than 1% per year. Today there are about 1,135,626 Catholics in the country (about 57.8% of the total population according to the 2002 census). The country is divided into six dioceses, including two archdioceses. The vast majority of Slovenian Catholics belong to the Latin rite. A small number of Greek Catholics live in the White Carniola region.

Despite a relatively small number of Protestants (less than 1% in 2002), the Protestant legacy is historically significant as the standard Slovene language and Slovene literature were established by the Protestant Reformation in the XVI. Primoz Trubar, a theologian in the Lutheran tradition, was one of the most influential Protestant Reformers in Slovenia. Protestantism died out in the Counter-Reformation implemented by the Habsburg dynasty, which controlled the region. It only survived in a few communities in the eastern regions due to the protection of Hungarian nobles, who were often Calvinists. Today, a Lutheran minority lives in the easternmost region of Prekmurje, where it accounts for about a fifth of the sector's population and is headed by a bishop based in Murska Sobota.

Church of the Assumption of Mary in Cerklje na Gorenjskem.

The third largest denomination, with around 2.2% of the population, is the Eastern Orthodox Church, with the majority belonging to the Serbian Orthodox Church, while a minority belongs to the Macedonian Orthodox Church and to other Eastern Orthodox churches.

According to the 2002 census, Islam is the second largest religious denomination in the country after Christian groups, with about 2.4% of the population. The majority of Slovene Muslims come from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Slovenia has long been home to a Jewish community. Despite the losses suffered during the Holocaust, Judaism still has a few hundred adherents, most of whom live in Ljubljana, home to the only remaining active synagogue in the country.

In 2002, about 10% of Slovenes declared themselves atheists, another 10% did not profess any specific denomination, and about 16% chose not to answer the question about their religious affiliation. According to the 2010 Eurobarometer survey, 32% of Slovenian citizens answered that they "believe that there is a god", while 36% answered that "believe that there is some kind of spirit or life force" and 26% who "do not believe that any kind of spirit, god or life force exists".

Languages

The earliest known written documents in the Slovene language are the Freising manuscripts. Slovene is the oldest Slavic language. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages and cultures.

Slovenian uses "dual". Slovenian is one of the rare Indo-European languages that still uses double, a grammatical number that some languages use in addition to the singular and plural. It is also the only official language of the European Union that uses dual. Dual is used when referring to precisely two people, objects, or concepts, identified by the noun or pronoun.

Letter written in Slovenian, Italian, German and English

There are 46 different dialects in Slovenia. Because only 2.3 million people speak the language, the 46 dialects of the Slovenian language often rank Slovenian as the most diverse Slavic language. Slovene dialects are classified into seven regional groups: Carinthian, Upper Carniolan, Lower Carniolan, Littoral, Rovte, Styrian, and Pannonian. Sometimes the dialects can be so different from each other that it is difficult for people from different parts of Slovenia to understand each other. The diversity of the Slovenian language is well captured in a Slovenian proverb "Vsaka vas ima svoj glas", which means "every people has its own voice".

The Slovene language was the glue of the nation. Only declaring its independence in 1991, Slovenia is a relatively young country. However, the dream of a sovereign country among the Slovenes is as old as the nation itself. Different countries and kingdoms throughout history occupied the territory of what is now known as the Republic of Slovenia. Many of those occupations wanted to destroy the Slovene language and eliminate the Slovene nation. Even so, it was actually the Slovene language that held the nation together through the centuries. It was after hundreds of years of resistance and unwillingness to come forward that the nation's dream came true and Slovenia finally became an independent country.

During World War II, Slovenia was occupied by Germans, Italians, Hungarians and Croats. With the occupation came a ban on the use of the Slovene language in schools. Some occupiers also prohibited the use of Slovene in all public places. If they were caught speaking their native language at school, the students were beaten with a wooden stick, a ruler, or forced to kneel on a pile of corn. Thousands of Slovenian books were also destroyed at that time causing irreparable damage to the Slovenian heritage.

Education

The universities of Ljubljana and Maribor.

The Ministry of Education and Sports is in charge of supervising primary and secondary education. Preschool education is not compulsory, later, from the age of six they go to primary school, which is divided into three periods, each of three years. In the 2006-2007 academic year, there were 166,000 students enrolled in primary education and some 13,225 teachers, with an average of 1 teacher for every 12 students and 20 students per class.

After completing primary school, the vast majority of children (about 98%) go on to secondary school, 84% of high school graduates go on to higher education. Currently, there are three public universities in Slovenia, the University of Ljubljana, the University of Maribor and the University of Primorska, in addition there is a private university, the University of Nova Gorica and the international EMUNI University. According to the AMRU rating, the University of Ljubljana is among the top 500 universities in the world.

The PISA Report, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks education in Slovenia as 12th in the world and fourth in the European Union, being significantly above the OECD average. According to the census As of 1991 there is 99.6% literacy in Slovenia. Among people aged 25-64, 12% have attended higher education, while on average, Slovenes have 9.6 years of formal education.

Immigration

In 2015, about 12% (237,616 people) of the population of Slovenia were foreign-born. About 86% of the foreign-born population came from other countries of the former Yugoslavia such as (in descending order) Bosnia-Herzegovina, followed by immigrants from Croatia, Serbia, North Macedonia and the territory of Kosovo.

Ljubljana synagogue.

At the beginning of 2017, there were about 114,438 people with foreign citizenship residing in the country, constituting 5.5% of the total population. Of these foreigners, 76% had the citizenship of other countries of the former Yugoslavia (excluding Croatia). In addition, 16.4% had EU citizenship and 7.6% that of other countries.

According to the 2002 census, the main ethnic group in Slovenia is Slovenes (83%), although their proportion in the total population is continually declining due to their relatively low fertility rate. At least 13% (2002) of the population were immigrants from other parts of the former Yugoslavia and their descendants. They have settled mainly in cities and suburban areas. The ethnic Hungarian and Italian minority is relatively small, but it is protected by the Constitution of Slovenia. A special position is occupied by the indigenous and geographically dispersed Roma ethnic community.

The number of people immigrating to Slovenia has increased steadily since 1995 and has increased even more rapidly in recent years. Following Slovenia's accession to the EU in 2004, the annual number of immigrants doubled in 2006 and halved again in 2009. In 2007, Slovenia had one of the fastest growing rates of net migration in the Union European.

Emigration

Regarding emigration, between 1880 and 1918 (World War I) many men left Slovenia to work in mining areas of other nations. The United States, in particular, was a common choice for emigration, and the 1910 US Census shows that there were already "183,431 people in the US of Slovene mother tongue" [doubtful - discuss] But there may have been many more, because quite a few avoided anti-Slavic prejudices and 'identified as Austrian'. Preferred locations prior to 1900 were Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, as well as Omaha, Nebraska, Joliet, Illinois, Cleveland, Ohio, and rural Iowa. After 1910, they settled in Utah (Bingham Copper Mine), Colorado (especially Pueblo) and Butte, Montana. These areas first attracted many single men (who often stayed with Slovenian families). After finding work and having enough money, the men sent for their wives and families to join them.

Culture

Celjski dom, currently a Community Centre in Slovenia.

Architecture

Slovenia's architectural heritage includes 2,500 churches, 1,000 castles, ruins and manor houses, farmhouses and special structures for drying hay, called kozolci.

Four natural and cultural sites in Slovenia are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list. The Škocjan caves and their karst landscape are a protected site, as are the ancient forests in the area of Goteniški Snežnik and Kočevski Rog in south-eastern Slovenia. The Idrija mercury mining site is of global importance, as are the prehistoric mounds in the Ljubljana swamp.

The most picturesque church for photographers is the medieval and baroque building on the island of Bled. The castle on the lake is a museum and a restaurant with a view. Near Postojna there is a fortress called Predjama Castle, half hidden in a cave. Museums in Ljubljana and elsewhere feature unique artifacts such as the Divje Babe flute and the world's oldest wheel. Ljubljana boasts medieval, baroque, art nouveau and modern architecture. The architecture of the architect Plečnik and his innovative paths and bridges along the Ljubljanica are remarkable and are on the provisional list of UNESCO.

Literature

The first book in Slovene was printed by the Protestant reformer Primož Trubar. They were actually two books, Catechismus (a catechism) and Abecedarium, which were published in the 18th century XVI in Tübingen (Germany).

The most important writers in Slovenian literature have been the poet France Prešeren, born in 1800, and the prose writer Ivan Cankar, from 1876. There is a sculpture of the former by Jože Plečnik in the center of Ljubljana, in front of the Tromostovje (in Slovene, the Triple Bridge).

Other noteworthy writers are the playwright and historian Anton Tomaž Linhart, the linguist Matija Čop, the priests Anton Aškerc and Fran Saleški Finžgar, the novelist Josip Jurčič, the modernist Oton Župančič, the poet and novelist France Bevk, the thinker Vladimir Bartol, the poets Edvard Kocbek and Srečko Kosovel, the novelist Boris Pahor, the poets Alojz Rebula and Drago Jančar, the essayist and cultural critic Aleš Debeljak and the philosopher Slavoj Žižek.

Painting and photography

Sower (1907), by the impressionist painter Ivan Grohar.

The two most prominent Slovene painters are Ivan Grohar and Ivana Kobilca, as is the photographer Urška Berdnik and her famous photographs of the capital, Ljubljana.

Music

Slovenia has been the birthplace of many musicians, including the Renaissance composer Jacobus Gallus Carniolus (1550-1591), who greatly influenced classical music in central Europe and, in the XX, to Bojan Adamič, a leading film score composer.

Among contemporary popular musicians are Slavko Avsenik, Laibach, Vlado Kreslin, Zoran Predin, Siddharta, Maraaya, Tinkara Kovač, Luka Šulić

Parties

In Slovenia, in addition to various holidays celebrated in various countries around the world (such as New Year, Easter, Labor Day or Christmas), there are also national holidays such as Prešeren Day, during which the death of the poet France Prešeren or that of the Uprising against the Occupation.

National symbols

The flag of Slovenia, the national anthem and the flag of the European Union.

All the national symbols of Slovenia were adopted after the proclamation of independence on June 25, 1991. Article 6 of the 1991 Constitution of Slovenia recognizes their official status and defines them, while their use is regulated by the 1994 Law on National Symbols on "the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovenian nation".

Flag

The flag of Slovenia consists of three horizontal stripes of white, blue and red. In the upper left corner is the country's coat of arms.

Although the colors of the Slovenian ensign are traditionally associated with Pan-Slavism, they actually derive from the medieval coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola. The Slovenian tricolor was first flown during the 1848 revolution by activist Lovro Toman. The authorities of the Austrian Empire ended up accepting it as the official symbol of Carniola, despite the fact that at that time the provinces used to use bicolor flags. The design was maintained in the kingdom of Yugoslavia; between 1945 and 1990 a red star was included, and in 1991 it changed to its current configuration.

The Slovenian government organized a competition in 2003 to modify the flag, with the goal of gaining international recognition and differentiation from the banners of Russia and Slovakia. The winning design kept the original colors, but made a radical change by using eleven horizontal bars and an abstract representation of Mount Triglav. The proposal was discarded due to the population's rejection of changing the current symbols.

National anthem

The national anthem of Slovenia is the seventh stanza of the poem Zdravljica (in English, "A toast"), written in 1844 by France Prešeren and set to music by Stanko Premrl. They were approved in 1989, two years before independence. It is a figurative poetry with nine stanzas in the shape of wine glasses, in which the values of the liberal revolutions and Pan-Slavism are extolled; the chosen part is a plea for peace between peoples. The Slovenian government chose this work to the detriment of the war anthem of 1918, Naprej zastava slave ("Forward, victorious banner"), which today in day is only used by the Slovenian army.

Shield

The coat of arms of Slovenia was designed by Marko Pogačnik. On it appears, on a field of azure with a gules border, the silver drawing of Mount Triglav and three stars on the top representing the historic dynastic house of Celje. At the bottom, inside the shield, two wavy lines of azure that represent the Adriatic Sea and the rivers of Slovenia.

The Slovenian authorities organized a public competition to design a new national emblem. In the days of the Austrian empire each traditional territory had its own ensign, and that of the Duchy of Carniola had fallen out of favor after it was appropriated by paramilitaries of the Slovenian National Guard in the invasion of Yugoslavia. The current design is inspired by the epic poem Baptism in the Savica, with a representation of Mount Triglav very similar to the old Yugoslav shield.

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  Carniola Duchy Shield.

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  Shield of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia.

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  Current shield.

Sports

Slovenian alpine skier Tina Maze.

The most popular disciplines in Slovenia are basketball, handball, football and winter sports in general. National athletes participate in the Olympic Games through the Slovenian Olympic Committee (OKS), founded on October 15 of 1991. Despite being one of the European states with the smallest population, Slovenian sport has achieved great successes on an individual and collective level, the most important being the 2017 European Men's Basketball Championship under the leadership of Goran Dragić and Luka Doncic.

The first Slovenian athlete to win an Olympic medal was Rudolf Cvetko in fencing, at the 1912 Olympic Games when the territory was still integrated into Austria. He was followed by other athletes such as the also swordsman Leon Štukelj or the gymnast Miroslav Cerar, both inducted first into the Slovenian Sports Hall of Fame. The Balkan country has competed as an independent state since the 1992 Albertville Winter Games, and its most successful athletes since then have been rower Iztok Čop, the shooter Rajmond Debevec, and the skier Tina Maze.

Stožice Stadium.

Slovenia's relief is marked by mountain ranges such as the Julian Alps, making it ideal for practicing winter and mountain sports. The first long-distance ski jumping hill is considered to have been built in the alpine valley of Planica in 1934, under the design of pioneer Stanko Bloudek. On the other hand, football has grown in popularity since qualifying for the 2002 and 2010 World Cups, as has cycling since 1993 with the Tour of Slovenia.

The cyclist Primož Roglič became the first Slovenian to win one of the Grand Tours, by winning the 2019 Tour of Spain title, while Tadej Pogačar won the Tour de France title in September 2020 as well as the best youngster classification (white jersey) and the mountains classification (red polka dot jersey), he was also third in the 2019 Vuelta a España. In the 2020 Tour, Roglič was also second in the general classification, becoming the first Slovenian to achieve a podium finish in all three Grand Tours, and a month later he became the first Slovenian to win one of the Cycling Monuments by winning the Liège-Bastogne-Liège 2020.

In football, Jan Oblak stands out, one of the best goalkeepers of 2020, and the goalkeeper who holds the record for saves in a UEFA Champions League match with 27 interventions, a record he achieved on March 11, 2020 at the stadium from Anfield where Atlético de Madrid managed to eliminate Liverpool F.C. with a 2-3 win in the game and a 2-4 win in the tie in favor of the people of Madrid. He also got one of the best saves in the history of the competition in a triple intervention against Bayer Leverkusen, in a match that would end 0-0 thanks to interventions by the Slovenian. Another of the great Slovenian footballers has been the goalkeeper Samir Handanović, who coincided with Oblak in a generation. The Slovenian soccer team has twice managed to qualify for the group stage of a Soccer World Cup, it did so in 2002 and 2010, with Sebastjan Cimirotič being the first Slovenian goalscorer in a World Cup.

In handball, the men's team has won the silver medal in the 2004 European Men's Handball Championship and the bronze medal in the 2017 World Men's Handball Championship, and has had players of the quality of Uroš Zorman, Dean Bombač or Vid Kavticnik.