Roman Republic

The Roman Republic (in Latin: rēs pūblica populī rōmānī , rōma or senātus populusque rōmānus ) It was a period of the history of Rome characterized by the Republican regime as a state form, which extends from 509 a. C., when the Roman monarchy was ended with the expulsion of the last king, Lucio Tarquinio el Soberbio, until 27 a. C., date on which the Roman Empire was beginning with the designation of Octavian as Princeps and Augusto .

The Roman Republic consolidated its power in center of Italy during the V a. C. and, among the centuries IV and III a. C., it was imposed as dominant power of the Italian peninsula, subjecting and unifying the other Italian peoples. And facing the Greek polis of the south of the Peninsula. In the second half of the century III a. C. projected her power outside Italy, which led her to a series of clashes with the other great powers of the Mediterranean, in which she defeated Carthage and Macedonia, annexing her territories.

In the following years, being the greatest power of the Mediterranean, its power over the Greek polis was expanded; The Kingdom of Pergamum was incorporated into the Republic and in the i a. C. conquered the coasts of the Middle East, then held by the sealing empire and cilicious pirates. During the period covered by the end of the century II a. C. and the century i a. C., Rome experienced great political changes, caused by a crisis consequence of a system accustomed to directing only the Romans and not adequate to control a great empire. At this time the competition for the magistrates between the Roman aristocracy intensified, creating irreconcilable political fractures that would shake the Republic with three great civil wars; These wars would end up destroying the Republic, and leading to a new stage of the history of Rome: the Roman Empire.

Political History

was Patricia (509-367 a. c.)

According to the legend, Tarquininio El Superbio was overthrown in 509 a. C. For a group of nobles led by Lucio Gross June. It is said that Tarquinio made a series of attempts to resume the throne, including the Tarquinian conspiracy, the war against Veyes and Tarquinia, and finally the war between Rome and Clusium, all without success. The historical monarchy probably overthrown quickly, but the constitutional changes that occurred immediately later were not as extensive as the legend suggests. Perhaps the most important change was that of the executive leader. Before, a king was chosen by the senators for a period of life, but with the new changes, two consuls were chosen by the citizens for an annual period. Each consul would control their partner, and their limited mandate allowed them to be accused If they abused the powers of his position. The consular political powers, when they were exercised together, were not different from those of the former king.

in 494 a. C., the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy since they demanded the right to choose their own officers and departed towards the adventine mountain. The patricians agreed and the lags returned to the battlefield. The commoners called their new officers "tribunes of the plebe" and these would have two assistants, called "mayor of the plebe." From 375 a. C. until 371 a. C., the Republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the plebeian tribunes used their votes to avoid the choice of superior magistrates. In 367 a. C., a law was approved that required the choice of at least a mayor commoner every year. In 443 a. C. the censor was created, and in 366 a. C. The praetor and mayor Curul was created.

Shortly after the Foundation of the Republic, the centuries elections became the main Legislative Assembly, in which the magistrates were chosen and the laws were approved. During the century IV a. C., a series of reforms were carried out, especially after the successive secession of the commoners. As a result, any law approved by the plebeian assembly would have all the force of the law. This gave the tribunes, which presided over the assembly of the commoners, a positive character for the first time, since, before these laws, the The only power they had was the veto.

Conflict of orders (367-287 a. c.)

The commoners were experiencing a crisis due to debt. According to Tito Livio, this crisis accelerated after the looting of Rome by the Gauls ( c. 390-387 a. C.). They exploded continuous protests, in which Marco Manlio Capitolino headed them who, although it was Patricio, allied with the commoners, whose debts helped pay with his fortune. Throughout the century, social disturbances became frequent and triggered various disorders, such as 378 a. C., and the anarchy of 370 a. C. As a result of the growing discontent of the popular class, a series of laws were promulgated to deal with the situation. Licinio-Sextias Laws from 367 a. C. served to expedite the payment of debts and imposed a limit to the accumulation of public lands - ager publicus - for each pater families , as well as the number of sheep and cows that could graze in them while others, promulgated in 357, 352 and 347 a. C., tried to reduce and regularize interest rates shortly after, in 342 a. C., the genucy law determined the illegality of interest loans and in 326 a. C., thanks to Poetelia Papiria law, the servitude for debts was abolished.

After the creation of the mayor, the patricians created the mayor Curul. After the consulate was opened to the commoners in 367 a. C., these maintained both a dictatorship (356 BC) and censorship (351 BC). The plebiscitos of 342 a. C. put limits to political positions; An individual could only hold one position at the same time, and they had to take ten years between the end of his official mandate and his re -election. In 337 a. C. The first plebeian praetor was chosen. During these years the relationship between tribules and senators began to approach, the Senate realized the need to use plebeian officers to achieve their objectives. To win the tribules, Senators Les Les Les They gave a lot of power and the tribunes began to feel prone to the Senate. With the approach of the senators and the tribunes, the plebeian senators often could ensure the tax for the members of their own families. Over time, the tribute became the starting point towards higher positions.

in the middle of the century IV a. C., the plebeian assembly promulgated the ovínia law. During the beginning of the Republic, only the consuls could appoint new senators, however, this new law granted the censors this power and demanded that the censor appoint any newly chosen magistrate for the Senate. By then, the commoners already They occupied a significant number of teaching charges, therefore, the number of common senators probably increased rapidly. However, it was still difficult for a commoner to enter the Senate if it did not belong to a family of well -known politicians, such as the emerging plebeian aristocracy. The ancient nobility continued to exist by force of the law, since only the patricians could remain in high ranks. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society, so only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.

Towards 287 a. C., the economic situation of the middle plebeian became miserable accordingly of the generalized debt. The commoners demanded help, but the senators refused to deliberate on their situation, giving way to the last plebeian secession. The commoners left towards the Mount Janicle. Towards the end of the secession, fifth Hortensio was appointed dictator and promulgated a new law - the Hortensia law - which ended the need for senators patricians to agree with the bill before it could be considered by the plebeian assembly. This was not the first law that demanded that an act of the popular assembly have the same weight as the law, since this acquired this power during a modification of the original Valerian law in 449 a. C. The importance of this law was, in fact, that stole the patricians the last weapon they had against the commoners and, as a result, the control of the State fell, not on the shoulders of the voters, but in the new nobility commoner. The plebeians finally achieved political equality with the patricians, however, the condition of the plebeian middle class does not change. A small number of plebeian families reached the same position that had always had the ancient patrician aristocratic families, but the new plebeian aristocrats disinterested in the condition of the plebeian middle class as the ancient aristocrats had always done.

SUPREMATION OF THE NEW NOBILITY (287-133 BC)

There were no important political changes between 287 a. C. and 133 a. C., so the Hortensia law, promulgated by the Senate as well as other important laws, was the solution to the last major political problem of that time. In fact, the commoners were satisfied with the possession of power, but not They bother to use it. The Senate was supreme during this time because the period was dominated by issues of foreign and military policy. In the last decades of this era, many commoners were impoverished and the long military campaigns forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, while while Its properties fell into disuse. As the prices of basic products fell, many farmers could no longer maintain their farms with profits, so the rural aristocracy began to buy those that were bankrupt at reduced prices. The result was the total bankruptcy of many farmers And these soon began to flood Rome and, therefore, the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their poverty generally led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most, so a new culture of dependence was emerging, in which citizens sought help in any populist leader.

From Gracos to Julio César (133–49 BC)

Los Gracos

Tiberio Graco was chosen tribune in 133 a. C. He tried to approve a law that would limit the amount of land that any individual could possess. The aristocrats, who were losing a large sum of money, opposed staunch to this proposal. Tiberius presented this law to the popular assembly, but the law was vetoed by a tribune called Marco Octavio. Tiberio then used the popular assembly to challenge Octavio. The idea that a people representative would cease to be when he acted against the wishes of the people was against Roman constitutional theory. If it leads to its logical conclusion, this theory would eliminate all constitutional restrictions to the popular will and place the State under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority. Its law was promulgated, but Tiberius was killed together with 300 of its associates when He appeared to tribunal re -election.

Tiberio's brother, Cayo Sempronio Graco, was chosen tribune in 123 a. C. The objective of Cayo Graco was to weaken the Senate and strengthen democratic forces. In the past, for example, the Senate would eliminate political rivals through the creation of special judicial commissions or through a Senatus Consultum ultimum I> - «Decree of the Supreme Senate» -. Both provisions allowed the Senate to avoid ordinary rights due to procedural rights that all citizens had. Cayo prohibited the judicial commissions and declared unconstitutional the Senatus Consultum ultimum , then proposed a law that guaranteed citizenship to the Italian allies. This last proposal was not supported among the commoners and lost much of his support. He was running for a third mandate in 121 a. C., but was defeated and then killed by representatives of the Senate with 3000 of its supporters in the Capitoline hill in Rome. Although the Senate maintained control, the grace strengthened the political influence of the commoners.

popular and optimates

In 118 B.C. C. King Micipsa of Numidia died. This divided the empire between his three sons, two legitimate sons, Aderbal and Hiempsal I, and one illegitimate, Jugurta. The latter, however, turned against his brothers, killed Hiempsal I and expelled Aderbal from Numidia, so he fled to Rome for help. Rome initially mediated in the division of the country between the two brothers, so they divided Numidia into two parts, the east for Aderbal, and the west for Jugurtha. Subsequently, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with the Romans. He also bribed several Roman commanders and at least two tribunes, both before and during the war. His enemy, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC. C. over the objections of aristocratic senators. Mario invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The incompetence of the Senate and the brilliance of Mario were exhibited, so the popular party took this opportunity to ally with Mario.

Several years later, in 88 B.C. C., a Roman army was sent to finish off an emerging Asian power, King Mithridates VI of Pontus, but they ended up being defeated. One of Mario's former quaestors, Sulla, was elected consul that same year, and was ordered by the Senate to take command of the war against Mithridates. However, Mario, a member of the popular party, had a tribune revoke his command of the war so that it would be granted to him. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic party—optimates—led his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Already in Rome, the Roman Senate declared Mario an enemy of the Republic, and then returned to his war against Mithridates. With his departure, the popular Mario and Lucio Cornelio Cinna took over the city.

Sula soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 B.C. C., he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance and recaptured the city, and consequently, he and his followers killed many of Mario's followers. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was a naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy and, by extension, the senate.He became dictator, approved a series of constitutional reforms, resigned from dictatorship, and served a final term as consul. He died in 78 BC. C.

Pompey, Crassus and the Conspiracy of Catiline

in 77 a. C., the Senate sent one of Sila's old lieutenants, Cneo Pompeyo Magno, to end a revolt in Hispania. Towards 71 a. C., Pompey returned to Rome after completing his mission. Almost at the same time, another of Sila's old lieutenants, Craso, had to control the Spartacus revolt known as the third servile war. Upon his return, Pompey and Crassus found that the popular party fiercely attacked the constitution of Sila, so they tried to forge an agreement with these. Both Pompey and Craso were chosen consuls in 70, during their mandate, they dismantled all the most detestable components of the Constitution of Sila.

around 66 a. C. A movement began to use constitutional means, or at least peaceful, to solve the situation of various kinds. After several failures, the movement leaders decided to use all the necessary means to achieve their objectives. The movement joined under an aristocrat named Lucio Sergio Catilina, based in the city of Fiersole, which was a natural seedbed. The rural discontent would advance over Rome, and would be helped by an uprising within the city. To carry out these plans, they should kill the consuls and many of the senators, and thus Catilina, would be free to approve their reforms. The conspiracy was launched in 63 a. C. The consul of the year, Cicero, intercepted the messages that Catilina had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the main conspirators in Rome - including at least one previous consul - were executed by authorization - of doubtful constitutionality - of the Senate and the planned uprising was interrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which made pieces to the forces of Catilina.

The most important result of the Catilina conspiracy was that the popular ones were discredited. The previous 70 years witnessed a gradual wear of the senatorial powers, so that the violent nature of the conspiracy, together with the ability of the Senate to interrupt it, was important to repair its image.

First triumvirate

In 62 B.C. C., Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by his successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the agreements Pompey had made, rendering him powerless. For this reason, when Julio César returned from his government in Hispania in 61 a. C., it was easy for him to reach an understanding. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, signed a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar was to be elected consul in 59 BC. C. and then would serve as Governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulate.

Caesar became consul in 59 BC. C. together with his partner, Marco Calpurnio Bibulo, who was an extreme aristocrat. He presented the laws he had promised Pompey to the assemblies, but Bibulus tried to obstruct the promulgation of these laws, so he used violent means to secure their promulgation.Caesar was appointed governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodio Pulcher to the tribunate in 58 BC. C. Clodius began to deprive Caesar's senatorial enemies of his two most stubborn leaders, Cato the Younger and Cicero. Clodius was an opponent of Cicero, as the latter had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius tempted Cicero to execute citizens without trial during the Catiline conspiracy, which resulted in Cicero's self-imposed exile and the burning of his house in Rome. Clodius passed a law that forced Cato to lead an invasion of Cyprus that would keep him out of Rome for a few years, he also passed a law to extend partial grain subsidies to citizens for completely free distribution.

Clodius formed armed groups that terrorized the city and then began attacking Pompey's followers, who in response founded counter-attack groups led by Titus Annio Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was falling apart. Domitius Enobarbus ran to the consulate in 55 BC. C., promising to take command of Caesar. Subsequently, the triumvirate in Luca was renewed. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship of 55 BC. C., and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill-fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesar's lieutenant, against the Parthian Empire, which resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carras. Finally, Pompey's wife Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining link between Pompey and Caesar.

From the summer of 54 B.C. In BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept through Rome. This chaos reached its climax in January 52 BC. C., when Clodio was killed in battle by Tito Milón. On January 1, 49 B.C. In BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the Senate, but it was rejected, and the Senate passed a resolution declaring that if Caesar did not surrender his armies by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic. Meanwhile, the senators they adopted Pompey as their new defender against Caesar. On January 7, 49 B.C. C., the Senate approved a senatus consultum ultimum , which granted Pompey dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was largely made up of untrained recruits. On January 10, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his veteran army—in violation of Roman law—and marched on Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey to flee to Greece, whereupon he entered the city unopposed.

The transitional period (49-29 BC)

Dictatorship of Julius Caesar

With Pompey defeated and order restored, Julius Caesar wanted to gain undisputed control over the government. The powers that he gave himself were later assumed by the emperors succeeding him. Caesar maintained the dictatorship and the tribune, and alternated between the consulate and the proconsulate. In 48 BC. C., Caesar received perpetual judicial powers. This made him sacrosanct, gave him veto power in the Senate, and allowed him to dominate the popular assembly. In 46 B.C. He received powers of censorship, which he used to fill the Senate with his own supporters, then raised the composition of the Senate to 900. This stole the prestige of the senatorial aristocracy and made them increasingly subservient to him. As the assemblies continued to meet, he presented all the candidates for his own election and all the laws for enactment. Therefore, the assemblies became powerless and could not oppose him.

Toward the end of his life, Caesar began preparing for war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence in Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law allowing him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC. C. and all the consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. C. This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator.

Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C. C. The assassination was headed by Cayo Casio and Marco Bruto. Many of the conspirators were senators, who had various economic, political, and personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many feared that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared the loss of property and prestige with César carrying out land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all of the conspirators left the city after Caesar's death for fear of reprisals. The ensuing civil war destroyed what was left of the republic. Despite strong spy networks, this did not help Julius Caesar prevent an attack by the Senate.

Second Triumvirate and the rise of Octavian

After the assassination, Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adoptive son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavio Turino. Along with Marcus Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate, holding powers almost identical to those Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar's assassination. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 B.C. C. Later, however, Antonio and Octavio faced each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. C. and committed suicide along with his beloved, Cleopatra.In 29 a. In BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the undisputed master of the empire and later accepted the title of "Exalted" Augustus.

In 27 B.C. After returning authority to the legions and provinces to the Senate, Octavian received the title of Augustus and Princeps, i.e. first citizen. Even after receiving several denials of Octavian's other titles, known thereafter As Augustus, as dictator and consul for life, the Senate granted him the power of imperium for life. The latter gave Augustus control of all existing legions in the republic, raising him to the rank of emperor, despite the fact that Roman republican institutions continue to exist.

Military history

Background

During the royal period, Rome was characterized as a small settlement whose foreign relations were limited to local wars and petty disputes with its neighbors. In the first years of its existence, its territory stretched for about 7 kilometers in all directions and measured about 150 square kilometers. However, even during the monarchical period, their domains expanded substantially: under Tullus Hostilius (r. 673-642) Alba Longa was subdued and under Anco Marcius (r. 640-616) the borders expanded towards the coast. By the reign of Servius Tullius (r. 578-535), Rome had already become the main city of Lazio, economically and militarily. It covered an area of approximately 285 hectares and had an estimated population of 30,000. It is estimated that for the year 500 B.C. C., already as a republic, would have an area of 822 square kilometers under its control. Statistical studies on the probable level of productivity indicate that such an area could support a population of between 30,000 and 45,000, confirming assumptions about the population during the reign of Servius Tullius.

Early Republic (509-274 BC)

Early Italian campaigns (509-396 BC)

The first wars of the Roman Republic were of expansion and defense, in the sense of defending it from neighboring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. Initially, Rome's immediate neighbors were Latin cities and towns, or even Sabine tribes in the Apennine foothills and beyond. According to a treaty between Rome and Carthage dated in 509 B.C. C. and preserved by the Greek historian Polybius, in the early years of the republic, the Romans not only maintained various possessions in Lazio, but also interceded for the Latins. Everything indicates that such a treaty represents an attempt by the new Roman regime to achieve recognition and, at the same time, reaffirm Roman hegemony in Lazio. However, the Latins, taking advantage of the temporary fragility of Rome, united around a renewed Latin League, in which the Romans were excluded. This would soon lead to a conflict that culminated in the Battle of Lake Regilo in 499 BC. C. or 496 B.C. C., in which the Latins were defeated. This victory resulted in Cassius' treaty—Foedus Cassianum—of 494/493 BC. C., written by the consul Espurio Casio.

In the V century a. C., Lazio became the target of raids by Sabines, Aequi and Volscians, in the context of the expansion of the populations of the central and southern Apennines. The Sabines, who were sporadically documented in the mid-V century a. C., they were not considered a potential threat, unlike the Aequi and the Volscians who would even threaten Rome as revealed by the romantic story of Gaius Marcio Coriolano. Such raids would lead the Romans to carry out, in 486 B.C. C., a tripartite alliance with Latins and Hernicians. In addition, they faced the invaders at the Battle of Monte Álgido in 458 BC. C., where they achieved a decisive victory against the Equi, and in the battle of Corbión in 446 BC. C., where they defeated the Volscians and the Aequi; that same year, they also defeated, in the battle of Aricia, an invasion of the Auruncos.

The century V a. C. also saw the antagonism between the Romans and the Etruscan city-state of Veii. It was located c. 15 kilometers from Rome, on a rocky plateau, from which it controlled an area that stretched along the right bank of the Tiber to the coast. Everything indicates that the conflict was generated by the interest of both regional powers in controlling the salty streams at the mouth of the river and the trade routes that entered the interior of the Tiber valley. Throughout the century several conflicts were reported, among them the most important are the battle of Crémera in 477 BC. C., in which the Romans were defeated, the capture of Fidenas in 435 a. C., a warehouse of Veii, and the site of Veii from 396 BC. C., which would end with the conquest and destruction of the city.

Celtic invasion of Italy (390–387 BC)

About 390 B.C. C., various Gallic tribes began to invade Italy from the north as Celtic culture spread through Europe. The Romans were warned of this when the particularly warlike tribe of the Senones invaded the Etruscan city of Clusium. Clusium was not far from the Roman sphere of influence and called for help, the Romans answered the call and the armies found themselves in the battle of Alia c. 390-387 B.C. C., on July 18. The Gauls, under their chief Brenos, defeated the Roman army, which consisted of c. 15,000 soldiers and began to pursue the survivors towards Rome, sacking it before being expelled or bought off.

Roman expansion in Italy (343-282 BC)

After recovering from the looting of Rome, the Romans organized, in 378 a. C., the construction of a great wall, of which there are still vestiges. Attacks against the Volscos and Ecuos continued, the Sutri and Nepi colonies were established - at some point after the departure of the Gauls - (385 BC), and Sezze (382 BC), the Citizenship to Tusculum in 381 a. C., and renewed their treaty with Latinos and hernics in 358 a. C. in 354 a. C., the Romans signed a new treaty with the Samnitas and in 348 a. C., with Carthage.

for 343 a. C., the treaty between Romans and Samnitas broke and the first Samnita war broke. Disputed between 343-341 a. C., it would have been caused by Samnites invasions in Roman territory, having been relatively brief: the Romans defeated the Samnites in the battles of Monte Gauro, Saticle and Suessula in 343 a. C., but were forced to withdraw from war when an uprising in several Latin cities was completed. With the end of the war, the Romans restored their agreement with the Samnites. In 340 a. C., both participated in the Second Latin War against the rebels and their allies Campanios, Sidicinos, Volscos and Auruncos. The Romans defeated them in the Battle of Vesubio and again in the battle of Trifanum, after which the Latin cities were subjected. The Peace Treaty of the 338 a. C. resulted in the disintegration of the Latin League, the submission of Latinos as independent allies and the incorporation of other peoples directly involved in the state as semi-independent communities- municipalities -.

The Second Samnite War, which occurred between 327-304 B.C. C., was motivated by the founding of the Roman colony of Fregellae in 328 BC. C. The Romans had initial success in 326 B.C. C., when the ruler of Naples asked for their help in repelling the Samnites who had captured the city. After an inconclusive fight, the Romans were forced to surrender at the Battle of Caudine Forks in 321 BC. C. A truce was signed in which Fregelas was granted and hostilities were interrupted until 316 BC. C. In 316 a. The conflict resumed with a Samnite invasion of Latium, and the Romans were defeated at the Battle of Lautulae in 315 BC. The following year, after sacking the Latin territory of Ardea, the Samnites were defeated and recaptured Fregelas in 313 BC. C. In 305 a. C., the Samnites were defeated in the battle of Boviano, which brought about the end of the conflict. During the Second Samnite War, the Romans were forced to wage war on two fronts. In 311 B.C. C., an invasion led by the cities of Etruria and Umbria was repelled, with a punitive expedition underway. In 306 B.C. C., a revolt on the part of the Hernicians was suppressed and their capital, Anagni, was incorporated as a city without suffrage. Subsequently, the Romans managed to subdue the Marrucini, Frentani, Marsi and Vestini, who became allies.

In 304 B.C. C. a siege was carried out in the territories of the equios, which were conquered and ceased to exist as an independent people. In 302 B.C. C. a campaign was carried out in Etruscan territory. In 298 B.C. C., the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerino, starting the Third Samnite War. In 295 B.C. C., a Samnite army was sent to the north where they joined forces with the Etruscan, Umbrian and Gallic troops and faced the Romans at the Battle of Sentino, however, the coalition was definitively defeated. As a result of the defeat, the Romans invaded Samnium and achieved peace in 290 BC. C. The Samnites were submitted as allies and lost their independence. That same year, the consul Manio Curio Dentato subjugated the Latins, who became citizens without suffrage. Over the next decade, the Romans won victories against the Gauls and subdued the Etruscans and Umbrians as allies.

Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)

Towards 280 a. C., with its position insured in the center of Italy, Rome got involved in the affairs of the Greek cities-states of Magna Greece, first helping Turios against an attack by the Lucanians and then protecting Locros, Regio and Crotona. As the Roman presence became more intense, Taranto decided to act, facing them in the battle of Turios, from 280 a. C., which ended with a Roman victory. As a consequence of the confrontation, Taranto sought the help of King Pirro de Epiro, who landed in Italy in the same year with 25,000 men and 20 war elephants. In the first conflict, the battle of Heraclea of 280 a. C., the occasions achieved a victory. Later, Pirro marched to Rome, however, in the vicinity of Anagni, he preferred to retire to rough, where a new battle took shape and the Romans were defeated.

Although he had defeated the Romans twice, Pirro's casualties were high and, to leave his unstable position, he did not receive help from other Greek states. In 278 a. C., the epiroto army invaded Sicily, where the Greeks asked Pirro for help against Carthage. After some profits, he returned to Italy in 275 a. C., where the Romans faced again in the battle of Benevento, where he suffered a defeat that led him to leave the Peninsula. With the departure of Pirro, the Romans attacked Magna Greece. Taranto was besieged and taken in 272 a. C.

Middle Republic (274-146 a. c.)

Punic Wars (264-146 BC)

The expansion outside the territory of the Italian Peninsula began with the Punic wars against Carthage, a phenician city-state located in North Africa, which in the century III a. C. dominated Mediterranean trade. From this moment on, the truly historical stage of Rome begins, whose facts are documented by the Greek historian Polybio, who lived with the Roman protagonists of the conflict. The first Punic war began in 264 a. C., when the settlements in Sicily began to appeal to the two powers, Rome and Carthage, to resolve internal conflicts. The war began with bell battles in Sicily, but the scenario changed to naval battles around Sicily and the north of Africa. Before the First Punic War, the Romans had no armed. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.

The first naval battles were catastrophic disasters for Rome. However, after training more sailors and investing in approach mechanisms, a Carthaginian fleet was defeated and continued more victories. The Carthaginians then hired Jantipo, a Spartan mercenary general, to reorganize and direct his army. He managed to separate to the Roman army of its base and restore naval supremacy Carthaginas. With their newly discovered naval capabilities, the Romans faced the Carthaginians in a new battle, the battle of the Egadas Islands from 241 a. C., who were defeated. Private of his Navy and without funds to create another, Carthage asked for peace. With the Carthaginian defeat, Rome became the owner of Sicily. Shortly after, in fragility, Carthage would go into war against his mercenaries, who rebelled. Taking advantage of this instability, the Romans invaded Corsica and Sardinia and conquered both. After consolidating their position in the newly conquered Mediterranean possessions, the Romans marched to northern Italy, where the Gauls brought again problems. In the following years, they expanded their domains to the Po Valley, reaching, in 222 a. C., Milan, and the integration of Gaul cisalpine began into Roman Italy.

Continuing mistrust between Rome and Carthage led to renewed hostilities in the Second Punic War, when Hannibal, a member of the Carthaginian noble family, attacked Saguntum, a city with diplomatic ties to Rome. Hannibal then prepared an army in Iberia and, in 218 B.C. C., he crossed the Italian Alps with war elephants to invade Italy.Assisted by Gallic troops, he managed to defeat the Romans in two battles in the same year and advance through the peninsula. Continuing his march, he faced the Romans in later years, one of them at Cannae, one of the greatest defeats in Roman history. After Cannae, Hannibal won further victories and acquired territories in southern Italy, as well as winning the loyalty of various peoples of Capua and Apulia. In addition, he managed to forge alliances with former Roman allies, including Taranto, around 212 BC. C., as well as with the king of Syracuse and Philip V of Macedonia. Despite having signed several alliances with the Italian powers, Hannibal's situation began to unravel in the following years, especially due to the change in Roman tactics, which it favored, more than open battles, the fight in a war of attrition. As a result, the Romans not only gradually retook lost territories, but even sacked Syracuse in 211 BC. C., crushed a general revolt in Sicily and prevented the Carthaginian advance into Iberia through a series of expeditions. In addition, they managed to completely destroy the Carthaginian army that had invaded Italy through the Alps under Hasdrubal. Around 204 BC. C. because they still could not expel Hannibal from Italy, the Romans launched an expedition in Africa, with the intention of attacking Carthage. After defeating a Carthaginian army, Hannibal was forced to return to Africa where he faced them at the Battle of Zama in 203 BC. C., which ended with a decisive Roman victory. This led Carthage to sue for peace.

Carthage never recovered after the Second Punic War and the Third Punic War that followed was really a simple punitive mission to finish off Carthage. Carthage was almost defenseless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, complying with a series of Roman demands. The Romans refused to surrender, demanding as additional conditions to surrender the total destruction of the city and, seeing little to lose, the Carthaginians prepared to fight. In the Battle of Carthage of 146 BC. C., the city was invaded after a brief siege and completely destroyed.

Macedonia, Greek polis and Illyria (229-146 BC)

In 229 B.C. C., due to the piracy practiced by the Illyrians in the Adriatic, the Romans launched an expedition to Illyria against Queen Teuta. This was followed by two wars, the first Illyrian war between 229-228 B.C. C. and the second between 220-219 a. C., which resulted in the humiliation of the Illyrians and the Roman conquest of several Greek cities on the coast. These events affected Philip V of Macedonia, who in 215 BC. allied with Hannibal. In response, the Romans allied with the Aetolian League and began the First Macedonian War (215-205 BC). Because they were still busy with Hannibal in Italy, they did little in this conflict, which was marked by limited, essentially Greek-led operations. Fearing defeat due to the small number of troops available, they opted for peace in 205 BC. C.

Macedonia began encroaching on territory claimed by the Greek city-states in 200 BC. C. and they asked Rome for help. He gave Philip an ultimatum to present various parts of Greater Macedonia and abandon his projects in Greece. He refused and the Romans declared war, beginning the Second Macedonian War. Finally, in 197 B.C. In BC, Philip was decisively defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalia and was forced to accept a favorable treaty. In the years that followed, the Romans would go to war against Sparta, the Aetolian League, the Istrians, the Illyrians, and the Achaean League. Rome then turned its attention to one of the Greek kingdoms, the Seleucid Empire, in the East. A Roman force defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Thermopylae, forcing them to evacuate Greece. The Romans then pursued them beyond Greece, decisively defeating them at the Battle of Magnesia.

In 179 B.C. C., Philip died and his son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece, so Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the third Macedonian war. Perseus initially had some successes, however the Romans responded by sending another stronger army. The 2nd Consular Army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. C., making them capitulate, which ended the war. The Kingdom of Macedonia was divided into four client republics. The Fourth Macedonian War, fought between 150-148 BC. C., was justified by the fight against the pretender to the Macedonian throne and the attempt to restore the old kingdom. The Macedonians were quickly defeated at the second battle of Pydna. The Achaean League chose this moment to rebel against Roman rule, but was defeated. Corinth was besieged and destroyed in 146 BC. C., the same year as the destruction of Carthage, which led to the surrender of the league.

Expansion in Gaul and Hispania (204-133 BC)

After the defeat of the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, the Romans were able to resume their expansion into Cisalpine Gaul. Around 203 B.C. C., they systematically conquered the region, dominating the local tribes, strengthening their former possessions and establishing Latin colonies. In 187 B.C. C. they built the Via Emilia, which ended up giving its name to the region. Around 178-177 B.C. C., they launched an expedition against Istria and in 175 B.C. C. they marched against the tribes of Liguria and the northern Apennines.

Parallel to the expansion of Gaul, the Romans undertook the gradual conquest of Hispania. Based in the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, both created in the old Carthaginian territories, expeditions were launched inland. In 197 B.C. C., a revolt broke out in Hispania Ulterior and soon spread to the territory of the interior tribes. A war broke out that would not end until 179 BC. C., when Tiberio Sempronio Graco pacified the province and reached an agreement with the Celtiberians. Later, between 154-138 B.C. C., the Romans entered the Lusitanian war against Viriato and the Lusitanian tribes, which ended with his murder by 3 of his companions; Parallel to the war with Viriato, Rome faced another war, between 153-151 BC. C., against the Celtiberians. In 143 B.C. C., a rebellion led by the Celtiberians broke out, for which they caused a new war. This, concluded in 133 a. C., had as its decisive moment the Roman destruction of the city of Numancia.

Late Republic (146-27 BC)

Internal disturbances (135-71 BC)

Between 135-71 B.C. In 91 BC, there were three revolts against the Roman state, known as the Servile Wars, the last of which involved between 120,000 and 150,000 slaves. C., the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy, known collectively as partners (Latin: socii), under the claim that they shared the risks of military campaigns, but not their rewards. Despite some defeats such as the Battle of Lake Fucino, the Roman troops defeated the Italic militias in a decisive battle, among which the Battle of Asculum stands out. Although they lost militarily, the partners achieved their goals with the proclamations of the Julian Law and the Plaucia Papiria Law, which guaranteed Roman citizenship to more than 500,000 Italics. Internal unrest reached its most serious stage in the two civil wars or marches on Rome led by the consul Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. In the battle of the Porta Collina, at the gates of Rome, an army commanded by Sulla defeated an army of the Roman Senate and their Samnite allies.

Celtic (121 BC) and Germanic (113-101 BC) threat

About 125 B.C. C., the Romans began the conquest of the later province of Gallia Narbonense. In the process, they came into contact with two Gallic tribes, the Allobroges and the Arverni, who threatened them in 121 BC. After two successful battles, the Gauls were defeated. Later, in 113 BC. With the consolidation of the newly acquired province, the Romans had to face an invasion of Cimbri and Teutons. Throughout the years of conflict, the Romans were defeated a couple of times by the invaders, notably in the battles of Noreya of 112 BC. C. and Arausio from 105 a. C., but they prevailed, especially with the victories in the battles of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and Vercelas (101 BC).

War of Jugurtha (112-105 BC)

Rome had, at the beginning of the Punic Wars, acquired large tracts of territory in Africa, which were consolidated in the following centuries. Much of this territory was granted to the Kingdom of Numidia, a state on the North African coast approximately in modern Algeria, in exchange for military assistance provided in the past. The Jugurtha War of 111-104 BC. It was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the last Roman pacification of North Africa, after which Rome stopped expanding on the continent after reaching the natural barriers of the desert and mountains. In response to the usurpation of the Numidian throne by Jugurtha, a Roman ally since the Punic Wars, Rome intervened, though Jugurtha brazenly bribed the Romans into accepting her usurpation, and was awarded half the kingdom. After more assaults and new bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to depose him. The Romans were defeated at the Battle of Suthul, but won at the Battle of Mutul, eventually defeating Jugurtha at the battles of Tala, Mulucha and Cirta. Jugurtha was captured not in battle but for treason, which ended the war.

Conflicts with Mithridates (89-63 BC) and Cilician pirates (67 BC)

Mitrídates VI was the ruler of the kingdom of Ponto, a great state in Asia Minor, between 120-63 a. C. This antagonized Rome in the search for the expansion of their kingdom, and the Romans seemed equally anxious to war and the loot and the prestige they could bring. After conquering Western anatolia, according to Roman sources, Mitrídates ordered the Execution of c. Mitridatic War Towards 86 a. C., General Romano Sila forced Mitrídates to leave Greece after a victory in Queronea. As a result of political disturbances in Italy and the need to leave the forehead, Sila entered negotiations and achieved peace in 85 a. C. The Second Mitridatic War began when Rome tried to annex the kingdom of Bitinia as province. In the third mitridatic war, first Lucio Licinio lúculo and then Pompey were sent against Mitrídates. He was finally defeated by Pompey in the battle of the Lico River, and after defeating him, Pompey conquered most of Anatolia and all Syria, Jerusalem took and invaded the Caucasus, subjecting the kingdom of Iberia and establishing Roman control over Cólquida. In addition, he surrounded the territory of the provinces freshly conquered with vassal states, including the kingdom of Capadocia.

The Mediterranean had fallen at this time in the hands of pirates, mainly from Cilicia. The pirates not only strangled the maritime routes, but also looted many cities on the coast of Greece and Asia. Pompey was appointed commander of a naval force to campaign against them and in three months he managed to end the pirates.

César's first campaigns (59-50 BC.)

During his tenure as praetor in Spain, Julius Caesar defeated the Gauls and Lusitanians in various battles. After a consular term, he was appointed proconsular governor of Transalpine Gaul and Illyria (Dalmatian coast) for a period of five years In this position, he sought ways to convince the Romans to accept an invasion of Gaul, reminding them of the Gallic sack of Rome and the invasions of the Cimbri and Teutons. When the Helvetii and Tigurini began to migrate to the areas near Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had his excuse to start his wars against the Gauls, fought between 58 and 51 BC. After massacring the Helvetii, Caesar continued a "long, arduous, and costly" campaign against other tribes along the Gaul range, many of whom had fought alongside Rome against the Helvetii, and annexed their territories to those of Rome. Plutarch says that the campaign cost a million Gallic lives. Although "fierce and capable", the Gauls were hampered by internal disunity and fell in a series of battles during the decade.

Caesar defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC. C. in the battles of Arar and Bibracte, to the Belgians in the battle of Áxona, to the nerves in 57 BC. C. in the battle of Sabis, the Aquitanians, Treveros, Tencteri, Aedui and Eburones in unknown battles, and the Venetians in 56 BC. C. In 55-54 a. C., he made two expeditions to Britannia.In 52 a. After the siege of Avaric and a series of inconclusive battles, Caesar defeated a Gaul union led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul, and around 50 BC. C., all of Gaul fell into Roman hands. Caesar recorded his own accounts of these campaigns in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars.

Triumvirates and the Rise of Augustus (59-30 BC)

towards 59 a. C., an informal political alliance known as the first triumvirate between Julio César, Craso and Cneo Pompeyo Magno was formed to share power and influence. In 53 a. C., Craso launched a Roman invasion about the birth empire where it began with some initial successes, then led its army to the depths of the desert where it was ambushed and defeated in the battle of Carras, the “greatest Roman defeat From Aníbal », in which Crassus himself died. After the death of Crassus, the relations between Pompey and César gradually deteriorated to the point that both came into conflict. In 51 a. C., some Roman senators demanded that César return control of their legions to the State in exchange for their consul position. Without following the order, Italy invaded, forcing Pompey, who had promised to defeat him in battle, and the Senate to flee to Greece.

Before addressing Greece, César sent part of his army to fight against Pompey supporters in Hispania and Gaul. After obtaining victories in Ilerda and Massilia, he marched against Pompey. The first shock, the battle of Dirraquio del 48 a. C., ended with a Pompeana victory, but this was followed by an overwhelming victory by Cesaria in the battle of Farsalia, who forced Pompey to flee, this time to Egypt, where he was killed. At the end of 47 to. C. A new battle was fought in Tapso, where Pompey supporters established their base after defeating César's lieutenant in 49 a. C. They were defeated and the survivors, including sixth Pompey and Pompey the young man, children of Pompey, fled to Hispania. There, in 46 a. C., a new battle was fought, that of Munda, and won the Cesaria troops again, which put the war in war.

After César's murder in 44 a. C., new disputes for power emerged, this time among the liberatores , a group of senators involved in the murder and cease them. Marco Antonio, one of César's main supporters, by condemning the murder, was considered as a public enemy of the Republic and was defeated in two battles - For the Gauls and Mutina. After such facts, Octavio, a young man adopted by César and then his heir, Marco Antonio and Lépido, with the intention of joining the Senate and the liberatores , formed the second triumvirate. This alliance entails in a purge carried out between senators and gentlemen and towards 42 a. C., Octavio and Marco Antonio persecuted Gross Frame and Cayo Casio for the East and defeated them in the battle of Philippi.

<p The first was due to a dispute between Octavio and Lucio Antonio, brother of Marco Antonio, and ended with the siege of Lucio in Perusia towards 40 a. C. and an almost confrontation between the triumviros. During the following decade, internal conflicts ceased and other issues came into play: Marco Antonio conducted a campaign against deliveries, but ended up being defeated in 36 a. C. and looted the Armenian territory in 34 a. C. Octavio fought against Sixth Pompey, which had been established in Sicily, in 36 a. C., and conducted a campaign in Iliria (35-33 BC). From then on, however, Octavio focused his attention on the consolidation of his position in Italy and for that purpose he initiated a propagandist war against Marco Antonio, claiming that his relationship with Cleopatra could bring damage to the Republic. Towards 32 a. C., the cities of Italy swore loyalty to Octavio and requested a campaign against Marco Antonio. This campaign, which began shortly after, would culminate with a total victory of Octavio in the battle of Accio in 31 a. C. Marco Antonio and his beloved Cleopatra fled to Alexandria and committed suicide.

Society

It was a society based. The new Roman aristocracy was formed by the former aristocracy Patricia and the new rich citizens, in opposition to most commoners and some impoverished patricians.

although in their origin the commoners were under the domain of the patricians, after the fall of the monarchy, they obtained improvements progressively. The position of tribune of the plebe and the urban plebe was created, elite that had been enriched with trade, snatched the patricians access to the magistratures and the position of Máximo Pontiff and Augures. The meetings of the plebe, the Concilia Realis , were the origin of the tribunal elections, valid to legislate by plebiscitos.

In the century III a. C. The differences between the patricians and bosses of the commoners decreased, and were grouped into a ruling aristocracy, the nobles . With the rapid reduction of the patrician's cash, the term plebe since then tended to designate the popular masses.

Slaves were considered an economic instrument that could be bought and sold and that was under the dependence of an owner. They came mostly from villages submitted by the Republic and, during the i a. C., they became the most numerous social stratum in Rome; century in which the servile wars starred.

Social organization and form of government

After the fall of the monarchy, the Republic was established in Rome ( res publica , that is, ' the public thing '), an aristocratic regime directed by about forty gens ; The patricians, the descendants of the oldest families in Rome held power. The main institutions of the new regime were the Senate, the Magistratures and the elections.

The Senate was one of the pillars of the Republic, being the political body that demanded responsibilities to the consuls. Originally the Senate was constituted only by patricians, but from the Lex Ovinia of the year 312 a. C., the commoners were allowed to be part of it. The Senate auctoritas gave validity to the agreements taken in the popular assemblies. The Senate also resolved the cases of interregnum , a situation that happened when one of the consuls died.

The magistracy was an original position of the Republic. The headquarters that held the rex or monarch was replaced by two collegiate and temporary magistrates called consuls to which responsibility could be demanded for their government task. Each magistrate could veto the other, which was known as intercessio .

Also during the Republic the popular assemblies were created, called Centuriata Comitia . They were born by military needs, in intimate connection with the expansion of the city and with the arrival in Rome of a new concept of military tactics. While in the monarchical era, the army was made up of members of the gens , in the Republic the army became a plutocratic system, dependent on the wealth of each subject. At first, only real estate wealth was estimated, but subsequently the furniture was taken into account.

Social history

In the history of the Roman Republic, three stages can be distinguished. In the first of these, in the V century a. C., power was exercised by the patricians, being known as the Gentilic State. Under this type of government, the common people were excluded from the government and lacked political rights. Thus, in the first stage of the Republic, not all citizens had equal rights and duties. The aristocratic group that seized power from the rex —monarch— organized the new system for their own benefit, abounding at this time the struggles between the patricians themselves for personal power. This confused period gave rise to the establishment of the Dictatorship and the different military chiefs tried to achieve power, sometimes relying on the mob and, other times, on the force of arms or on the invasion of Rome by enemy peoples. Other times, the struggle for power would be carried out through the extension of exceptional political positions — the decemvirs, in charge of drafting the Law of the XII Tables or Lex duodecim tabularum.

This type of government was the cause of a struggle by commoners for political rights that lasted until the end of the IV century a. C., since the magistrates, consuls and senators, all of them patricians, were not willing to grant, and in turn, the new assemblies, the centuriated elections, were dominated by rich landowners, also of patrician origin.

To obtain equality with the patricians, the plebeians withdrew to the Aventine and achieved that in the year 494 B.C. C. the position of Tribune of the commoners was created, in number of two and whose mission was the defense of the commoners. Progressively, the commoners had access to all magistracies. The equality of all before the law was codified by the law of the Twelve Tables in the mid-century V a. c.

The second stage of the Republic spans the III century BC. C. to the II century B.C. Circa mid-century III a. C. political activity continued to be framed in the city of Rome and various Italian territories and cities throughout the Italian peninsula, whose citizens had obtained Roman citizenship and thus enjoyed all political rights. Initially, between the IV century B.C. C. and III century B.C. C., Rome organized the Italian territory around the cities, establishing by means of treaties the status of each of them: Roman colonies, municipalities, colonies of Latin law and allied cities, depending on the resistance offered to their conquest.

After the struggles between patricians and plebeians, the concilia plebis were confused with the tribunal comitia, open to the patricians; They issued the plebiscites applicable as laws to all citizens, they elected the tribunes of the common people and the lower magistrates. These meetings were controlled by citizens with economic power; Power was in the hands of the nobility or nobilitas, a new political class that appeared in the III century a. C. and constituted by rich patricians and plebeians.

The magistratures, ranked in the cursus honorum, were equally collegiate and annual. At the bottom of the ladder were the quaestors, followed in ascending order by the aediles. The praetors could command armies and help the two consuls, who presented the laws to the comitia and were commanders-in-chief.

Every five years two censors were elected to prepare the census of the citizens. In case of great danger, a dictator could be appointed for a period of six months, who held all the powers. A little outside the cursus, the ten tribunes of the common people extended their powers to all the citizens and tribunes presided over the elections, to which they presented the projects.

All magistrates were controlled by the senate, which in the III century B.C. C. was an assembly of former magistrates and dominated both foreign and domestic policy. The senate watched over the public treasury or aerarium and was the guardian of religion. While the comitia and magistrates only had the appearance of power, the senate actually exercised it. This conflict gave rise to the division between populares and optimates; The former were in favor of increasing the power of tribunes and popular elections, and the latter wanted to limit the power of the Roman popular assemblies and increase that of the Senate, which they considered better and more stable when it came to seeking the well-being of Rome. The optimates favored the nobiles —noble families— and opposed the rise of “new men” —plebeians, usually born in other Italic cities and whose families had no political experience— within Roman politics..

The third and final stage occurred during the I century B.C. C. and it was a time full of crises, dictatorships and civil wars that gave way to the Principality, the first imperial stage of Rome

Chronology of the Republic