Romeo and Juliet
Romeo and Juliet (original title in English: Romeo and Juliet or The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, 1597) is a tragedy of the English playwright William Shakespeare. It tells the story of two young people who, despite the opposition of their relatives, rivals among themselves, decide to marry illegally and live together; however, the pressure of that rivalry and a series of fatalities lead the couple to choose suicide rather than live apart. This relationship between its protagonists has become the archetype of the so-called star-crossed lovers or star-crossed lovers. The death of both, however, means the reconciliation of the two families.
This is one of the most popular works by the English author and, along with Hamlet and Macbeth, the one that has been performed the most times. Although the story is part of a long tradition of tragic romances dating back to antiquity, the plot is based on the English translation (The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, 1562) of an Italian tale by Mateo Bandello, made by Arthur Brooke, which was based on the French translation made by Pierre Boaistuau in 1559. For his part, in 1582, William Painter made a prose version based on Italian and French stories, which was published in the collection of stories Palace of Pleasure.
Shakespeare took several elements from both plays, though, in order to expand the story, he created new supporting characters such as Mercutio and Paris. Some sources indicate that he began writing it in 1591, finishing it in 1595. However, others maintain the hypothesis that he finished writing it in 1597.
The dramatic technique used in its creation has been praised as an early display of the playwright's skill. Among other features, he is characterized by the use of fluctuations between comedy and tragedy as a way to increase the tension, by the plot relevance that he gives to the secondary characters and by the use of subplots to embellish the story. In addition, different metric forms are assigned to the different characters, which, on occasions, end up changing according to the evolution of the same characters; for example, Romeo becomes more adept at using the sonnet as the plot progresses. The tragedy has been adapted numerous times for the stage, film, musicals, and opera.
Plot
Two old families, |
| - William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet. |
The representation and staging begins with a street dispute between the Montagues and the Capulet. The prince of Verona, Della Escala, intervenes between them and declares a peace agreement that in case of being violated would have to be paid for with death. After the events, Count Paris —a relative of Prince Della Escala— meets with Mr. Capulet to discuss the idea of marrying his daughter Juliet, but Mr. Capulet asks him to wait for a period of two more years., after which time he would be fifteen years old. Taking advantage of the offer, he suggests that he organize a formal family dance to celebrate such an event. Meanwhile, Lady Capulet and Juliet's nurse try to convince the young woman to agree to marry Paris.
Under different circumstances, Benvolio talks to his cousin Romeo—son of the Montagues—about his latest depression. Convinced that his cousin's sadness is due to the unrequited love of a young woman named Rosalina—Mr. Capulet's niece—Benvolio informs her about the Capulet family ball. Finally, Romeo agrees to go uninvited to the ceremony, hoping to meet Rosalina. However, when he arrives at the Capulet home, he meets Mercutio —a relative of Prince Della Escala and a friend of Romeo—, he tells him about the dream he had, but Mercutio does not believe him and tells him to try to dance inside the dance formal family event to celebrate the Capulet event. When Romeo is inside the ball, he meets Juliet and falls madly in love with her. Juliet asks the nurse who he is, to which she replies that it is Romeo de los Montagues that she made to be struck by Romeo's beauty. After concluding the ball, in the sequence known as "the balcony scene," Romeo infiltrates the Capulet courtyard and secretly overhears Juliet, who is on her bedroom balcony, admitting his love for her. him despite the hostility between his family and the Montagues. Romeo "takes the floor", goes up to the balcony and both begin to exchange passionate promises. Afterwards, Romeo hastily leaves just before Juliet's nurse calls her name.
As time passes, the young man begins a series of encounters with the girl, until the moment when they both decide to get married. With the assistance of Friar Lorenzo, who hopes to reconcile the rival families of Verona through the union of his sons, the day after the oath of love, the lovers are secretly married. Offended by Romeo's meddling in the family dance, Teobaldo—Julieta's cousin—challenges the young man to a duel. However, Romeo evades the match. Impatient with both Teobaldo's insolence and Romeo's "cowardly submission", Mercutio agrees to the duel, though he is mortally wounded and killed by Teobaldo. Pained by the death of his friend, Romeo resumes the confrontation and manages to kill Juliet's cousin. As a result of the above, the prince exiles the young man from the city, reiterating that if he returns, "it would be the last thing he would do in his life." Misinterpreting the sadness of her daughter, Mr. Capulet decides to offer her in marriage to Count Paris, trying to convince her to accept him as her husband and become her "happy consort of hers". Finally, the young woman accepts under the condition of postponing the wedding, even though her mother flatly refuses. Meanwhile, Romeo secretly spends the night in Juliet's bedroom, where the two end up consummating the marriage.
Julieta visits Fray Lorenzo to ask him for suggestions, and he agrees to offer her a potion that would induce her into an intense coma lasting forty-two hours. Once the young woman agrees to take After the farce, the friar promises to send a message to Romeo, informing him of his secret plan, so that he could return when she wakes up. The night before the wedding, Juliet ingests the potion and her relatives, believing her dead, deposit her body in her family crypt.
Despite his unconditional promise, the message from Fray Lorenzo sent by Fray Juan, his companion, never reaches Romeo and instead he meets Baltasar (one of his servants), who informs him of the sudden Juliet's death Frustrated by such news, Romeo decides to buy an effective poison from the city apothecary, before going to the crypt where Juliet is. Upon arrival, he meets Paris, who moments before had been crying over the "inert body"; of his beloved. Believing that Romeo is a tomb robber, the Count confronts him, but is killed by Romeo, but not before telling him that his body must be placed with Juliet's body. Still convinced that her beloved is dead, Romeo proceeds to drink the poison in order to die beside her. Waking up from the induced coma, Juliet finds the corpses of Romeo and Paris in the crypt; Fray Lorenzo asks Julieta to flee and join an organization of nuns, but she refuses; unable to find a solution to such circumstances, she decides to pierce her heart with her husband's dagger, dying embraced by her lover. Some time later, the Montagues and the Capulet, accompanied by the prince, notice the death of the young men and the count. Absorbed by the tragic scene, Fray Lorenzo begins to tell the complete story of the "forbidden love" between Romeo and Juliet. His revelation manages to end the rivalry between the two families and Mr. Montague and Mr. Capulet are determined to build a golden statue of both of them.
Romeo and Juliet ends with Della Escala's elegy on "impossible love" of young people: & # 34; There has never been a more tragic story than this, that of Juliet and hers and hers Romeo... & # 34;
Characters
The story spans the relationships of two outstanding families from Verona, Italy, as well as the municipal government. His story takes place in five acts.
Home of the Capulet:
- Mr. Capuleto: Patriarch of the Capuleto family.
- Ms. Capuleto: Matriarca de la familia Capuleto.
- Julieta Capuleto: Daughter of the Capuleto and protagonist of the work.
- Teobaldo Capuleto: Primo de Julieta and nephew of Mrs. Capuleto.
- The nodriza: Confident and personal rot of Juliet.
- Pedro, Samson and Gregorio: Servants of the house of the Capulet.
Home of the Montagues:
- Mr. Montesco: Patriarch of the Montesco family.
- Mrs. Montesco: Matriarca of the Montesco family.
- Romeo Montesco: Son of the Montesco and protagonist of the work.
- Benvolio Montesco: Primo de Romeo and nephew of Mr. Montesco.
- Abraham and Baltasar: Servants of the Montesco house.
Verona Government:
- Prince Della Escala: Prince of Verona.
- Conde Paris: Relative of Della Escala, who yearns to marry Juliet.
- Mercucio Della Escala: relative of Della Escala, friend and confidant of Romeo and companion of Benvolio.
Others:
- Fray Lorenzo: Franciscan friar, friend of Romeo.
- The choir: Read a prologue every two acts.
- Fray Juan: Companion of Fray Lorenzo, who is sent to discover Romeo through the letter written by Fray Lorenzo.
- Boticario: Boticario that sells the poison to Romeo.
- Rosalina Capuleto: Prima de Julieta, niece of Mr. Capuleto and woman with whom Romeo has a sentimental relationship, before meeting Juliet.
First Editions
The exact date on which Shakespeare began to write it is not known, although it refers to an earthquake that supposedly occurred eleven years before the events narrated. Since, indeed, Italy was shaken in 1580 due to an earthquake, it is assumed that Shakespeare could have begun writing the first drafts around 1591. However, the existence of other earthquakes in different years prevents a definitive conclusion from being made in this regard. From a stylistic point of view, the The similarities of Romeo and Juliet with A Midsummer Night's Dream, as well as with other works from between 1594 and 1595, influence the possibility that it could have been written between 1591 and 1595.
The first edition of Romeo and Juliet dates from 1597 and was published by John Danter in quarto format (hence the technical term Q1 with which it is known). The various differences that its text presents with respect to later editions, has been the reason for it to have been classified as a bad version; T. J. B. Spencer, an editor of the 20th century, described his text as "obnoxious. A reconstruction from the imperfect memories of one or two actors', suggesting that it is an illegal copy. It has also been argued that its defects derive from the fact that, as with other theatrical texts of the time, it may have been published before its performance. However, its appearance supports the hypothesis that 1596 is the latest possible date for the composition of Romeo and Juliet.
The second edition, known as Q2, was titled The excellent and unfortunate tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. It was published in 1599 by Cuthbert Burby and edited by Thomas Creede. Responding to what is indicated on the title page (the text has been "corrected, increased and revised"), it includes some 800 more verses than the text of Q1.
Some scholars believe that Q2 is based on the draft of the first staging, because it contains textual oddities such as different names given to the same character and "false starts" in the speeches that, it is presumed, could have been suppressed by the author, but erroneously preserved by the publisher. Thus, Q2 presents a more complete and reliable text than its predecessor. This version was republished in 1609 as (Q3), in 1622 as (Q4), and in 1637 as (Q5). Otherwise, it is the text that is followed in modern editions.
In 1623 it appeared in the compilation known as the First Folio, with the text based on Q3 and with some corrections made on the basis of a scenic note.
Years later, other editions of the First Folio were published: in 1632 (F2), in 1664 (F3) and in 1685 (F4).
The first modern versions, based on the quarto and First Folio editions and their reprints, were produced by Nicholas Rowe in 1709 and by Alexander Pope in 1723, who began the tradition of editing the text by adding some additional information and artistic details that do not appear in Q2, but do appear in Q1.
Republication of the work has been constant since then and, from the Victorian era, its edition has been accompanied by explanatory notes on its sources and the cultural and social context in which it was produced.
Historical clues
Verona —the city that Shakespeare chose for his play— is one of the most prosperous in northern Italy. The place most often attracts young couples and married couples, mainly because it has earned the distinction of the City of Romeo and Juliet. In addition, it is characterized by having a very well-preserved architectural and historical heritage, which includes a Roman amphitheatre, a castle from the Middle Ages, as well as a series of palaces and churches from the period Medieval. Along with these attractions and buildings such as the Castelvecchio Museum, Verona has a building called Juliet's house which, although there is no proof that the Capulet lived there, attracts many visitors. Its construction began in the XIII century, and it could have belonged to the Cappello family. a bronze statue of Juliet, frescoes of the work and a kind of counter with Shakespeare's biography. The legend is also known that whoever touches the right breast of the statue will be lucky in love.
The question of the historical existence of Romeo and Juliet is difficult to settle. There are documents in which Girolamo della Corte, an Italian who lived at the time of Shakespeare, affirms that the relationship of the two young lovers had really happened in 1303, although this has not been proven with certainty. The only thing that can be stated is that the Montesco and Capulet families did really exist, although it is not known if they lived in the Italian peninsula and it cannot be certified that they were rivals. Another literary source that mentions the two families is the Divine Comedy, by the Italian Dante Alighieri. In this poem, Dante cites the Montagues and the Capulet as participants in a commercial and political dispute in Italy. In the same testimony, both families find themselves in purgatory, sad and desolate. For historian Olin Moore, they were two important political parties that were facing each other on Italian territory: Guelphs and Ghibellines. Seconding the same aspect is Luigi da Porto. However, several scholars consider that these families never existed; Lope de Vega and Mateo Bandello believed that the people had enriched the "belief" of its existence over time.
There is no evidence whatsoever regarding these suspicions, either in Italian literature or in the biography of William Shakespeare. However, for certain people such as the historian Rainer Sousa, the tragic and excessive love of Romeo and Juliet seems to establish an archetype of ideal love, often distant from the affective experiences experienced daily. Perhaps for this reason, many believe that love without measure, like the one in the Shakespearean case, is real."
First performances
Along with Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet is one of Shakespeare's most staged works. Likewise, its numerous adaptations have gone on to make it one of his most famous stories. famous and enduring. It was even extremely popular at the time of the author, adding, that the academic Gary Taylor called it the sixth most famous of his works, taking into account the period following the deaths of Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd, and preliminary to the popularity of Ben Jonson, author of the Renaissance. Taylor predisposed this period, noting that it was the time when Shakespeare was considered the most important playwright in London.
It is unknown when it was first staged; the first edition (Q1) of 1597 says that: "has been staged publicly [and with much applause]", deducing then that it had already been staged since before the text was published. However, it is known with certainty that the theater company Lord Chamberlain's Men was the first to stage it. Taking into account its important connections with the playwright, in the second edition (Q2) it appears published in a line of Act V the The name of one of his actors, William Kempe, instead of Pedro, the name of one of the Capulet family servants. Likewise, Richard Burbage is considered to have played Romeo for the first time (at that time he was the main actor in Lord Chamberlain's Men), while the young Robert Goffe assumed the role of Juliet for the first time. The fact that a man played a female character is due to the fact that at that time the laws prohibited women from acting in the theater. In addition, it is estimated that the work had its debut in the Elizabethan theaters The Theater and The Curtain, accompanied by in the latter of other newly released productions. Because a simplified version was premiered in the German town of Nördlingen in 1604, it is also one of the first Shakespeare plays to have been staged outside English territory.
Posthumous versions
Restoration and theater of the 18th century
The Puritan government closed all English theaters on September 6, 1642. After the restoration of the monarchy, in 1660, two theater companies were established (King's Company and Duke's Company), so that the entire existing theatrical repertoire up to that moment was divided between the two. In this way, William Davenant (of the Duke's Company) staged a new version of Romeo and Juliet in 1662, in which Henry Harris played the role of Romeo, Thomas Betterton that of Mercutio and Mary Saunderson (wife of Betterton) that of Juliet. It is therefore considered that Saunderson was the first woman to have interpreted the role of Juliet professionally. Another version parallel to Davenant's adaptation was produced by the same company, but unlike the original this one consisted of a tragicomedy made by James Howard, where the protagonists did not die at the end.
In 1680, Thomas Otway's The History and Fall of Caius Marius premiered, hailed as one of the most extreme Shakespearean adaptations of the Restoration. This version showed several differences with respect to the original script, among which stands out the change to Verona as the main setting for Ancient Rome, the modification of the names of the lovers (Romeo was Marius, while Juliet was Lavinia), the substitution of the confrontation between Italian families due to the class struggle between patricians and plebeians, and the very end (Lavinia wakes up just before Romeo dies). Contrary to what one might think, this performance became such a success that it continued to be staged for the next seven decades. It is important to note that the most enduring element of this version was the final scene, which would continue to be used for years to come. Theophilus Cibber's (son of Colley Cibber's) adaptation of 1744 and David Garrick's 1748 staging, which used variations of the same work, stood out for the next two centuries. Likewise, both adaptations eliminated elements that were considered inappropriate in that epoch. For example, in the latter, all the language that originally described Rosalina was transferred to Juliet, with the purpose of increasing the notion of fidelity and minimizing the concept of love at first sight. In 1750, a "Battle began from Romeos", with Spranger Barry and Susannah Maria Arne (wife of Theophilus Cibber) of the Royal Opera House against David Garrick and George Anne Bellamy of the Drury Lane Theatre.
The first known production in the United States was an amateur version that premiered on March 23, 1730. Information known from an advertisement in the Gazette newspaper >, where the doctor Joachimus Bertrand was promoting a production in which he would play the apothecary. The first professional adaptations in the same region were produced by the Hallam Company.
19th century theater
Garrick's version became very popular, reaching stages throughout most of the 18th century and part of the 19th. In 1845 Shakespeare's original work was revived in the United States, with sisters Susan and Charlotte Cushman playing the main characters. Two years later, the same thing happened in Great Britain with Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's Wells Theatre. The Cushman sisters' adaptation ran for eighty-four performances in all; several critics praised Charlotte's performance as Romeo, even calling her "perfect." The newspaper The Times wrote about it
For a long time, Romeo has been a convention. However, Miss Cushman's Romeo is a creative, frightening, animated and ardent human being.
In turn, Queen Victoria wrote in her diary that:
No one could have imagined she was really a woman.
In this way, the success of the Cushman version broke with the tradition of Garrick, encouraging future productions to return to the original script of its creator.
Shakespeare's professional dramatizations in the mid-nineteenth century had two particular characteristics: firstly, they consisted of productions whose main purpose was to improve the artistic trajectory of their protagonists, for which reason it was customary to omit some secondary roles with so as to maintain some prominence in the main characters. The remaining feature of that time was defined by the concept "illustrated", a term that made reference to the spectacularity of the elaborate assemblies where the stagings were intended to be carried out. This last factor caused long pauses in the middle of the work to be able to change the stage whenever the context required it. Also, living paintings were used consistently. In 1882, actor Henry Irving's production opened at the Lyceum Theater in London. In this version, Irving played Romeo, while the actress Ellen Terry played the role of Juliet. It is worth mentioning that the version would have to be classified as one of the archetypes of the illustrated style, mentioned above. Later, in 1895, when Irving traveled to the American continent for a theatrical tour, Johnston Forbes-Robertson assumed the role of Romeo in the Lyceum Theather, and his dramatization of the character was more natural and realistic compared to Irving's; the vision of him became popular since then. During his work, Forbes-Robertson avoided making use of Irving's showmanship, as he tried to convey a more realistic depiction of Romeo by expressing poetic dialogue in realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourishes.
On the other hand, American actors began to compete with their British counterparts; Edwin Booth (John Wilkes Booth's brother) and Mary McVicker (later to become Edwin's wife) gave their own interpretation of the young lovers, opening their production on February 3, 1869 at the sumptuous Booth's Theater (owned by the former), in New York. The building was characterized by having European-style theater machinery, as well as a unique air conditioning system in the city. Some news reports mention that it was one of the most elaborate productions of the play ever seen in America. The staging became one of the most popular of the era during the six weeks it ran, grossing more than $60,000 in total. The front page of the production's schedule noted that "the performance would be produced in strict accordance with historical propriety, and with all due respect, following closely Shakespeare's text".
Professionally, the first Japanese performance may have been a production by George Crichton Miln's company, which traveled to Yokohama as part of an international tour in 1890. In conclusion, throughout the century XIX the play had become Shakespeare's most popular, taking into account the various professional performances carried out in that period. In the 20th century, it was surpassed only by Hamlet.
20th century theater
In 1935, John Gielgud's production (premiering at the New Theater in Westminster, London) starred Gielgud himself as Romeo and Laurence Olivier as Mercutio (reversing roles for six weeks), and Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet. As inspiration, the actor used an academic combination of the first two editions (Q1 and Q2), to organize the assembly and the costumes according to the Elizabethan era. In the end, his efforts earned him considerable commercial success, further leading to a historical realism unprecedented in the trajectory of the script's stagings.Olivier later compared his performance to Gielgud's saying:
John [Gielgud]: spirituality, beauty and abstraction; I: completely connected to Earth, blood and humanity. I've always felt that John missed his humble half and made me go for the other, but whatever it is, when he played Romeo he felt like he carried a torch, trying to offer Shakespeare's realism.
With the 1947 version by Peter Brook, a new cycle began in the way of carrying out the montages in the interpretation, since he sought to focus on a point where the original plot could connect with contemporary society. In his own words, “a production can only be adequate if it is accurate, and good if it is successful.” A notable detail in Brook's adaptation was the removal of the final reconciliation between the Capulet and Montague.
Throughout the century, the influence of cinema began to prefer young actors to interpret it because the characteristics of the characters were associated with minors. Given this, the producers hired young actors to assume the leading roles, featuring performances by John Stride and Judi Dench in Franco Zeffirelli's version, performed at the Old Vic Theater in 1960. Zeffirelli borrowed some ideas from Brook, likewise removing a third of the original script in such a way that to make it more accessible to viewers. In an interview conducted by The Times, the producer concluded that "the identical themes of love and the complete breakdown of understanding between two generations have contemporary relevance". contemporary context. For example, in 1986, the Royal Shakespeare Company put on a production set in modern Verona; razors replaced swords, formal dancing was replaced by a rock party, and Romeo committed suicide with a hypodermic needle. In 1997, a production was released whose plot takes place in a typical suburban setting, in which Romeo infiltrates a a Capulet family barbecue meeting to meet Juliet, while she finds out about Teobaldo's death at her school. Analyzing the aforementioned aspects, an interest is perceived on the part of theater companies in adapting the original script to a specific period, with the sole purpose of allowing audiences to reflect on the underlying conflicts of the plot. Thus, there is a notion of adaptations where the events occur in the midst of the Arab-Israeli conflict, in the apartheid era in South Africa or in the stage of the rebellion of the Pueblo Indians. Similarly, the comic version of Peter Ustinov's 1956, Romanoff and Juliet, takes place in a fictional town in Europe during the events of the Cold War. In another 1980s production, The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby , a burlesque version of the final scene of Romeo and Juliet was made using some elements from the Victorian era (the aforementioned scene concluded with a happy ending in which Romeo, Juliet, Mercutio and Paris are revived, while Benvolio reveals his disguise and is revealed to be Benvolia, declaring his love for Paris.) On the other hand, Joe Calarco's Shakespeare's R&J took an unprecedented twist on the that a homosexual awakening of youth was explored. One of the most recent productions in this same order was Chicago musical comedy The Second City's Romeo and Juliet Musical: The People vs. Friar Laurence, the Man Who Killed Romeo and Juliet.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Romeo and Juliet became the preferred choice for the entire Shakespearean legacy to launch new theater companies. This can be exemplified in the play's debut at Edwin Booth's theater (in 1869), in the new structure of the Old Vic theater (premiered in 1929, with John Gielgud, Martita Hunt and Margaret Webster in the main roles), as well as at the opening of the Riverside Shakespeare Company in New York, in 1977.
Spanish versions
The first translation into Spanish is by Manuel García Suelto, in translation of the French adaptation of Le Tourneur (1783), and with the title Julia and Romeo (1803). The following version is due to the Cordovan playwright Dionisio Solís in 1817, from the French version by Jean François Ducis. The first performance consisting of this work was held at the Teatro del Príncipe in Madrid on December 14, 1818, forming the cast of actors Manuela Molina, María Maqueda, Andrés Prieto, Fernando Avecilla, Joaquín Caprara, Ramón López and Manuel Prieto.
On April 17, 1849, Víctor Balaguer published the tragic drama in five acts Julieta y Romeo, inspired by the original. Nine years later Ángel María Dacarrete did the same, with a work of equal title than the previous one and that was performed at the Teatro Novedades in Madrid with an interpretation by José Calvo on May 29, 1858.
Also from French is the translation by Manuel Hiraldez de Acosta (1868). The first direct translation from English corresponds to Matías de Velasco y Rojas and was published in 1872. Later, those by Jaime Clark (1873), Guillermo Mcpherson (1880), Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (1881), Roviralta Borrell (1909), Cipriano Montoliu (1910), Gregorio Martínez Sierra (1918) and Pablo Neruda (1964).
The play was performed several times throughout the 19th century. Already in the XX century, mention can be made of the performance at the Teatro Novedades in Barcelona in 1913, with an interpretation by Ricardo Calvo and Lola Velázquez In 1943 it was performed at the Teatro Español, directed by Cayetano Luca de Tena, and with José María Seoane in the role of Romeo, Mercedes Prendes in that of Julieta and Alfonso Munoz. Neruda's version was staged at the Teatro Fígaro in Madrid, with interpretations by María José Goyanes, Eusebio Poncela, Rafaela Aparicio and Luis Peña.
It has been covered twice for Spanish television: The first one was broadcast on December 22, 1967 in the space Teatro de siempre, adapted by Antonio Gala, directed by Luis Lucía and performed by Federico Illán (Romeo), Enriqueta Carballeira (Julieta), Ana María Noé, Mayrata O'Wisiedo, Estanis González, José Luis Pellicena and Andrés Mejuto. The second in the space Studio 1 in October 1972, directed by José Antonio Páramo and interpreted by Tony Isbert (Romeo), Ana Belén (Julieta ), Laly Soldevila, Agustín González, Carlos Lemos and Víctor Valverde.
Artistic influence
Music and ballet
| Romeo loved Juliet. Juliet felt the same for him. When he surrounded her with his arms He said this: Julie, you're my call and cause fever... |
| - Fragment of the song "Fever", interpreted by Peggy Lee. |
At least twenty-four operas have been based on Romeo and Juliet. The oldest, Romeo und Juliet, appeared in 1776 in the style of singspiel (small popular opera) by Georg Benda. This production omitted a large part of the action related in the script, as well as most of the characters, also having a happy ending. Occasionally, it was taken up again in contemporary society. On the other hand, the best-known opera is Roméo et Juliette by Charles Gounod, premiered in 1867 (the libretto was written by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré). After its debut, it came to be considered a "triumph" for criticism. Since then, Roméo et Juliette has often been performed. The lyrical version I Capuleti e i Montecchi by Vincenzo Bellini has also gone through the same situation, although Sometimes it has been negatively criticized for its differences with Shakespeare's script. For the production, Bellini and his librettist, Felice Romani, borrowed from some Italian cultural elements cited in a libretto Romani originally wrote for an opera by Nicola Vaccai.
Hector Berlioz's symphony (Romeo and Juliet) is a "dramatic composition" on a large scale divided into two parts, one for soloists, and the other for choir and orchestra. It premiered in 1839. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's work of the same name, written in the form of an overture-fantasy and premiered in 1869, is a symphonic poem of considerable length that contains the famous melody known as the "love theme". Tchaikovsky suggested that this piece of music be repeated in the scenes of the dance, the balcony, Juliet's bedroom, and the tomb. >leitmotiv), Nino Rota created his own melody that was later to be introduced in the 1968 film, as was the song "Kissing You" by Des'ree in the 1996 film. Abel Korzeniowski covered his melody in the 2013 version and won the IFMCA Award for Best Original Score for Drama and Film Composition of the Year. Other classical composers who were influenced by Romeo and Juliet are Johan Svendsen (Romeo og Juliet, from 1876), Frederick Delius (A Village Romeo and Juliet, 1899-1901) and Wilhelm Stenhammar (Romeo och Julia, 1922).
The best-known version for ballet was performed by Sergei Prokofiev. The Mariinsky Ballet company, with its version of Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet, was rejected by the company on two different occasions: one when Prokofiev tried to add a happy ending to the plot, and the other due to the experimental nature of its music. In 1940, the ballet was staged at the Kirov Theater choreographed by Leonid Lavrovsky and with Galina Ulanova in the role of Juliet. Over time, the ballet has gained a wide reputation, being choreographed by John Cranko in 1962 and by Kenneth MacMillan in 1965, among others.
Romeo and Juliet has influenced several jazz productions, most notably Peggy Lee's 1956 rendition of "Fever" and the tune & #34;The Star-Crossed Lovers" (included in the album Such Sweet Thunder) by composer Duke Ellington. In the latter the protagonists are represented by a tenor saxophone and an alto saxophone; Critics perceived that Juliet's sax stands out in the piece, beyond offering an image of equality with the tenor sax. Likewise, the work has inspired various exponents of popular music. Among them are The Supremes, Bruce Springsteen, Tom Waits, Elvis Costello and Lou Reed. Likewise, the musical group My Chemical Romance alludes to Romeo and Juliet in their song "The Sharpest Lives", while the single "Mademoiselle Juliette" by the French singer Alizée presents a Juliet tired of living in an environment where everything fails. However, the most famous track in the set is the song "Romeo and Juliet" by the rock band Dire Straits. Liv Kristine is also worth mentioning with the song "In the heart of Juliet".
On the other hand, the most famous stage musical is West Side Story, scored by Leonard Bernstein and written by Stephen Sondheim. The production debuted on Broadway in 1957, opening in the English West End district the following year. Three years later, in 1961, it was successfully adapted into a film. The film version relocated the events of the musical to mid-20th century New York City, as feuding families became gangs. Other notable musicals include the 1999 rock production William Shakespeare'; s Romeo and Juliet (by Terrence Mann), Gérard Presgurvic's version, Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour (premiered in 2001) and Giulietta e Romeo by Riccardo Cocciante, from 2007.
Literature
Its composition and plot have had a profound influence on subsequent literature. Previously, love was rarely seen as an element worthy of tragedy. In the words of Harold Bloom, Shakespeare "invented the formula that the sexual becomes the erotic when it crosses the shadow of death" 34;. Of Shakespeare's works, it is the one that has generated the most variations, whether they are works produced in narrative verses or in prose, paintings, dramas, operas and choral, orchestral and ballet compositions, as well as different versions for cinema and television. In the English language, as in many Spanish-speaking countries, the word "Romeo" it is considered to be synonymous with "male lover". In parodies, Romeo and Juliet was satirized in The Two Furious Women of Abingdon (1598) by Henry Porter, and Blurt, Master Constable (1607) by Thomas Dekker, specifically in the balcony scene, where a virgin heroine recites indecent words. From another perspective, the Shakespearean work also influenced certain works literary works, highlighting the text Nicholas Nickleby, by Charles Dickens.
Art
In the same way, the work has been illustrated countless times. The earliest known illustration is a woodcut depicting the balcony scene, attributed to Elisha Kirkall, and probably created in 1709 for a edition of the works of William Shakespeare produced by Nicholas Rowe. In the 18th century, the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery commissioned five paintings of the play, portraying each of the five acts of the tragedy. On the other hand, the tradition of productions "pictorial" of the 19th century led the producers to resort to paintings with the purpose of taking inspiration for their adaptations; these works ended up influencing painters to represent the ideal actors and settings for each stage version. In the 20th century, the visual icons of the works began to be derived from film productions of the time.
Cinema and television
In film history it is considered the most adapted tragedy of all time. Shakespeare's original version was first filmed in the silent era by Georges Méliès, although the film is considered &# 34;lost". Thus, The Hollywood Revue of 1929, starring John Gilbert and Norma Shearer, is considered the first film version with audio. On the other hand, Renato Castellani won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for his 1954 film of the same name. In that version, experienced actor Laurence Harvey played Romeo, while the role of Juliet fell to Susan Shentall. Carlo Carlei made his own version 2013 and the premiere was held in Hollywood at the ArcLight Hollywood. It is the most faithful to Shakespeare's work and stars Douglas Booth in the role of Romeo and the actress and singer Hailee Steinfeld in the role of Juliet.
The most famous film productions are the 1936 film (nominated for four Oscars) and directed by George Cukor, the 1968 version by director Franco Zeffirelli and Romeo + Juliet by Baz Luhrmann in 1996 In their time, the latter two became the industry's most successful films based on the Shakespearean legacy.;superficial" of the plot, a contrasting aspect with the previous Warner Bros. production, A Midsummer Night's Dream) was characterized by having been starred by Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard, who at that time they added up to more than seventy-five years; Zeffirelli's version of Romeo and Juliet featured attractive young men in the starring roles, while Romeo + Juliet was aimed at youthful audiences.
Expert Stephen Orgel describes Franco Zeffirelli's film as "full of young, beautiful people; the cameras and exuberant lights contribute to the sexual energy and attractiveness of the actors'. It is worth mentioning that the protagonists Leonard Whiting and Olivia Hussey, despite being young (Whiting was eighteen years old and Olivia only fifteen), had participated in other projects prior to Romeo and Juliet. However, Zeffirelli argued that the reason for choosing them as the leads was their inexperience and youth. Seen from a general perspective, the director received praise for the production, especially for the duel scene where he expresses how a situation can &# 34;get out of control". However, it generated some controversy due to the shots of the naked protagonists in the honeymoon scene, since Olivia Hussey was a minor at the time. Romeo + Juliet (1996), along with its soundtrack, captivated an entire generation of young people who saw themselves "connected" with plot exposed. Slightly less "dark" Like Zeffirelli's version, Luhrmann's adaptation is set in a "rude, violent and superficial society" from the fictional Verona Beach and Sycamore Grove. Starring Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes, it managed to be praised by specialized critics. Also notable was Danes' performance as Juliet, described as "perfect and spontaneous". Other films based on the same concept are Romeo Must Die and Chicken Rice War, both from 2000, as well as Lloyd Kaufman's standalone version, Gnomeo and Juliet, and the Bollywood films, Ishaqzaade, Issaq and Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela, are contemporary versions of the work. In the same way, the Mexican production Amar te duele and the Disney animated film The Lion King II: Simba's Pride use the theme of forbidden love to tell the story of its protagonists.
Regarding television adaptations, in 1960 Peter Ustinov made a parody of the Cold War (Romanoff and Juliet), inspired by Shakespeare's work. Likewise, the musical West Side Story, which gave film adaptations in 1961 and 2021, denote the Montagues and Capulet as the fictitious Jets (the white population) and Sharks (natives of Puerto Rico). In 2006 the film High School Walt Disney Pictures' Musical used the Romeo and Juliet plot by substituting two "gangs" Likewise, the Argentine soap opera Romeo y Julieta, from 2007, makes use of the plot through an adaptation set in contemporary times.
In the field of animation, the Japanese anime series Romeo × Juliet, the British Shakespeare: The Animated Tales and the animated film Romeo & Juliet: Sealed With a Kiss by Phil Nibbelink.
Peculiarly, several directors tend to incorporate scenes of their actors playing Romeo and Juliet. The concept of how Shakespeare developed his tragedy of forbidden love has also been used in several productions, highlighting the John Madden's version of Shakespeare in Love, premiered in 1998, where the atmosphere of the Elizabethan theater is reconstructed.
Background
For the creation of Romeo and Juliet, the playwright drew on various elements from an ancient tradition of tragic stories about love. One of these is Pyramus and Thisbe from Ovid's Metamorphoses, to which Shakespeare's tragedy bears some similarities—the two plots focus on disagreements between the parents of the young lovers and Pyramus's false belief that his beloved Thisbe was dead. III, tells a similar story, since it includes the forced separation of the protagonists, as well as the potion that induces "deep sleep".
The first known edition was the thirty-third story of Il Novellino, a work by author Masuccio Salernitano published in 1476. This Italian novel takes place in Siena, being particularly referred to as "a story that occurred at the time of the author". Some of its narrative elements (the secret wedding, the kindly friar, Mariotto's exile, Gianozza's forced marriage, the poison, and the important message that never reaches its addressee) are mostly known from Shakespeare's work. However, there are major differences towards the end of the story: Mariotto is captured and beheaded, while Gianozza dies of sadness.
Five decades later, Luigi da Porto adapted Il Novellino into a new edition entitled Giulietta e Romeo, released in 1530 under the original name Historia novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti ("A newly found story of two noble lovers"). Da Porto drew inspiration from Pyramus and Thisbe and from the book of short stories The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio. Some sources insist that Giulietta e Romeo became the first work to include most of the characteristic elements of Romeo and Juliet, citing the names of the protagonists among them. and those of rival families, as well as the site of the tragedy in Verona. In addition, Da Porto introduced the original characters of Mercutio, Tybalt, and Count Paris, whom Shakespeare eventually developed. The first edition of his work was published as a "true story," insisting that the events presented in the tragedy had taken place during the reign of Bartolomeo II della Scala in the XIII. At that same time there is evidence of the existence of the Montagues and the Capulet as political factions, however their only interaction appeared in the Cantos del Purgatorio by Dante Alighieri. Another similarity is the the way Giulietta pierces her chest with Romeo's dagger, who had previously died after drinking the poison.
In 1554, Matteo Bandello published his own version of Giuletta e Romeo, included in the second volume of poems in the Novelle collection. Romeo's depression at the beginning of Da Porto's original novel, as well as in the rivalry between the Montagues and the Capulet; it was he who first introduced Juliet's nurse and Benvolio. Five years later, in 1559, his story was translated into French by Pierre Boaistuau, including it in his volume Histoires Tragiques. In Boaistuau's translation, more sentimentality was added to the plot, while the rhetoric of the characters acquired an impetuous force that was to give it a vehement quality.
Then would be followed by the adaptation by Arthur Brooke, who started from a translation from the French version of Boiastuau to come up with a poem, The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, influenced by Troilus and Cressida by Geoffrey Chaucer. At this time, there was an intense fascination with Italian novels—Italian short stories had become very popular among screenwriters and stage actors—thus Shakespeare is considered he may have been familiar with William Painter's collection of short stories, Palace of Pleasure, from 1567. This collection included a prose version of Romeo and Juliet, entitled "The goodly History of the true and constant love of Rhomeo and Julietta" ("The great story of the constant true love of Romeo and Juliet"). Based on the above, the English author would choose to write a series of novels based on Italian stories, including The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, To a good end there is no bad weather and Measure for measure. Ultimately, his interpretation of Romeo and Juliet would become a dramatization of Brooke's poem, as well as an extension of the plot from the main and minor characters (especially, the nurse and Mercutio).).
Both the mythological poem Hero and Leander and Dido, Queen of Carthage, both by Christopher Marlowe, were written around the time Shakespeare began writing Romeo and Juliet. Said works are considered as an indirect influence of the latter, and may be responsible for the atmosphere in which the story of "tragic love" manages to materialize in the well-known script.
Themes
Most scholars have been unable to assign a specific theme to the work. There is a proposal derived from the study of characters in which the human being, without being completely good or bad, has traits of both aspects. Although this proposal has not received sufficient support, and it has not been possible to find a central theme, there are several secondary themes that are entangled in a complex way in the plot. His different interpretations continue to be studied by various scholars and experts on Shakespeare's life.
Love
Timeless love is one of the representative elements of Romeo and Juliet. Over time, its protagonists have come to be considered as icons of "young love destined to fail& #3. 4;. Various scholars have explored the existing language and historical context of the tragic romance.
| Romeo: (Take Juliet's hand) If with my hand, no more indignation profane this holy relicario, Here is the gentle atonement: My lips, like two rotten pilgrims, They're soon, they're soon. to soften with a tender kiss So rude contact. Julieta: |
| - Fragment of scene V, act I, of Romeo and Juliet. |
In their first meeting, Juliet and Romeo use a form of communication (metaphor) recommended by several mainstream authors during Shakespeare's time. Making use of them by implying the words "holy" and 'sin', Romeo was able to gauge Juliet's feelings for him in an unusual way. This method was also supported by the Italian writer Baltasar de Castiglione (whose works, for the most part, were translated into English). In addition Castiglione advised that, in case a man used a metaphor as an invitation to a woman, she could pretend that she did not understand him, so that her suitor could withdraw from her without losing her honor. Contrarily, Juliet participates in the metaphor, expanding it. The religious terms "grave", "path" and "holy" were very popular in poetry at the time, showing a propensity for a romantic tone, rather than indirect profanity—the term "holiness" it was associated with Catholicism some years before writing. Later, in the same text, Shakespeare determined to eliminate the clearest reference to the resurrection of Christ and Easter, elements present in The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet .
In the "balcony scene" from Shakespeare, Romeo discreetly listens to Juliet's soliloquy. However, in Brooke's version, she makes her declaration of love while alone. By introducing Romeo into the scene where he eavesdrops, the author breaks away from the normal courtship sequence. Normally, a woman was required to follow a pattern of behavior based on her modesty and shyness, in order to ensure that her suitor was honest. The reason for deviating from the mentioned sequence is because Shakespeare wanted to speed up the plot a bit. In this way, young lovers become apt to evade part of the courtship process, displacing the story, which is initially focused on the development of their sentimental relationship, to a context that is more focused on their decision to get married (after discovering their feelings). mutual in a single night). As long as they are with their lover ("courtly love") they become creditors to paradise, where they will be accompanied by their lover. This is how the love between Romeo and Juliet tends to be more platonic than religious. Another point to consider is the consummation of love (sexual relations) cited in the original writing; Even though the love between the two was passionate, the couple only consummated their love after they were married, which prevents them from losing the public's sympathy.
It is possible that Romeo and Juliet works like an equation of love and sex, with death. Throughout the tragedy, both he and she (along with other minor characters) fantasize about this "withering equality," usually attributed to a lover. For example, Mr. Capulet is the one who first notices "death" of Juliet, comparing this factor with the deflowering of her daughter.In addition, a little later Juliet erotically compares Romeo with death. Just before committing suicide, she decides to use his dagger, saying, "Oh, happy dagger!" This is your edge. Run me then, and let me die".
Fate and chance
Various scholars differ on the role of fate in Romeo and Juliet. In assertion mode, there is still no consensus on whether the characters are truly destined to die together, or whether the events that occurred are due to a series of unfortunate events. In arguments for the importance of fate, Romeo and Juliet are often described by the term Star-crossed lovers.
| Romeo: Oh, I'm a lucky fool! |
| - Act III Romeo and Juliet. |
The above sentence states that "the stars have predetermined their futures". John W. Draper indicates the similarity between the belief in the four humors and the main characters of the plot (as an example, Teobaldo would represent anger). After interpreting the text using this belief, the amount of text attributed by contemporary audiences to chance is considerably reduced, a characteristic feature noted by contemporary audiences. Despite the comparison, other researchers view the story as a series of unfortunate events, while not to look at it entirely as a tragedy but as an emotional melodrama. According to Ruth Nevo, the continuing emphasis on causality in the plot makes Romeo and Juliet not so grimly a tragedy of chance, but she also does not consider it a tragedy of character. For example, the fact that Romeo challenged Tybalt is not the result of a compulsive action, but the expected consequence of the murder of Mercutio. In this same scene, Nevo observes in Romeo an attitude of insight in the face of the dangers derived from social norms, identity and commitments. Therefore, he decides to kill; it is not a product of hamartia, but of a certain circumstance.
Light and dark
| In Romeo and Juliet...the dominant image is the light: every form and every manifestation of it; the sun, the moon, the stars, the fire, the lighting, the flash of the gunpowder and the reflected brightness of beauty and love; while in contrast we have the night, the darkness, the clouds, the rain, fog and smoke. |
| — Caroline Spurgeon |
Throughout Shakespeare's tragic writing, various scholars have identified the frequent use of imagery or elements related to light and darkness. Caroline Spurgeon considers light as "a symbol of the natural beauty of the young love", a concept from which various critics have expanded the interpretation of this element in Romeo and Juliet. For example, Juliet and Romeo look at each other as a joint manifestation of light in a dark environment. He describes her "similar to the sun, brighter than a torch, a flashing jewel in the midst of the night, and an angel illuminated amidst dark clouds. Even as she remains ecstatic over the grave, apparently dead, he exclaims, 'Your beauty makes / This vault a place full of light'. Juliet describes Romeo as 'the day in the night'; and as something "whiter than snow on the back of a raven". This contrast of light and dark could be understood, symbolically, as love and hate, youth and maturity in a metaphorical form. Sometimes these metaphors create a kind of dramatic irony. This can be evidenced in the assimilation of the love between Romeo and Juliet as "a light in the midst of a darkness produced by the hatred that surrounds them". However, all their activities as a couple are carried out during the night, while the contest takes place in broad daylight. This paradox of imagery brings a new atmosphere to the moral dilemma of young lovers: loyalty to family or loyalty to love. At the end of the story, as the morning darkens and the sun is hiding its sad face, light and dark have returned to their proper places: the outer darkness now reflects the true inner gloom of the family feud, beyond the Regret for the tragic outcome of the lovers. Each of the characters recognizes their madness during the day, and finally things return to their natural order, due to the revelation of true love between Romeo and Juliet. Light, as a thematic element in the script, also plays an essential role by being involved with time, concluding that Shakespeare used it as a convenient way of expressing the passing of time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars.
Time
| Paris: These times of distress do not allow any time to cut. |
| - Fragment of scene IV, Act III, of Romeo and Juliet. |
The perception of time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet struggle to maintain an imaginary world absent from the passage of time in the face of the harsh realities that surround them. For example, when Romeo swears his love to Juliet having the moon as his foundation, she says "Or don't swear by the moon, the fickle moon, / which changes monthly in its circular orbit, / unless love can be shown to be equally variable". From the beginning, young people are classified as "a pair of lovers with opposite stars" (Star-crossed lovers), a situation that refers to a link between astrological beliefs and time. It was thought that the stars controlled the destiny of humanity, and with the passage of time, they moved progressively in the sky, tracing along with their movement the destiny of human life. In the first lines of the writing, Romeo talks about a premonition he has about the translation of these celestial bodies, so when he finds out about Juliet's death, he challenges the stars asking what they have destined for him.
Another central theme of Romeo and Juliet is precipitation. Unlike Brooke's poem which expands the narrative over a period of nine months, Shakespeare's play takes place over four to six days. Scholars such as G. Thomas Tanselle believe that time was "especially necessary for Shakespeare" 34;, especially when dealing with the events that occurred in the tragic story of Romeo and Juliet. They also perceive that the author used "short-term" for the relationship of young people, a concept contrary to the allusions "long term" existing to describe the "older generations", with the primary purpose of highlighting "a race destined for perdition". Juliet and Romeo face time to encourage their love to be extend for all eternity. In the end, the only perceptible way in which they can defeat time is through death, an aspect that makes them immortal through art.
Generally, in the literary sphere, time is considered to be linked to light and darkness. In Shakespeare's day, plays were usually performed at noon, in broad daylight. This may have forced the author to use words that create a dual illusion of day and night in his writing. Additionally, Shakespeare used references to the stars, the moon, the sun, and day alongside night in order to create this perception. Similarly, he had some of his characters refer to days of the week and specific times to help the audience understand how much time has elapsed in his story. Altogether, no less than 103 references have been found in the work to help understand this passage of time.
Analysis and interpretation
Critical perception
Beyond the fact that critics have found many flaws in it, it continues to be regarded as one of Shakespeare's greatest works. The first known appreciation in this regard comes from the diarist Samuel Pepys, in 1662, who says:
It is a work in itself of the worst I've ever heard.
Ten years later, poet John Dryden praised the material as well as the comedy of his character Mercutio saying:
Shakespeare showed that he could be the best of his skills in his Mercy, and he also said he was forced to kill him in Act III to prevent him from killing him.
Certainly, critical analysis of the plot in the 18th century was less sparse, though no less divided. Playwright Nicholas Rowe was the first to reflect on the play's theme, which he perceived as "the retribution of two feuding families." In the middle of the century, the English writer Charles Gildon and the Scottish philosopher Lord Kames argued that the play was a failure to the extent that it did not follow the basic rules of drama: tragedy must occur because of some hamartia, not from an accident of fate. In contrast, the writer and critic Samuel Johnson considered that:
For me, this work is one of the most pleasant and exciting things I've ever read.
In the latter part of the 18th century, and through the 19th century, views centered on debates about the message morality of writing The actor and playwright David Garrick, in his 1748 adaptation, excluded Rosalina as he considered the situation of Romeo abandoning her for Juliet to be too fickle and reckless. Some critics such as Charles Dibdin argued that Rosalina had been included in the script on purpose to show how reckless the hero was, this being the reason for her tragic ending. Others argued that Friar Lawrence may have been Shakespeare's mouthpiece in warning him against obsessive haste. With the advent of the 20th century, these moral arguments were disputed by analysts such as Richard Green Moulton, who mentioned that accidents led to to the death of the lovers, ruling out the flaws of the characters as the cause of the final events (hamartia).
Dramatic Structure
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In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare employs several dramatic techniques that have received critical acclaim. The main feature praised in this regard is the sudden change from comedy to tragedy, a situation that can be exemplified in the calambur (pun) conversation between Romeo and Mercutio moments before Teobaldo arrives. Prior to Mercutio's death in Act III, the script tends towards a more comedic stance. Only after that moment does it take on a serious and tragic tone. Even though Romeo is banished, and not executed, as Friar Lawrence suggests a plan to Juliet so that she can be reunited with her lover, the audience can still hope that everything ends well between them. Imperceptibly, the audience is left in an "intense state of suspense" by the time the last scene at the tomb begins: if Romeo is delayed long enough for Friar Lawrence to arrive in time, the former and Juliet could be saved. These permutations ranging from hope to despair, to continue with reprieve and a new sense of optimism, serve to emphasize the tragedy in the finale, where the last hope has been dashed and both leads are killed in the last scene.
The author also makes use of secondary plots to offer a clearer vision of the actions carried out by each of the main characters. For example, at the beginning of the story, Romeo is in love with Rosalina, who had remained indifferent to his romantic advances. Romeo's infatuation with her rejections is in stark contrast to her subsequent infatuation with Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can observe the seriousness of the relationship between the lovers. Paris's love for Juliet also establishes a disparity between the feelings that the girl has for him and the affection that she also has for Romeo. The formal language she uses with Paris, as well as the way she talks about him with her nurse, shows that her feelings are only with Romeo. Beyond all this, the complementary story of the confrontation between the Montague and Capulet families further escalates, providing an atmosphere of fundamental hatred that ultimately becomes the main factor in the story ending tragically.
Language
The playwright uses a variety of poetic forms throughout the story; he opens with a fourteen-line prologue in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet, which is narrated by a chorus. However, most of Romeo and Juliet is written in blank verse, written in strict iambic pentameters, with less rhythmic variation than in later works by the same author. poetic forms, Shakespeare relates each of them to a specific character. Such are the cases of Fray Lorenzo using the sermon and the sentence of latae sententiae, like the nurse using blank verse, a fact that shows a tendency to colloquial language. Likewise, each of these forms, is molded and adapted to the emotion inherent in the scene where the character participates. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosalina in the opening lines, he tries to use Petrarch's sonnet. Usually, this current was applied by men to exaggerate the beauty of women, a quality that was impossible for them to achieve as described in the situation of Romeo and Rosalina. This poetic form is also used by Lady Capulet when she describes to Juliet the physical appearance of Paris, whom she describes as "attractive".
By the time the young couple meet, Shakespeare shifts the Petrarchism of their responses to a more contemporary sonnet style, using metaphors relating to "saints" and "pilgrims". When they meet on the balcony, Romeo uses a sonnet to express his love for her, but Juliet interrupts him with the unerring question, "Do you love me?" the use of a poetic exaggeration about their love. The same character has monosyllables with Romeo, although he uses formal language with Paris.
Other poetic forms found in the play include an epithalami for Juliet, a rhapsody composed by Mercutio to define Queen Mab, and an elegy by Paris. Shakespeare retains his typical prose style to frame the expressions of common people, even when he sometimes uses it in characters like Mercutio. Humor also plays an indispensable role: researcher Molly Mahood identified at least 175 puns in the text. Most of these are sexual in nature, primarily existing in the relationship between Mercutio and the nurse.
Psychoanalytic criticism
Some critical psychoanalysts have noted that the problem with Romeo and Juliet, in terms of Romeo's impulsiveness, stems from a "poorly controlled and partially covert aggression" that ultimately leads to both Mercutio's death like double suicide. They also consider that the plot is not psychologically very complex; by disciplinary analysis, the tragic male experience is tantamount to illness. In 1966, Norman Holland regarded Romeo's dream as a genuine "fantasy-filled wish, both in terms of his adult world and his hypothetical childhood in the oral, phallic, and oedipal stages", acknowledging that a dramatic character is not a human being with separate mental processes from those presented by the author. Other critics of this discipline, such as Julia Kristeva, focus on the existing hatred between families. Thus, they argue that hatred in turn provokes the mutual passion of Juliet and Romeo. Likewise, that loathing manifests itself directly in the language of lovers: for example, Juliet recites that "my only love springs only from my only hate", sometimes expressing her passion through an anticipation of Romeo's death. This leads to speculation about the playwright's psychology, particularly Shakespeare's consideration of grief over the death of his son, Hamnet.
Feminist theory
Several feminist critics maintain that the foundation of the confrontation between the families resides in the patriarchal society of Verona. For Coppélia Kahn, the masculine label of extreme violence is imposed on Romeo's personality as the main force that drives the entire series of events to end in tragedy. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, Romeo becomes violent, lamenting that he was "made effeminate" because of Juliet. From this perspective, young boys "become men" only by using violence on behalf of their fathers or, in the case from servants, from their masters. Fighting also denotes virility, as evidenced by the many jokes about virginity found throughout the play.On the other hand, Juliet presents a feminine label of docility by allowing characters like the friar to solve her personal problems. Other critics of this current, such as Dympna Callaghan, notice in the feminism of the text a historical angle where the feudal order was being questioned by an increasingly centralized government, adding the factor of the arrival of capitalism as one of the main circumstances. At the same time, the new ideas of purism on marriage in comparison with other older ideologies had downplayed the "evils of female sexuality", adopting a pro-love marriage approach; Thus, Juliet's evasions regarding her father's attempts to force her to marry a man she does not love are an example of Juliet challenging the patriarchal order in a way she might not have been. possible in the past.
Homosexuality
Various analyzes from Queer theory question the sexual orientations of Mercutio and Romeo, comparing their friendship to a form of sexual love. In a conversation, Mercutio mentions Romeo's phallus, suggesting indications of homoeroticism. Citing as an example, the former says: "Whoever causes some strange spirit to arise in the circle of his adored and that he is there maintained until she, by means of exorcisms, returned him to the depth". Romeo's homoeroticism can be found in his attitude towards Rosalina, whom he sees as a distant and unavailable woman, unable to give him any hope of continuing his relationship. offspring. Also, as Benvolio adds in this regard, "she is replaced by someone with greater reciprocity." Shakespeare's procreation sonnets describe another young man who, like Romeo, has problems of a sexual nature, for which he could be seen as a homosexual. Specialist critics on the subject believe that Shakespeare may have introduced Rosalina as a viable way of expressing the problems associated with procreation. In this context, when Juliet says "[...] what we call a rose would exhale the same pleasant perfume even if it had another name", she is possibly wondering if there is any difference between the beauty of a man and that of a woman.