Science

Science (from the Latin scientĭa, ' knowledge ') is a system that organizes and builds knowledge through testable questions and a structured method that studies and interprets natural, social and artificial phenomena. Scientific knowledge is obtained through observation and experimentation in specific areas. This knowledge is organized and classified on the basis of explanatory principles, whether theoretical or practical. From these, questions and reasoning are generated, hypotheses are formulated, scientific principles and laws are deduced, and scientific models, scientific theories and knowledge systems are built through a scientific method.

Science considers and is based on experimental observation. This type of observation is organized through methods, models and theories in order to generate new knowledge. To do this, criteria of truth and a research method are previously established. The application of these methods and knowledge leads to the generation of new knowledge in the form of concrete, quantitative and testable predictions referring to past, present and future observations. These predictions can often be formulated through reasoning and structured as general rules or laws, which account for the behavior of a system and predict how the system will act under certain circumstances.

Since the scientific revolution, scientific knowledge has increased so much that scientists have become specialists and their publications have become very difficult for non-specialists to read. This has given rise to various popularization efforts, both to bring science closer to the general public, as well as to facilitate understanding and collaboration between scientists from different fields.

History

The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present. Science is empirical, theoretical, and procedural knowledge about the universe, produced by scientists formulating testable explanations and predictions based on their observations. There are three main branches of science: natural, social, and formal.

The earliest roots of science go back to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3,000 to 1,200 BC His contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, by which formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek worldviews deteriorated in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the first centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages,but it continued to prosper in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire. With the help of translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed in the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic research in Western Europe since the 10th century to the XIII they revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.

Natural philosophy was transformed during the Scientific Revolution in Europe from the 16th to 17th centuries, as new ideas and discoveries departed from earlier Greek conceptions and traditions. The New Science that emerged was more mechanistic in his worldview, more integrated with mathematics and more reliable and open since his knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method.More "revolutions" soon followed in the following centuries. The chemical revolution of the eighteenth century, for example, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements to chemistry. In the 19th century, new perspectives regarding the conservation of energy, the age of the Earth, and evolution came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in genetics and physics laid the foundation for new subdisciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics. In addition, industrial and military concerns, as well as the increasing complexity of new research efforts, soon ushered in the age of "big science", particularly after World War II.​​

Early cultures

The earliest roots of science go back to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000 to 1200 BC Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape of the time, ancient The Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Beginning around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians developed a decimal numbering system and they oriented their knowledge of geometry to the resolution of practical problems, such as those of surveyors and builders. They even developed an official calendar containing twelve months of thirty days each,The ancient peoples of Mesopotamia used knowledge of the properties of various natural chemicals to make pottery, earthenware, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing; they also studied animal physiology, anatomy, and behavior with divinatory purposes and made extensive records of the movements of astronomical objects for their study of astrology. The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine and the first medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BC - c. 2004 BC).However, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the sake of gathering information, and mainly only studied scientific subjects that had obvious practical applications or immediate relevance to their religious system.

Classical antiquity

In classical antiquity, there is no true ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated individuals, generally upper class, and almost universally male, conducted various nature investigations whenever they could spare the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (ancient Greek physis) by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words were often used to describe the natural way a plant grows, and the "manner" in which, for example, a tribe worships a certain god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "Natural philosophy, the forerunner of natural science, was thus distinguished as the knowledge of nature and of things that are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy, the realm of the early philosophers -physical. They were primarily speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. Instead, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate it (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for craftsmen of lower social class.

The first Greek philosophers of the Milesian School, founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to try to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a philosophy of complex numbers and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. {Rp | 465}} The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus. The Greek physician Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science and is known as "The father of medicine "

A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human affairs, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method, as documented in Plato's dialogues, is a dialectical method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by constantly identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. This is a reaction to the Sophists' emphasis on rhetoric. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs.Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics for being too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. Socrates was later, in the words of his Apology for him, accused of corrupting the youth of Athens because he "believed not in the gods in which the State believes, but in other new spiritual beings". Socrates refuted these claims, but was sentenced to death.

Aristotle later created a systematic program of teleological philosophy: Motion and change are described as the actualization of potentials that are already in things, depending on what kind of things they are. In your physics, the Sun revolves around the Earth, and many things have as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause, a final cause, and a role in a cosmic order with an unmoving driver. The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of how best to live for a human being (a study that Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy). Aristotle held that man knows a thing scientifically "when he possesses a conviction which he has arrived at in a certain way,​

The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC) was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed that It violated the laws of physics. The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made important contributions to the early days of calculus and has sometimes been credited as its inventor, although his protocalculus lacked several defining features. Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopedia Natural History,dealing with history, geography, medicine, astronomy, earth sciences, botany, and zoology. Other ancient scientists or protoscientists were Theophrastus, Euclid, Herophilus, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and Galen.

Branches

The branches of science, scientific disciplines, or simply sciences, are usually divided into three groups: formal sciences, natural sciences, and human sciences or social sciences. These make up the basic sciences, on which applied sciences such as engineering and medicine are based.Over the centuries, several different classifications of the sciences have been proposed and used. Some include a component of hierarchy between the sciences that gives rise to a tree structure, hence the notion of

branches of science. Until the Renaissance, all knowledge that was not technical or artistic was located in the field of philosophy. Knowledge of nature was about the whole: a universal science. With the scientific revolution, the separation between science and philosophy was imposed, and the main modern sciences emerged, including physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and biology.

Unit

In philosophy of science, the unity of science is the idea that all sciences form an integrality or a unified whole, which cannot be separated or dismembered at the risk of losing the whole vision.

Despite this statement, for example, it is clear that physics and sociology are two very different and differentiated disciplines, and we could almost say of a different quality, although the thesis of the unity or uniqueness of science would affirm that, in principle, both they should form part of a unified intellectual universe of difficult or inconsequential dismemberment.

The thesis of the unity of science is usually associated with a vision of different levels of organization in nature, where physics is the most basic or fundamental, and where chemistry is the next in hierarchy, and on the latter follows biology, and on top of biology follows sociology. According to this conception, and starting from physics, it would be recognized that cells, organisms, and cultures all have a biological base or origin, but representing three different hierarchical levels of biological organization.

Despite this, it has also been suggested (for example by Jean Piaget, 1950), that the uniqueness of science could be considered in terms of a circle of sciences or disciplines, where physics provides the basis for chemistry., and where in turn chemistry is the basis for biology, and biology the basis for psychology, and this is the basis for logic and mathematics, and in turn logic and mathematics would serve as the basis and understanding for physics.

The science unity thesisIt simply states that there are common scientific laws applicable to anything and at any level of organization. But at a certain level of organization, scientists call those laws by particular names, and envision the application and expression of those laws at that level in an adapted and simplified way, emphasizing, for example, the importance of some of them over the others. This is how thermodynamics, or the laws of energy, would seem to be universal to a number of different disciplines, for by the way, all systems in nature operate or appear to operate on the basis of energy transactions. Of course, this does not exclude the possibility of some particular laws specifically applicable to domains perhaps characterized by increasing complexity, as suggested by Gregg R.Matter, Life, Mind, and Culture. Of course, this tree could just as well be circular, with culture framing people's understanding and perception of matter and systems.

Science is a human creation, and is part of human culture. Science is a unified whole, in the sense that it is deeply understood when considered in an integral and holistic way, and there are no scientists who study alternative realities. However, it could well be argued that scientists do not act with a comprehensive approach, because for ease of analysis or for whatever reasons, simplifying hypotheses are made, it is isolated, it is treated separately. It is possibly the perception of a single reality, the only thing that leads to the unity of science.

According to propositional logic, science would appear to be a path to simplification, or indeed universalization, of discrete scientific theories of energy, and what physicists call unification. This has led to string theory and its derivative conceptions, probably related to the notion that, at the base, there is only the energy that was not released in the Big Bang, and really nothing else.The thesis of the unity of science turns out to be clearer and better argued by the General Systems Theory of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Paul Oppenheim, and Hilary Putnam. And it was even more strongly argued and clarified by Jerry Fodor.

Limits

In philosophy of science, the problem of demarcation is the question of defining the limits that should configure the concept "science". Borders are usually established between what is scientific and non-scientific knowledge, between science and metaphysics, between science and pseudoscience, and between science and religion. The approach to this problem, known as the generalized demarcation problem, covers these cases. The generalized problem, ultimately, what it tries to do is find criteria to be able to decide, between two given theories, which of them is more «scientific».

After more than a century of dialogue between philosophers of science and scientists in various fields, and despite a broad consensus about the general bases of the scientific method, the limits that demarcate what is science, and what is not, they continue to be debated.The problem of the distinction between the scientific and the pseudoscientific has serious ethical and political implications. die in concentration camps. More recently and at the other end of the political spectrum, companies and associations from the oil, steel and automobile industries, among others, formed pressure groups to deny the anthropogenic origin of climate change against the grain of the overwhelming majority of the scientific community.

Scientific investigation

Research is the creative and systematic work done to increase the body of knowledge. It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of information to increase understanding of a topic or problem. A research project can be an expansion of previous work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures or experiments, the research may reproduce elements of previous projects or of the project as a whole.Scientific research is the general name given to the complex process in which scientific advances are the result of applying the scientific method to solve problems or try to explain certain observations. In the same way, technological research uses scientific knowledge for the development of soft or hard technologies, as well as cultural research, whose object of study is culture. In addition, there is also technical-police investigation and detective and police investigation and educational investigation.

Method

The scientific method is a methodology to obtain new knowledge, which has historically characterized science, and which consists of systematic observation, measurement, experimentation and the formulation, analysis and modification of hypotheses. The main characteristics of a valid scientific method are falsifiability and reproducibility and repeatability of results, corroborated by peer review. Some types of techniques or methodologies used are deduction, induction, abduction, and prediction, among others.

The scientific method encompasses the practices accepted by the scientific community as valid when exposing and confirming their theories. The rules and principles of the scientific method seek to minimize the influence of the scientist's subjectivity in his work, thus reinforcing the validity of the results, and therefore, of the knowledge obtained.

Not all sciences have the same requirements. Experimentation, for example, is not possible in sciences like theoretical physics. The requirement of reproducibility and repeatability, fundamental in many sciences, does not apply to others, such as the human and social sciences, where phenomena not only cannot be repeated in a controlled and artificial way (which is what an experiment consists of), but also they are, by their essence, unrepeatable, for example, history.

Likewise, there is no single model of scientific method. The scientist can use defining, classificatory, statistical, empirical-analytical, hypothetical-deductive methods, measurement procedures, among others. For this reason, referring to the scientific method is referring to a set of tactics used to construct knowledge in a valid way. These tactics may be improved upon, or replaced by others, in the future. Each science, and even each specific investigation, may require its own model of scientific method.In the empirical sciences verification is not possible; that is, there is no such thing as "perfect" or "proven" knowledge. Every scientific theory remains always open to be refuted. In the formal sciences, mathematical deductions or proofs generate proofs only within the framework of the system defined by certain axioms and certain rules of inference.

Laws

A scientific law is a scientific proposition that asserts a constant relationship between two or more variables or factors, each of which represents a property or measurement of particular systems. It is also defined as a constant and invariable rule and norm of things, arising from its first cause or its qualities and conditions. It is usually expressed mathematically or in formalized language. Very general laws can have indirect proof by verifying particular propositions derived from them that are verifiable. Inaccessible phenomena receive indirect proof of their behavior through the effect they can produce on other facts that are observable or experienceable.

In the architecture of science, the formulation of a law is a fundamental step. It is the first scientific formulation as such. In law the ideal of scientific description is realized; the entire edifice of scientific knowledge is consolidated: from observation to theoretical hypothesis-formulation-observation-experiment (scientific law), general theory, to the system. The system of science is or tends to be, in its most solid content, a system of laws.

Different dimensions that are contained in the concept of law:

• The merely descriptive apprehension
• Logical-mathematical analysis
• ontological intention

From a descriptive point of view the law is simply shown as a fixed relationship, between certain phenomenal data. In logical terms, it supposes a type of proposition, as an affirmation that links several concepts related to phenomena as truth. As for the ontological consideration, the law as a proposition has been historically interpreted as a representation of the essence, properties or accidents of a substance. Today it is understood that this ontological situation focuses on the fixation of the constants of natural events, on the apprehension of the regularities perceived as a phenomenon and incorporated in a way of "seeing and explaining the world".

The epistemological problem consists in the consideration of the law as truth and its formulation as language and in establishing its «connection with reality», where two aspects must be considered:

• The term of the real towards which the law is intentionally directed or refers, that is, the constancy of the phenomena in their occurrence as an object of knowledge. Generally, and in a vulgar way, it is usually interpreted as a "cause/effect relationship" or "description of a phenomenon". It is logically formulated as a hypothetical proposition in the form: If a, b, c... are given in the conditions, h, i, j..., s, y, z... will be produced.
• The form and procedure with which the law is constituted, that is, the problem of induction.

Theories

A scientific theory is a set of concepts, including abstractions of observable phenomena and quantifiable properties, along with rules (scientific laws) that express the relationships between observations of those concepts. A scientific theory is constructed to fit the available empirical data on those observations, and is proposed as a principle or set of principles to explain a class of phenomena.

Scientists develop different theories based on hypotheses that have been corroborated by the scientific method, then collect evidence to test those theories. As in most forms of scientific knowledge, theories are inductive by nature and their purpose is merely explanatory and predictive.

The strength of a scientific theory is related to the number of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by the ability of that theory to make falsifiable predictions regarding those phenomena it tends to explain. Theories are constantly improved depending on the new evidence that is achieved, so the theories improve over time. Scientists use theories as foundations for scientific knowledge, but also for technical, technological, or medical reasons.

Scientific theory is the most rigorous, reliable and complete form of knowledge possible. This is significantly different from the common and colloquial use of the word "theory", which refers to something without support or an assumption.

Scientific theory represents the explanatory systematic moment of knowledge proper to natural science; its culmination in a predictive sense.

The 1950s represented a paradigm shift in the consideration of «scientific theories».

According to Mario Bunge, for the sake of a dominant inductivism, previously it was observed, classified and speculated. Now instead:

• The value of theories is enhanced with the help of the logical-mathematical formulation
• The construction of hypothetical-deductive systems in the field of social
• Mathematics was fundamentally used in the end to compress and analyze empirical research data, too often superficial due to lack of theories, using statistics almost exclusively, whose apparatus could cover up the conceptual poverty

In short, Bunge concludes: "We are beginning to understand that the purpose of research is not the accumulation of facts but their understanding, and that this can only be obtained by risking and developing precise hypotheses that have a broader empirical content than their predecessors. "

There are two ways of looking at theories:

• Phenomenological theories seek to "describe" phenomena, establishing the laws that establish their mutual relations, if possible quantified. They try to avoid any "metaphysical" or "essential" contamination such as causes, atoms or the will, since the foundation consists of observation and data collection with the help "only" of variables that are directly observable. Such is the ideal of empiricism: Francis Bacon, Newton, neopositivism. The theory is considered as a black box.
• Representative theories seek the "essence" or ultimate foundation that justifies the phenomenon and the laws that describe it. Such is the ideal of rationalism and the theory of justification: Descartes, Leibniz. In relation to the above, Bunge proposes to consider it as a "translucent black box".

Models

A scientific model is an abstract, conceptual, graphic or visual (see, for example: concept map), physical representation of phenomena, systems or processes in order to analyze, describe, explain, simulate (in general, explore, control and predict) these phenomena or processes. A model allows you to determine a final result from input data. The creation of a model is considered to be an essential part of all scientific activity.

Although there is little general agreement about the use of models, modern science offers a growing collection of methods, techniques, and theories about the various types of models. Theories and/or proposals on model construction, use, and validation are found in disciplines such as methodology, philosophy of science, general systems theory, and in the relatively new field of scientific visualization. In practice, different scientific branches or disciplines have their own ideas and rules about specific types of models. However, and in general, they all follow the principles of modeling.

A scientific model must be distinguished from a theory, even though the two are very closely related, since the model for a theory is equivalent to an interpretation of this theory. A given theory can have several models to be explained.

To make a model, it is necessary to propose a series of hypotheses, so that what is to be studied is sufficiently reflected in the representation, although it is also normally sought that it be simple enough to be manipulated and studied.

All knowledge of reality begins with idealizations that consist of abstracting and elaborating concepts; that is, build a model about reality. The process consists of attributing certain properties to what is perceived as real, which frequently will not be sensible. Such is the process of conceptualization and its translation into language.

This is possible because certain details are suppressed, highlighting others that allow us to establish a way of seeing reality, even knowing that it is not exactly reality itself. The natural process follows what has traditionally been considered under the concept of analogy. But in science the conceptual content is only considered accurate as a scientific model of reality, when said model is interpreted as a particular case of a theoretical model and said analogy can be specified through precise and possible observations or verifications.

The model object is any schematic representation of an object. If the represented object is a concrete object, then the model is an idealization of the object, which can be pictorial (for example, a drawing) or conceptual (a mathematical formula); that is, it can be figurative or symbolic. Computer science offers tools for the elaboration of object-models based on numerical calculation.

The representation of a polymer chain with a necklace of colored beads is an analog or physical model; a sociogram displays data on some of the relationships that may exist between a group of individuals. In both cases, for the model to be a theoretical model, it must be framed within a theoretical structure. The model object thus considered becomes, under certain circumstances and conditions, a theoretical model.

A theoretical model is a hypothetical-deductive system concerning a model object that is, in turn, a schematic conceptual representation of a real or supposed real thing or situation. The theoretical model will always be less complex than the reality it tries to represent., but richer than the model object, which is just a list of features of the rendered object. Bunge outlines these relationships as follows:

thing or done	object-model	Theoretical model
deuteron	Proton Neutron Potential Well	Quantum mechanics of the power well
solute in a dilute solution	perfect gas	Kinetic theory of gases
rush hour traffic	DC	Mathematical theory of direct current
organism that learns	Markovian black box	Bush and Mosteller linear operator model
Cicadas that sing	Collection of coupled oscillators	Statistical mechanics of coupled oscillators

Any model object can be associated, within certain limits, with general theories to produce various theoretical models. A gas can be considered as a «swarm of particles linked by Van der Waals forces», but it can be inserted both in the theoretical framework of classical theory and in that of relativistic quantum particle theory, producing different theoretical models in each. case.

Consensus

Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the scientific community in a particular field of study. Consensus implies general agreement, though not necessarily unanimity.

Consensus is usually achieved through scientific debate. Scientific ethics requires that new ideas, observed facts, hypotheses, experiments, and discoveries be published, precisely to ensure communication through conferences, publications (books, journals, etc.)) and its peer review and, where appropriate, controversy with dissenting points of view. The reproducibility of experiments and the falsifiability of scientific theories are an essential requirement for good scientific practice.

On occasion, scientific institutions issue declarations with which they try to communicate to the "outside" a synthesis of the state of science from the "inside". Media or political debate on issues that are controversial within the public sphere but not necessarily for the scientific community can invoke a scientific consensus, such as the issue of biological evolution or climate change.

Scientific knowledge acquires the character of objectivity through the community and its institutions, independently of individuals. D. Bloor, following Popper and his theory of world 3, symmetrically converts the realm of the social into a realm without individual subjects, in particular reduces the scope of knowledge to the state of knowledge at a given moment, that is, to beliefs accepted by the relevant community, independently of the specific individuals. Scientific knowledge is only ascribed to the «scientific community».But this should not lead us to think that scientific knowledge is

independent of a specific individual as something autonomous. What happens is that it is "socially fixed" in documents and publications and is

causally related to the knowledge of the specific individuals who are part of the community.

Progress

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Scientific advance is a label or a denomination, frequently used to indicate or evoke the development of scientific knowledge. Technical progress depends, to a large extent, on scientific progress.Our concept of scientific progress is behind the idea that science as a discipline increasingly increases its ability to solve problems, through the application of careful and particular methodologies that we generically encompass under the name of scientific method. However, science may not progress indefinitely, but the end of science may come.

Philosophy of science

The philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy that investigates scientific knowledge and scientific practice. It is concerned with knowing, among other things, how scientific theories are developed, evaluated, and changed, and whether science is capable of revealing the truth of "hidden" (i.e., unobservable) entities and processes of science. nature. The various basic propositions that allow science to be constructed are philosophical. For example:

• It exists independently of the human mind (ontological thesis of realism)
• Nature is regular, at least to some extent (ontological thesis of legality)
• The human being is capable of understanding nature (gnoseological thesis of intelligibility)
• Become aware of your own way of thinking about yourself

Although these metaphysical assumptions are not questioned by scientific realism, many have raised serious suspicions regarding the second of them, and many philosophers have questioned any or all three of them. In fact, the main suspicions regarding the validity of these metaphysical assumptions are part of the basis for distinguishing the different historical and current epistemological currents. In this way, although in general terms logical empiricism defends the second principle, it opposes objections to the third and assumes a phenomenal position, that is, it admits that man can understand nature as long as by nature "the phenomena" are understood (the product of human experience) and not reality itself.

In a nutshell, what the philosophy of science tries to do is explain problems such as:

• Nature and derivation of scientific ideas (concepts, hypotheses, models, theories, paradigm, etc.)
• Relationship of each of them with reality
• How science describes, explains, predicts and contributes to the control of nature (the latter in conjunction with the philosophy of technology)
• Formulation and use of the scientific method
• Types of reasoning used to reach conclusions
• Implications of the different methods and models of science

The philosophy of science shares some problems with epistemology—the theory of knowledge—which deals with the limits and conditions of possibility of all knowledge. But, unlike this, the philosophy of science restricts its field of research to the problems posed by scientific knowledge; which, traditionally, is distinguished from other types of knowledge, such as ethical or aesthetic, or cultural traditions.

Some scientists have shown a keen interest in the philosophy of science and some, such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, have made important contributions. Many scientists, however, have been content to leave the philosophy of science to the philosophers and have preferred to continue doing science rather than spend more time considering how science is done. Within the Western tradition, among the most important figures prior to the 20th century, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Archimedes, Boethius, Alcuin, Averroes, Nicholas of Oresme, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Jean Buridan, Leonardo da Vinci, Raymond Lulio, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill.The philosophy of science was not so named until the formation of the Vienna Circle, at the beginning of the 20th century. At the same time, science underwent a great transformation as a result of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Among the best-known philosophers of science of the 20th century are Karl R. Popper and Thomas Kuhn, Mario Bunge, Paul Feyerabend, Imre Lakatos, Ilya Prigogine, etc.

Scientific community

The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists along with their relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into "sub-communities", each working in a particular field of science (for example there is a robotics community within the field of computer science).Members of the same community do not need to work together. Communication among members is established by disseminating research papers and hypotheses through articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, or by attending conferences where new research is presented or ideas are exchanged and debated.

Scientists

A scientist (from the Latin scientificus, and in turn from scientia, 'knowledge' and -fic, apophonic root of facis, 'to do') is a person who participates and carries out a systematic activity to generate new knowledge in the field of science. sciences (both natural and social), that is, conducting scientific research. The term was coined by Briton William Whewell in 1833.In a narrower sense, a scientist is a person who uses the scientific method. They may be an expert in one or more areas of science.

Women in science

Women have made notable contributions to science since its inception. The historical, critical and sociological study of this subject has become an academic discipline in itself.

Involving women in the field of medicine occurred in various ancient civilizations and the study of natural philosophy was open to women in Ancient Greece. Women also contributed to the early science of alchemy in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. C. During the Middle Ages, convents were an important place for female education and some of these institutions provided opportunities for women to take part and contribute in the field of research. But in the 11th century the first universities were founded and women were excluded from university education. The attitude to educate women in the field of medicine was more liberal in Italy than elsewhere.The first known woman to complete university studies in a field of scientific study was Laura Bassi in the 18th century.Although gender roles were highly defined in the 18th century, women experienced a breakthrough in the field of science. During the 19th century, women were still excluded from formal scientific education, but began to be admitted to lower-level educational societies. Later in the 20th century, the increase in women studying in universities provided paid jobs for women who wanted to dedicate themselves to science and opportunities for education. Marie Curie, the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, was also the first person to win two prizes, collecting the one in chemistry in 1911; both awards were for her work on radiation. 53 women in total have received the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2019.

Scientific society

A scientific society is an association of professionals, researchers, specialists or scholars in a branch of knowledge or science in general, which allows them to meet, expose the results of their research, compare them with those of their colleagues or specialists in the same domains. knowledge, and disseminate their work through specialized publications.

Influence on society

Scientific dissemination

Scientific dissemination is the set of activities that interpret and make scientific knowledge accessible to society, that is, all those tasks that carry out scientific knowledge to people interested in understanding or learning about that type of knowledge. Disclosure puts its interest not only in the scientific discoveries of the moment (for example, the determination of the mass of the neutrino), but also in more or less well-established or socially accepted theories (for example, the theory of evolution) or even in entire fields of scientific knowledge.While science journalism focuses on recent scientific developments, popular science is broader, more general.

Public awareness of science

Public awareness of science, public understanding of science, or more recently, public engagement with science and technology, are terms related to the attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise relationships between the public or lay society in as a whole, scientific knowledge and its organization. It is a relatively new approach to the task of exploring the multitude of relationships and links that science, technology and innovation have among the general public.While previous work in the discipline had focused on increasing public awareness of scientific issues, in line with the information deficit model of scientific communication, the discrediting of this model has led to a greater emphasis on how the The public chooses to use scientific knowledge and in the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understanding of a problem.

Studies of science, technology and society

Social studies on science and technology encompasses an interdisciplinary field of studies on the cultural, ethical and political effects of scientific knowledge and technological innovation. They place the emphasis on the interpretation of utilities, appropriations and impacts on people's daily lives., with the aim of breaking down the old barriers of scientific-technical research.

In the Spanish-speaking regions, this type of concern and reflection has come under the common name of studies of/on Science, Technology, and Society (abbreviated CTS), which in the English-speaking regions is known as Science and Technology. Studies (Science and Technology Studies) or Science, Technology and Society (Science, Technology and Society), both with the acronym STS. In the Spanish-speaking regions, multidisciplinarity in STSIt includes from the beginning the fields of sociology, philosophy, history and anthropology, as well as incorporating from its origins in the movements in defense of human rights, the feminist movement, the environmentalist currents, pacifists and the first LGBT groups. emerged especially after the Vietnam War. Due to its origins and nature, we see certain parallels between this field and other types of cultural studies.

Given the universal nature of science, its influence extends to all fields of society, from technological development to modern legal problems related to fields of medicine or genetics. Sometimes scientific research allows us to address issues of great social importance such as the Human Genome Project and great ethical implications such as the development of nuclear weapons, cloning, euthanasia and the use of stem cells.Likewise, modern scientific research sometimes requires significant investment in large facilities such as large particle accelerators (CERN), space exploration or nuclear fusion research in projects such as ITER.