Robert hooke
Robert Hooke (United Kingdom: /ˈɹɒbət hʊk/; Freshwater, Isle of Wight-London, March 3Jul./ 14 March 1703greg.) was an English scientist, considered one of the most important experimental scientists in the history of science, a tireless polemicist with a creative genius of the first order. His interests spanned fields as diverse as biology, medicine, horology (chronometry), planetary physics, mechanics of deformable solids, microscopy, nautical sciences, and architecture.
He participated in the creation of the first scientific society in history, the Royal Society of London. His polemics with Newton about the paternity of the law of universal gravitation have become part of the history of science: It seems that Hooke was very prolific in original ideas that he rarely developed.
In 1662 he assumed the position of director of experimentation at the Royal Society of London, of which he also became secretary in 1677. Despite the prestige he achieved in the field of science, his remains lie in the church of St Helen (Bishopsgate), in the City of London, but the exact location of her grave is unknown.
In recent years, some historians and scientists have made great efforts to vindicate this "forgotten genius", to use the words of one of his biographers, Stephen Inwood. In 2003, on the third centenary of After Hooke's death, the Royal Greenwich Observatory (located in London) exhibited some of his extraordinary inventions and findings.
Biography
Most of what is known of Hooke's early years comes from his autobiography which he began in 1696 but never completed.:Richard Waller mentioned it in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, M. D. S. R. S. (The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, M. D. S. R. S.), printed in 1705. The work of Waller, along with John Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors (Vidas de los Profesores de Gresham) , and Brief Lives (Brief Lives) by John Aubrey, form the trio of great biographical works written by Hooke's contemporaries.
Early Life
Robert Hooke was born in 1635 at Freshwater on the Isle of Wight, the son of John Hooke and Cecily Gyles. Robert was the youngest of four children, two boys and two girls, and there was a seven-year difference between him and his other younger sibling. His father was a Church of England clergyman, parish priest of All Saints' Church in Freshwater, and his two brothers (Robert's uncles) were also ministers. John Hooke was also in charge of a local school and was thus able to teach Robert, at least partly in his home (perhaps due to the boy's failing health). He was a supporter of the monarchy, and almost certainly a member of a group that went to pay their respects to Charles I of England when he escaped to the Isle of Wight. Originally raised with the expectation of becoming a clergyman like his father, Robert also grew up to be a staunch royalist.
In his youth, Robert Hooke was fascinated by observation, mechanical works and drawing, interests that he would maintain in various ways throughout his life. He disassembled a brass clock and built a wooden replica that was said to have worked 'fine'. He learned to draw, using charcoal, chalk and iron oxide paste prepared by himself.
When his father died in 1648, Robert inherited a sum of forty pounds which allowed him to pay for his education; with his chronically ill health but obvious mechanical facility, his father had in mind that he might become a watchmaker or an illustrator, although he too was interested in painting. Hooke was a very able student, and although he apprenticed to London and studied briefly with Samuel Cowper and Peter Lely, he was soon able to enter Westminster School in London, under Richard Busby. Hooke quickly mastered Latin and Greek, studied Hebrew, and had a thorough knowledge of Euclid's Elements, embarking on the lifelong study of mechanics.
It appears that Hooke was part of a group of students that Busby educated in parallel to the main course at the school. Contemporary sources state that he was "little seen" around the school, and this seems to be true of other students in a similar position as well. Busby, a fervent and outspoken royalist (he had the school observe a day of fasting on the anniversary of the king's beheading), tried by all means to preserve the nascent spirit of scientific inquiry that had begun to flourish in early England. King Charles, but that he disagreed with the literal Biblical teachings of the protectorate.
Oxford
By 1653, Hooke (who had also taken a course of twenty musical lessons on the organ) had become a chorister at Christ Church, Oxford. Thomas Willis, for whom Hooke developed a great admiration, employed him as a chemistry assistant. There he met with the natural philosopher Robert Boyle and obtained employment as his assistant from 1655 to 1662, years in which the construction, operation and demonstration of the Boylean machina or air pump of Boyle. In 1659 Hooke described some elements of a method of flight to Wilkins, but concluded that human muscles were insufficient for the task. He did not obtain his master's degree at Oxford until 1662 or 1663.
Hooke characterizes his days at Oxford as the foundation of his passion for science, and the friends he made there were of paramount importance to his career, particularly Christopher Wren. Wadham was then under the leadership of John Wilkins, who had a profound impact on Hooke and those around him. Wilkins, like Busby, was also a convinced royalist, keenly aware of the confusion and uncertainty of the times. He had a sense of urgency in preserving scientific works that he considered threatened by the protectorate. The "philosophical meetings" held in Wilkins' study were scientifically and intellectually important, although no records of their content have survived except for Boyle's experiments performed in 1658 and published in 1660. This group went on to form the nucleus of the Royal Society. Hooke developed an air pump for Boyle's experiments based on Ralph Greatorex's pump, which was considered, in Hooke's words, "too brute for any great task".
It is known that Hooke had special intuition and was a skilled mathematician, virtues not applicable to Boyle. Gunther suggests that Hooke probably made the observations and may also have developed the mathematics of the Boyle-Mariotte Law. It is clear, however, that Hooke was a valued assistant to Boyle and the two had a great deal of respect for each other.
A copy of Willis's pioneering work entitled De anima brutorum, a gift from the author, was chosen by Hooke from the Wilkins library on his death as a memento of John Tillotson. This book is now in the Wellcome Library. The book and its inscription in Hooke's hand are a testament to the enduring influence of Wilkins and his circle on the young Hooke.
Royal Society
The Royal Society was founded in 1660, and by April 1661 was discussing a short treatise on the outlet of water in slender glass tubes, in which Hooke reported that the height to which the water rises was related with the diameter of the tube (so now called capillarity). His explanation of this phenomenon was later published in the Micrography Observ., a paper in which he also explored the nature of "the fluidity of gravity." On 5 November 1661 Sir Robert Moray proposed that a charge be appointed to equip the society with experiments, Hooke's appointment to the post being unanimously approved. His appointment was made on November 12, recording his thanks to Boyle.
In 1664, Sir John Cutler established an annual fee of £50 in the society for the creation of a Mechanical Lecture, Hooke being assigned this task. On June 27, 1664, he was confirmed in office, and on January 11, 1665, he was appointed Official Curator for life, with an additional salary of £30 per year endowed by Cutler.
Hooke's role at the Royal Society was to conduct demonstration experiments by his own methods or at the suggestion of members. Among his earliest activities were discussions of the nature of air, the implosion of glass bubbles that had been sealed after being filled with hot air, and the demonstration that pabulum vitae and flammae were the same. He also showed that a dog could be kept alive with its chest open as long as air was pumped in and out of its lungs, noting the difference between venous and arterial blood. Likewise, experiments were carried out on the subject of gravity, falling objects, the weight of bodies and the measurement of atmospheric pressure at different heights and pendulums of up to 60 m in length.
Instruments were devised to measure up to a second of arc in the movement of the sun or other stars, to measure the force of gunpowder, and in particular a motor to cut gears for clocks, much finer than those that could be to make by hand, an invention that after Hooke's death was kept in constant use.
In 1663 and 1664, Hooke produced his microscopy observations, later compiled in Micrographia in 1665.
On March 20, 1664, Hooke succeeded Arthur Dacres as Gresham Professor of Geometry. He received the degree of Doctor of Physics in December 1691.
Hooke and Newcomen
There is a widely reported story that Hooke corresponded with Thomas Newcomen regarding Newcomen's invention of the steam engine. This story was discussed by Rhys Jenkins, President of the Newcomen Society, in 1936. Jenkins traced the story back to an article entitled "Steam Engines" signed by John Robison (1739-1805) in the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which says that "among Hooke's papers, in the possession of the Royal Society, have been found some notes of observations, for the use of Newcomen, his compatriot, in which he described Papin's method of transmitting over a great distance the action of a mill by means of pipes.", and that Hooke had dissuaded Newcomen from building a machine on this principle. Jenkins points out a number of errors in Robison's article and questions whether the correspondent may in fact have been Newton, whose name might have been confused with Newcomen's. An inquiry by H W Dickinson into the Hooke Papers held by the Royal Society, which had been archived in the mid-18th century, that is, before Robison, and carefully preserved ever since, revealed no trace of correspondence between Hooke and Newcomen. Jenkins concluded that "...this story must be omitted from the history of the steam engine, in any case until some documentary evidence could appear."
In the years since 1936 no such evidence has been found, but the story continues. For example, a book published in 2011 states that in a letter dated 1703, Hooke suggested to Newcomen that he use condensation from steam to drive the piston.
Personality and conflicts
Hooke was hot-tempered, at least in his adult life, proud, and prone to being gloomy towards his intellectual competitors, though by all accounts he was also a loyal friend and staunch ally to members of the circle of ardent royalists with whom who coincided at Wadham College in Oxford, particularly with Christopher Wren. The bad reputation that followed his death is popularly attributed to his dispute with Isaac Newton over credit for his work on gravitation, the planets, and to a lesser degree, the theory of light. His dispute with Oldenburg over whether or not he had leaked details of Hooke's devised watch escapement to others has become another well-known example.
Newton, as President of the Royal Society, did much to outshine Hooke. Among other things, it is said that he destroyed the only known portrait of his rival (or failing him, that he did nothing to preserve it). He also did not help Hooke figure out that Wren's first biography, Parentalis , was written by Wren's son, so he tends to exaggerate Wren's work above all others. Hooke's reputation was reestablished during the 20th century through the studies of Robert Gunther and Margaret 'Espinasse. After a long period of relative obscurity, he has been recognized as one of the most important scientists of his time.
Hooke was able to use ciphertext to protect his achievements. As curator of experiments for the Royal Society, he was responsible for demonstrating many ideas submitted to the society, and there is evidence that he would later take some credit for them. Hooke also remained immensely busy, so he didn't have much time to delve into his own findings. It was a time of enormous scientific progress, in which numerous discoveries were developed in several places simultaneously.
None of this should detract from Hooke's inventiveness, his remarkable experimental facility, and his great capacity for work. His ideas on gravitation, and his claim to the priority of the inverse square law, are described below. He obtained a large number of patents for inventions and improvements in the fields of elasticity, optics, and barometry. Hooke's new writings discovered at the Royal Society (disappeared after Newton's presidency) have opened a modern reappraisal of the scientist.
Much has been written about the unpleasant side of his personality, beginning with the comments of his early biographer, Richard Waller, who stated that Hooke was "contemptible in person" and "gloomy, suspicious and jealous". Waller has influenced other writers for more than two centuries, so that the image that has been projected of Hooke is that of a moody, selfish and anti-social curmudgeon; dominated by his interest in books and old articles. For example, Arthur Berry said that Hooke "claimed credit for most of the scientific discoveries of the day". Sullivan wrote that Hooke "clearly lacked scruples" and possessed a "restless apprehensive vanity" in relation to Newton. Manuel used the phrase "surly, envious and vindictive" in his description. More described him as having a "cynical temperament" and having a "caustic tongue". Andrade was more sympathetic, but still used the adjectives "difficult", "suspicious". and "irritable bowel syndrome" in Hooke's description.
The publication of Hooke's diary in 1935 revealed other personal facets, which 'Espinasse, in particular, has carefully detailed. He writes that “the generally painted picture of Hooke as lonely, sad and envious is completely false.” Hooke associated with well-known craftsmen such as Thomas Tompion, the watchmaker, and Christopher Cocks (Cox), an instrument maker. He met often with Christopher Wren, with whom he shared many interests, and had a lasting friendship with John Aubrey. Hooke's diaries also make frequent reference to meetings in cafes and taverns and to dinners with Robert Boyle. He had tea on many occasions with his lab assistant, Harry Hunt. Within his family, Hooke had a niece and a cousin in his house, to whom he taught mathematics.
Robert Hooke spent his life largely on the Isle of Wight, in Oxford and in London. He never married, but his diary shows that he was not without affection from others. He died on 3 March 1703 in London, a chest containing £8,000 in coin and gold being found in his room at Gresham College. Although he had spoken of leaving a generous bequest to the Royal Society to name a library, laboratory and lecture hall after him, in his will he left the money to an illiterate cousin, Elizabeth Stephens. He was buried at St Helen's.;s Bishopsgate, but the exact location of his grave is unknown.
Scientific work
In 1665, while working as an assistant to Robert Boyle, he formulated what is now known as Hooke's law of elasticity, which describes how an elastic body stretches proportionally to the force exerted on it. exerts on it, which led to the invention of the coil spring or spring.
In 1665 he published the book Micrographia, the description of 50 microscopic and telescopic observations with detailed drawings. This book contains the word cell for the first time and in it a plausible explanation about fossils is pointed out.
Hooke discovered the cells by observing a sheet of cork under a microscope, noticing that it was made up of small polyhedral cavities that resembled the cells of a honeycomb. That is why each cavity was called a cell. He did not know how to demonstrate what these cells meant as constituents of living beings. What he was observing were dead plant cells with their characteristic polygonal shape.
For forty years he was a member, secretary and librarian of the Royal Society of London and had the obligation of presenting to the society a weekly experiment.
In addition to the observations published in Micrographia and the formulation of the law of elasticity, Hooke formulated the theory of planetary motion as a problem of mechanics, and maintained continuous disputes with his contemporary Isaac Newton regarding the theory of light and the law of universal gravitation.
In 1674, Hooke published a treatise in which he stated that the orbital motion of the Moon was the result of combining the tendency of its motion to follow a straight line, with a single attractive force exerted by the Earth. He wrote to Newton to ask his opinion on these ideas, referring also to the inverse square law (which Newton already knew about). This letter may have been the catalyst for some of the tightly defined concepts, the formulation of which was triggered by Edmund Halley's visit to Newton in August 1684, and which were embodied in the writing of the Principia. When the second of the three volumes of which the work would consist was published, Hooke publicly stated that the letters he had written in 1679 already contained the ideas later developed by Newton, who was indignant at these claims, threatening not to publish the third volume.. Eventually, he would publish the complete work, but not before removing any reference to Hooke.
He also had a bitter controversy with Newton, which would last for decades, referring to the theory of light, which Hooke claimed to have described in his Micrographia.
Thanks to his observations made with telescopes of his creation, Hooke discovered the first binary star (gamma Arietis), detected the rotation on itself of the planet Jupiter and made the first known description of the planet Uranus. His observations of comets led him to formulate his ideas about gravitation.
Mechanical inventions and scientific measuring instruments were, perhaps, the most prolific field of his scientific creation. Together with Robert Boyle he designed a vacuum pump.As an inventor he is noted for the invention of the universal joint as well as the first barometer, hygrometer and anemometer. He was also responsible for establishing the freezing point of water as a fixed reference in the thermometer.
In the field of biology he stood out for his pre-evolutionary ideas, pointing to the existence of countless extinct species and made important contributions to the physiology of respiration.
Hooke was, without a doubt, a scholar and an inventor, since his many creations also included the iris diaphragm, which regulates the aperture of photographic cameras, and the balancing wheel with a spiral spring on watches. In addition, he formulated the law of elasticity, or Hooke's law, the equation with which the elasticity of springs is calculated to this day, and which extends to the study of the elasticity of deformable solids.
Hooke as Architect
During his stay in London, after the great fire that almost destroyed the city in 1666, he surveyed approximately half of the council plots, and was appointed city inspector of buildings. He worked closely with his friend Christopher Wren, fellow scientist and first crown architect, to rebuild the capital.
He was commissioned to design the Royal Bethlem Hospital, the Royal College of Physicians building, Ragley Hall in Warwickshire and the parish church in Willen, Milton Keynes.
Hooke's collaborations with Christopher Wren were especially fruitful; highlighting the Royal Observatory of Greenwich or the Monument to the Great Fire of London of 62 meters [203 feet] high. Hooke intended to use the Monument, the tallest freestanding stone column in the world at the time of its construction, to verify his theories of gravity. The Cathedral of Saint Paul in London also stands out, whose dome used a construction method conceived by Hooke. Another of Hooke's many achievements is the Montagu House.
Portraits
There are no authenticated portraits of Robert Hooke, something often attributed to the hatred between Hooke and Isaac Newton. In Hooke's time the Royal Society met at Gresham College, but within a few months of Hooke's death Newton became president of the Society and plans were drawn up for a new meeting place. When the change of location was made a few years later, in 1700, Hooke's Royal Society portrait disappeared, and has yet to be found.
Time magazine published, in the July 3, 1939 issue, a portrait that was supposed to be of Hooke. However, when Ashley Montagu investigated the source, she discovered that the character portrayed could not be verified as Hooke. Montagu, on the other hand, found several descriptions of Hooke's physiognomy that matched each other, but did not match the Time photo.
In 2003, historian Lisa Jardine announced that she had discovered a portrait of Hooke, but this claim was refuted by William Jensen of the University of Cincinnati. The portrait identified by Jardine is, in fact, of Jan Baptist van Helmont.
Other possible images of Hooke include:
- A seal used by Hooke shows a rare profile portrait of a man's head, which some have argued portrays Hooke.
- The frontispiece engraved to the 1728 edition of the Chambers Encyclopedia shows a drawing of the bust of Robert Hooke. There is no information that indicates that it is based on real work on Hooke.
- There was a window in London with Hooke's image, but it wasn't made to his likeness. The window was destroyed in the 1993 Bishopsgate attack.
In 2003, history painter Rita Greer embarked on a self-funded project in memory of Hooke, The Rita Greer Robert Hooke Project, aimed at producing credible images of him, both painted and drawn, adapting contemporary descriptions of Hooke from two sources: John Aubrey and Richard Waller. Rita Greer's images of Hooke have been used on UK and US television shows, as well as in books and magazines.
Eponymy
- The Hooke Law, which explains the linear elastic behavior of elastic bodies.
- Moon crater Hooke bears this name in his honor.
- Also, the Martian crater Hooke bears this name in his memory.
- The asteroid (3514) Hooke also commemorates its name.