Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe
The Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe is a 14th century monastery located in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, in the province of Cáceres. It was declared a World Heritage Site by Unesco in 1993. Inside you can appreciate the Gothic, Mudejar, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical styles.
Before the monastic expansion, the sanctuary remained a secular priory for forty-eight years during the reigns of Alfonso XI of Castile and Enrique II of Castile, under royal patronage and civil lordship. In 1389 it became a monastery, according to a royal provision issued by Juan I of Castilla. Its new inhabitants were the monks of the Jerónima Order, a community of 32 members from San Bartolomé de Lupiana (Guadalajara). In 1835 the secularization took place, leaving the church for the use of a parish dependent on Toledo. Years later the complex was declared a National Monument (1879). Alfonso XIII consigned a Royal Order for the delivery of the sanctuary to the Franciscan friars, thus beginning a new stage. Pius XII, in 1955, elevated the sanctuary to the status of a basilica.
Inside it is kept the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, patron saint of Extremadura and Queen of Hispanicity.
Historical context
After the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, the hegemony of the Almohads came to an end and they had to retreat to North Africa. In the peninsula the kingdom of Granada remained as a strong kingdom. But in Africa the Almohads encountered another enemy, the Benimerines, who, once they had conquered Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, set their sights on the peninsula, declaring holy war on the Christian kingdoms and occupying the cities of Ronda, Algeciras and Gibraltar. The opposition came to them years later, when in 1340 the battle of Salado took place: Benimerines against the Castilian-Portuguese Christian coalition under the command of the kings Alfonso XI of Castile and Alfonso IV of Portugal. The victory went to the Christian coalition and the Marinids had to withdraw to North Africa.
Tradition tells that Alfonso XI had entrusted himself to the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, highly venerated, and that it had been found some time ago in the vicinity of the Guadalupe River. Between the centuries xi and xiv there was a time of divine apparitions with images of the Virgin hidden in places frequented by shepherds. The king had no doubts about the intercession of the Virgin in the victory of the battle of Salado and in gratitude he ordered the construction of a church in the place where there was already a modest hermitage. Thus he became the protector of the first sanctuary dedicated to this virgin. From that moment on, a town recognized by Alfonso XI as a place of royalty began to form around the sanctuary.
History and evolution
The origins of the monastery church as a sanctuary dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe are closely related to the reign of Alfonso XI.
There was a monk named Diego de Écija who wrote a chronicle of the monastery between the years 1467-1534 with the title Book of the invention of this Holy Image of Guadalupe and of the erection and foundation of this monastery; and of some particular things and life of some of his religious . According to Fray Diego, the origin was a chapel or hermitage that was built as a result of the appearance of the image to an unknown shepherd, at dawn xiv century.
Centuries later, in 1743, the monk named Francisco de San José named the shepherd of the legend, identifying him with Gil Cordero de Santa María, one of the first settlers of the place. Following the chronicler's narration, about the site of the humble hermitage, a small church was built in the early years of the xiv century; It was the building that King Alfonso XI saw in 1330 and which was already in ruins by then. The king ordered it to be enlarged and expanded so that it would become a temple worthy of the devotion of the Virgin of Guadalupe, with the addition of hospitals for the many pilgrims who came there. In six years, the appropriate extensions and arrangements were made under the supervision of Toribio Fernández, who was the attorney for Cardinal Pedro Gómez Barroso. For its reconstruction, the Toledo Mudejar style was applied.
Following the victory obtained in the battle of Salado, King Alfonso XI visited the place again to offer his gratitude to the Virgin of Guadalupe. This second visit had an important impact on the future of the sanctuary. The king donated several trophies obtained in the battle and also issued a royal privilege on December 25, 1340 in which two petitions were presented to the ecclesiastical authority: the creation of a secular priory and the declaration of royal patronage. The response was not long in coming and on January 6, 1341, the bishop of Toledo Gil Álvarez de Albornoz drew up a document establishing the secular priory of Santa María de Guadalupe and recognizing patronage in the figure of the king and the successors of him.
Then the king proposed as first prior the Cardinal of Curia and Court Pedro Gómez Barroso, who was also Bishop of Cartagena in 1326. This cardinal was the main custodian of the sanctuary. Due to his intervention, Alfonso XI ordered the limits to be established, in a letter written in Illescas in 1337. The next step was the demarcation of the town and the sanctuary, after which Guadalupe remained independent and emancipated from Talavera de la Reina.
Pedro Gómez Barroso died in Avignon in 1345 and the king presented his successor Toribio Fernández de Mena; for this reason there was a confirmation of the priory and patronage concessions issued in the month of August, signed in the monastery of El Paular. In October Archbishop Gil Álvarez de Albornoz ratified the confirmation. In that same year there was another agreement: Alfonso XI changed the status of royalty over the town for that of civil lordship, so that it became the property of the ecclesiastical authority, that is, of the secular prior.
Prior Toribio died in 1367 and was buried in the church of Guadalupe. He was succeeded by Diego Fernández whose mandate coincided with the reign of Enrique II and Juan I. Diego Fernández was succeeded by Juan Serrano in 1383, who was the last of the secular priors. Six years after his priory, in 1389, he handed over the sanctuary to the Hieronymite order and went to occupy his new position as Bishop of Segovia. During these 48 years of secular priory, the sanctuary grew in importance, especially due to the devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe that was widespread throughout the kingdom. Pilgrims from different origins came to it. To facilitate access for travelers arriving from the north, the Archbishop of Toledo Pedro Tenorio ordered the construction of a bridge over the Tagus River in 1383. In its surroundings a town was formed, "El Puente del Arzobispo".
From sanctuary to monastery
Juan I had inherited patronage over the sanctuary as it had been established since the time of Alfonso XI. While still in possession of his rights as patron, he issued a royal provision on August 15, 1389 in Sotosalbos ordering the sanctuary to be expanded and elevated to a monastery governed by regular monks instead of the secular canons. In accordance with this royal disposition, Juan Serrano —the last prior of Guadalupe— handed over the sanctuary to Fray Fernando Yáñez de Figueroa, who at that time was prior of the Jerónimo convent of San Bartolomé de Lupiana located 20 km from Guadalajara. In this way the church of Guadalupe became part of an extensive monastic complex. Then the king renounced his patronage right, handing him over to Fray Fernando and his successors. All this was done with the respective procedures and required for the change:
- The king also gave up all the properties linked to the sanctuary and that he himself had received from his predecessors.
- He gave and detailed the terms and the dominion of the "number and mixed empire" governing the recent Puebla of Guadalupe.
- For his part, the Archbishop of Toledo Pedro Tenorio, who had jurisdiction over the territory where the sanctuary was located, granted his consent through a letter written in Alcala de Henares. According to the document, he granted the prior Juan Serrano the power to give the sanctuary to the Jerome order.
- Then the king summoned the council of Puebla to communicate the facts.
- The monks from Lupiana took possession of the monastery in October 1389. The following day they celebrated the first chapter where he was chosen as a prior brother Fernando Yáñez who took over the priory and church jurisdiction plus the dominion over the Puebla de Guadalupe.
- In the same month of October, the Puebla and its authorities were notified of all these changes.
The inauguration ended on October 30, publicly accepting the inventory of assets. Five years later, in 1394, Benedict XIII delivered the bull "his quae pro utilitate" confirming the transformation of the Sanctuary of Guadalupe into a monastery.
La Puebla de Guadalupe did not willingly admit civil submission to the prior of the monastery. There were protests and lawsuits especially throughout the first three centuries of the mandate; but the people never got their own independent council. The Hieronymite monks were the absolute rulers for 463 years. Over the centuries, the monastic complex grew and became grandiose, with an extension of around 22,000 square meters. Many and very important were the works and improvements made by the Jerónimos during this time. He also grew in spirituality and devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, a devotion that spread throughout the peninsula and the Canary Islands and that was extended to Latin America after the Discovery.
Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs
The relationship that this monastery had with the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus is historical and well-known. The kings received Columbus here in 1486 and 1489; In 1492, after the conquest of Granada, they came to this place in search of peace and rest. In the month of June the monarchs signed two envelopes that they sent to Juan de Peñalosa, one was for Moguer and other places; another for Sticks. The text required compliance with the royal provisions of April 30, 1492:
Real Provision of the Catholic Kings
DIRIGIDA TO CERTAIN VECINES OF PAULS TO BE INTO CRISTÓBAL COLON DOS CARABELS
Granada, April 30, 1492.
They saw you know how by some things dates and committed by you in our desert, by those of our Council you were condemned to be forced to serve us two months with two caravels armed to your own coasts and spensas each and all that for you was sent to us certain penalties, according to that all more long in the sentence that was given against you is contained. And we've been sent to Christoval Columbus to go with three snails, like our captain of the said three snails, for certain parts of the ocean over some things that fit our service and we want him to carry with him the two snails that you find us to serve...General Archive of Indias. Symbol: PATRONATO, 295, N.3.
In 1493 Columbus returned to Guadalupe in fulfillment of the promise written in his logbook to give thanks for the discovery of America. On July 29, 1496, the baptism of the American Indians transferred to the old continent as servants took place.
Confiscation and resurgence
On September 18, 1835, when Fray Cenón de Garbayuela was prior, the monastery ceased to belong to the Hieronymite order to convert its church into a secular parish dependent on the Archdiocese of Toledo. Its first parish priest was the former prior, Fray Cenón, who held office from 1835-1856. The years that followed the secularization until 1908, the monastic dependencies suffered abandonment, looting and ruin. In these years, voices of denunciation and campaigns for restoration led by writers, intellectuals and citizens of Puebla were raised. The most important events for the resurgence were the regional pilgrimage on October 12, 1906 and the declaration of the Board of Trustees of Our Lady of Guadalupe in favor of Extremadura, granted by Pius X on March 20, 1907. As a consequence of these acts, the the custody and direction of the sanctuary-parish to the Franciscan order. In November 1908, the Royal Order of Alfonso XIII was received, written on May 20 of that year, plus a rescript from the Pope executed by the General Minister on August 8 together with the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo dated November 3. Thus began a new stage, with the Franciscan friars at the helm.
The Franciscans began the reconstruction and architectural, artistic and spiritual fitting out, recovering part of what had been disentailed, achieving a large monastic complex. Pius XII declared it a basilica in 1955 and John Paul II visited it on November 4, 1982. After the autonomy of Extremadura as a Community, the monastery received more aid, reforms, cultural activities and honors. On July 24, 1992, on the occasion of the celebrations of the V Centenary, he received the Extremadura Medal in the person of Fray Serafín Chamorro, Franciscan guardian of the monastery. Another honor that the monastic complex and its surroundings received was belonging to the Patrimony of The humanity.
Royals buried in the monastery
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- Henry IV of Castile (1425-1474), king of Castile. Son of John II of Castile and Mary of Aragon.
- María de Aragón (1403-1445), first wife of Juan II de Castilla and mother of Enrique IV
- Dionisio de Portugal (1354-1397), son of Pedro I of Portugal and Inés de Castro.
- Juana Enríquez de Castilla, daughter of Enrique II de Castilla and Juana de Cifuentes, besides being the wife of the former.
Art
The Temple
Facade
The façade is the most well-known image of the monastery. It faces the Plaza Mayor and is in an advanced Gothic style with Mudejar elements. It is flanked by two solid medieval towers and dominated by the rose window on the south side of the transept. It is shown on a large staircase that leads to the two pointed doors that give access to the temple. They are from the end of the XIV century, the work of Paolo de Colonia, they are cast in bronze and reproduce motifs from the life of Jesus and of the Virgin.
Chapel of Saint Anne
The doors of the temple communicate with the nave on the right or the Epistle. This access space was the primitive portico of the church, built in the xv, which has become the chapel of Santa Ana. It is presided over by a Renaissance altarpiece (16th century) with an oil painting of Santa Ana, the work of Pablo de Céspedes, dated 1587. It also houses the alabaster tombs of Alonso de Velasco and his wife Isabel de Cuadros, sculpted in 1467 by Flemish by Egas Cueman. They are represented kneeling facing the altar, they are protected by a lobed arch and presided over from a niche by a relief of the Virgin with Child. Opposite is a bronze baptismal font dated 1402, the work of the sculptor Juan Francés.
Inside
The temple is Gothic, built in the 14th century and renovated in the 15th and 18th centuries. It has a rectangular plan, with three naves of four sections that are covered with ribbed vaults, more complex in the central nave than in the lateral ones. The central one is higher, it is traversed by a gallery open to the temple and in the highest part there are Gothic arches (clerestory) that illuminate the interior. The transept is the length of the three naves. In the transept there is an octagonal dome.
High altarpiece
It stands on a steep staircase. The initial project is by Juan Gómez de Mora, although the execution corresponds mostly to Giraldo de Merlo. Built at the beginning of the 17th century, it maintains features of the Romanesque Renaissance with others typical of the Baroque. The bench (predella) runs along the bottom and shows seventeen reliefs. It has three streets, the widest central one, and two streets defined by pairs of classical columns. It rises on three floors (bodies) topped by a crucifix, covered with a divided curved pediment of baroque design in the middle of which there is a vase with lilies, which symbolize the purity of Mary and are the emblem of the monastery. It is flanked by ornamental sculptures and the shields of the Habsburgs, the reigning dynasty in Spain at that time. The sculptures, the work of Giraldo de Merlo, are distributed in the central street and in the streets. The altarpiece is presided over on the third floor of the central street by San Jerónimo, as a reference to the order of the Jerónimos, the friars of the monastery. The altarpiece houses a unique piece; It is the so-called "Desk of Felipe II". Actually, it is a Renaissance cabinet, made of cedar and steel, adorned with damascenes of silver and gold; In the lower part it shows five golden rectangular plates with a pair of female figures in Renaissance style. It is flanked by two pairs of Ionic columns and is closed with a split pediment. (García (1993), p. 50). It was made in Rome in 1561, and Felipe II donated it to the monastery to be used as a tabernacle. The paintings (17th century) occupy the side streets of the altarpiece. The three on the left are by Vicente Carducho and represent the Annunciation, the Birth and the Adoration of the Magi. Those on the right belong to Eugenio Cagés and represent the Assumption, Resurrection and Pentecost.
Here are the tombs of Enrique IV of Castile and his mother María de Aragón, represented in a prayerful attitude, and those of Don Dionís of Portugal and his wife, frustrated candidates for the throne of the neighboring country. All of them are the work of Giraldo de Merlo, the sculptor of the main altarpiece.
The side altarpieces are dedicated to Saint Peter, the work of Manuel de Larra, and Saint Paul, by José Benito de Churriguera.
Grate
It is a monumental work of wrought iron with golden details, in the Gothic-Renaissance style, which extends along the three naves. The central one is taller and is more ornate than the lateral ones. The gate is divided into five streets, of which the central one is wider and opens onto the nave with two doors. It has two floors and is topped by a crest with heraldic elements. It is the work of the Dominican friars Francisco de Salamanca and Juan de Ávila, who worked on it from 1510 to 1514. It was restored in 1997.
Chorus
It is located at the foot of the temple. The construction belongs to the 14th century and was renovated in the 18th century. It stands on a lowered Gothic vault, covers two sections of the central nave and extends to the foot of the temple, to the west. The rear vaults of the upper choir are decorated with fresco paintings of musical angels by Juan de Flandes (15th century century). The stalls are baroque (17th century century), made of walnut, and are largely the work of Alejandro Carnicero. It consists of two levels of seats, 45 on the lower deck and 49 on the upper deck; the backs of the lower one are decorated with reliefs of saints framed in squares, while those of the upper one are framed in larger rectangles and have reliefs with full-length figures of saints. On the presidential chair is the carving of the Virgen del Coro; It belongs to the Flemish-Gothic (15th century century), it is made of polychrome wood, it carries the moon at its feet and supports the Child, who is naked
It has three organs: the main one, built in 1924, following the arrival of the Franciscans in the monastery, by the German organ builder Albert Mercklin living in Spain, who housed the instruments in the boxes of two organs made in the xviii, hitherto unused. At the end of the XX century this organ was improved by the German house Walker, who increased the registers and electrified it. There is also a royal Renaissance organ with four keyboards to which modifications were incorporated in the 18th century and which was restored in 1986; and, finally, an organ from the 18th century restored in 1987.
Sacristy
The architectural complex is made up of the antechamber, the sacristy and the chapel: it was built between 1636 and 1645 according to the project of Fray Alonso de Ávila, a Discalced Carmelite. It is a solemn, spacious, harmonious room decorated on the walls, vaults and dome in a resoundingly Baroque style. It is one of the most dazzling baroque sacristies in Spain.
The antechamber is a Gothic room covered with groin vaults. It shows off three large paintings by Juan Carreño de Miranda: Carlos II the Bewitched, his wife María Luisa de Orleáns and Cardinal Saba Milini who donated these paintings to the monastery in 1683. There is also a painting of the martyrdom of San Lorenzo by Luis Tristán.
Then you enter the sacristy. It is a large rectangular room with a barrel vault divided into five sections that rest on Tuscan pilasters. The vault shows wall paintings with scenes from the life of Saint Jerome.
The walls are covered with eight extraordinary paintings due to their quality and size, five on the left and three on the right. They are painted in oil by Francisco de Zurbarán. They have a didactic function, aimed especially at novices to encourage them to practice the virtues that adorn the monastic life of the Jerónimos and that are personified in those monks who stood out for their obedience, charity, recollection, chastity, composure, etc. The sacristy is presided over by the chapel of Saint Jerome, the founder of the order that ruled the monastery from 1389 until its confiscation in 1835. In the altarpiece, the image of the saint made of baked clay by Pietro Torrigiano at the beginning of the 16th century stands out. It also houses three splendid canvases by Zurbarán related to the owner of the altarpiece. At the top is the Apotheosis of Saint Jerome; on the right wall, the Temptations of this saint; and in the one on the left, the Scourges of this same one. From the dome of the chapel hangs the lantern that Don Juan of Austria captured from the Turks in the battle of Lepanto (1571) and that Felipe II donated to the monastery six years later.
Chapel of Relics
It is an octagonal construction (with eight sides) covered with a dome, from the end of the 16th century, built according to Plans by Nicolás de Vergara. Among the reliquaries, the Enamel Casket stands out, in the Gothic style (15th century). It was made by Fray Juan de Segovia, a monk from the monastery. On the front it shows twelve scenes from the life of Jesus, six are enamels and the rest are embossed silver. The jewels and dresses from the rich and abundant trousseau of the Virgin are also displayed in the chapel.
Chamber of the Virgin
It is a Baroque construction, with an octagonal plan, which is covered with a drum, dome and skylight. It was built in 1696 according to the plans of Francisco Rodríguez, in order to house the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The sculptures that surround the throne of the Virgin are attributed to Pedro Duque Cornejo. On the walls hang nine large-format paintings with scenes from the life of Mary, painted at the end of the xvii century by Luca Giordano, Neapolitan artist, commissioned by Carlos II the Bewitched. The mural paintings were executed between 1736 and 1741 by the Sevillian painter Pedro José de Uceda.
Mudejar cloister
The cloister was built between the 14th and 15th centuries in the Gothic-Mudejar style. It is rectangular in plan, has two floors and an area of 1680 square meters. The one on the ground floor is defined by pointed Islamic arches joined at the bottom by a small wall built on the basis of serial arches, also pointed. The gallery on the first floor has horseshoe arches of Islamic influence that are supported by pillars joined by a continuous parapet. (Garcia (1993), p. 62)
In the center there is a small temple, the most characteristic element of the cloister. Built in 1405, it has a square floor plan, with four Gothic arches on each façade, which in turn are subdivided into two shorter pointed arches. It is topped by three floors with an octagonal floor plan with pointed pediments that taper to the top with a pyramid. Mudejar ornamental motifs dominate, which, as usual in this style, are highlighted with ceramic pieces in which green predominates.
In the northwest corner is the lavatory; that is to say, the source that served the monks for washing before entering the dining room, which was nearby. It is decorated with glazed tiles in the Islamic style. The font is a copy of that found in the baptistery.
From the interior walls of the cloister hang thirty large canvases depicting miracles attributed to the Virgin of Guadalupe, which is why it is also called the “Cloister of Miracles”. Most of them belong to the monk from the monastery, Fray Juan de Santa María, who painted them around 1620. They are rough baroque in composition, drawing and colour. In them, indoctrination over art predominates. (G. 17)
Museums
They are attached to the cloister. Your visit must be guided, which makes quiet observation difficult.
Museum of illuminated books
It shows a collection of handwritten books (codices) made for the most part in the parchment workshops, writing. lighting and bookbinding active in the monastery from the 14th century to the xix. The monastery preserves 107 codices, of which a good part is exhibited in this museum.
The large choir books (cantorales) predominate, which were placed on the lectern so that the monks could simultaneously read the musical notation in the choir from their posts. On display are 86 specimens that display miniatures, capital letters and decorative borders made in different colors and highlighted in gold. Due to their large dimensions and weight, some have wheels at the bottom to facilitate transport.
Among the smaller codices, the “Prior's Book of Hours” stands out. It has two hundred vellum pages and measures 26 by 18 centimeters. It was made at the beginning of the 16th century by artists belonging mostly to the Flemish style, although there are also features of the Italian Renaissance.
Museum of embroidery
It occupies the old community refectory. Built in the 14th century century, it includes the clothing used in liturgical services (chasubles, dalmatics, pluvial capes, etc.), liturgical accessories (stoles, chalice covers.) altar frontals, lecterns (fabrics to cover the lectern), sleeves for processional crosses, etc. The embroideries were made on rich fabrics, such as brocade (the most luxurious and used), velvet, satin and Moorish fabrics.
The oldest piece dates back to the 15th century and the most recent reach the xix. Most of them come from the monastery workshop, active from the 15th century to the xix, in which monks and laymen worked as tailors and embroiderers. In addition, pieces from prestigious workshops in Seville, Valencia and Toledo are shown.
Among the highest quality stands out the so-called “Frontal Rico”, embroidered by Fray Diego de Toledo in the 15th century and enriched with precious stones in the 17th century.
Museum of painting and sculpture
It is located in the room that was the community clothing store, built in the 15th century. It preserves a Mudejar coffered ceiling. It brings together a select collection of paintings, from the Gothic to the 19th century. Highlights include an Italian-influenced crucifix (XIV century); a baptism of Jesus attributed to Juan de Flandes (late fifteenth century); three splendid canvases by El Greco (end of the 16th century), with the themes of the Coronation of Mary, Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; eight sketches of monks from Zurbarán's workshop prepared for the altarpiece of Saint Jerónimo in the sacristy (mid-17th century); and an expressive small-format oil panel belonging to Goya.
Among the sculptures are a reclining Christ in polychrome wood by Egas Cueman (15th century century); an ivory Crucifix of extraordinary dimensions in the Renaissance style (16th century); a bust of the “Ecce Homo”, baroque, in polychrome wood, attributed to Pedro de Mena (17th century); and a Neapolitan-style Nativity Scene (18th century century).
In another order, the Libro de los caños del agua deste monasterio de Guadalupe stands out, a codex dated between 1507 and 1542, with an imitation Gothic binding with wooden covers restored in 2014.
Gothic cloister
It is found in the buildings located to the west of the monastery; its dependencies were used mainly as a hospital and pharmacy and, for this reason, it was also called the “pharmacy cloister”. The monastery had four hospitals: Saint John the Baptist, women's, bishop's and foundlings. Currently the cloister is part of the monastery's hostelry, which has 47 rooms.
The cloister has a square plan, has an area of 840 square meters and was built between 1519 and 1533, based on projects by Antón Egas and Alonso de Covarrubias; It therefore belongs to the Renaissance, although it maintains Gothic elements. It has three floors: the ground floor is configured with semicircular arches that rest on octagonal pillars; the first belongs to the late Gothic style, with pointed arches that overlap those on the lower floor at their opening and which, in turn, are subdivided into two other arches with Gothic tracery; the last floor is Renaissance, it presents lowered arches whose opening is half the arches of the lower floors.
Among the dependencies of the hospedería, the spacious dining room stands out, built in 1994 according to a project by Rafael Moneo. On the exterior façade, near the entrance to the hostelry, there are Mudejar windows made of bricks.
Image gallery
Cover, left door. Bronze (S. XIV)
The Throne of the Virgin of the Day of her Feast (8 September)
Virgin of the Coro (S. XV)
Mudejar cloister washing machine
Mudejar windows of the Hospedería
Painting Museum: El Greco, The coronation of the Virgin (1591)
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