Robert goddard

Robert Hutchings Goddard (Worcester, Massachusetts, October 5, 1882-Baltimore, Maryland, August 10, 1945) was an American engineer, professor, physicist, and inventor who is credited with creating of the first liquid-fueled rocket, launched successfully on March 16, 1926. Between 1926 and 1941, Goddard and his team launched 34 rockets, reaching heights of up to 1.6 miles (2.6 km) and speeds approaching 550 mph (885 km/h)..

Goddard's work, both theoretical and practical, anticipated many of the events and technological developments that would later make space travel possible. Goddard has been commonly called one of the pioneers of the space age; two of his 214 patents, a multi-stage rocket (1914) and the liquid-fueled rocket (1914), were important foundations for space travel. His work "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes" (A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, 1919) is considered a classic text for the science of the XX century. Goddard successfully applied three-axis control, gyroscopes, and steerable thrust to the rockets in order to effectively control flight.

Although his work in this field was revolutionary, Goddard received very little public support for research and development. The press used to ridicule his theories regarding space travel. Years after his death, at the cusp of the space age, he was finally recognized as the founding father of modern rocketry. Robert was the first to identify the potential of rockets for atmospheric research and space travel, for which was dedicated to studying its design and construction scientifically.

Early years and inspiration

Goddard was born in 1882 in Worcester, Massachusetts, the son of Nahum Danford Goddard and Fannie Louise Hoyt. Robert became an only child when his younger brother, Richard Henry, died of a spinal deformity, Robert showed determination and mechanical ability from an early age. Curious about nature, he took his father's telescope and began to study the sky and birds. Goddard was an excellent rifle shooter.On Sundays he attended church, where he sang in the choir.

Childhood Experiments

With the introduction of electric power to the United States (during the 1880s), Goddard became interested in science. When his father showed him the effects of static electricity on the carpet in his house, his imagination and interest grew. Robert began to carry out small experiments, one of them was based on the belief that by rubbing his feet with gravel he would be able to charge the zinc of a battery, and thus be able to jump higher, but the experiment, logically, failed. Goddard stopped the experiments after his mother told him that if he succeeded, he would end up "sailing far away and could never come back."

Later, Goddard experimented with chemicals, creating a cloud of smoke and causing an explosion in his home. Nahum decided to encourage his son's interest in science by gifting him a telescope, a microscope, and a subscription to Scientific American . Robert developed a fascination with flying, both kite and balloon. During this time, he became a conscientious chronicler of his work, a skill that would later benefit his career. At 16, he attempted to build an aluminum balloon, shaping the raw metal in his own home, and filling it with hydrogen. After nearly five weeks of methodical documenting efforts, he abandoned the project, arguing: "...the balloon won't go up, the aluminum is too heavy." Such failure would not dampen Goddard's growing determination and confidence in his work.

Cherry Tree Dream

At the age of 16, Goddard became interested in space after reading The War of the Worlds (H. G. Wells). His interest in space travel was consolidated on October 19, 1899, at age 17, when he climbed a cherry tree and was overwhelmed by the sky. He later wrote:

"One day I climbed up a tall cherry tree behind the barn... looking out over the field, I began to imagine how wonderful it would be to create a device that could reach Mars, how it would be I would see on a small scale, leaving the ground at my feet. I have several photographs of the tree, taken since then, with the little ladder I made leaning against it.

I began to think of a weight rotating around a horizontal axis, moving faster above than below. Under this idea, a greater centrifugal force could be provided at the top that would make it rise.

I was a different person when I came down from the tree than when I went up. My existence finally seemed to have a purpose".

October 19 became a private commemoration of the day of his greatest inspiration and beginning his journey.

Education

During his youth, Robert suffered from stomach problems, pleurisy, colds, and bronchitis, causing him to fall two years behind the rest of his classmates. He became a voracious reader, regularly visiting the local public library to check out books on the physical sciences.

Aerodynamics and movement

Goddard's interest in aerodynamics led him to study some of Samuel Langley's scientific papers for Smithsonian magazine. Langley wrote about how birds flapped their wings with different force on each side in order to turn in the air. Inspired by these articles, Goddard began following the flight of birds from the porch of his house, carefully contemplating the subtle movements of the wings. He observed the intervention of the tail feathers, which, similarly, he called ailerons. Goddard found exceptions to some of Langley's conclusions, so in 1901 he decided to write a letter to St. Nicholas. The publisher of St. Nicholas refused to publish Goddard's letter, arguing that "birds fly with a certain intelligence" and that "machines could not reach that level." Goddard disagreed, because he was of the opinion that the man was capable of controlling a flight with his own intelligence.

During this time, Goddard read Newton's Principia Mathematica, where he found Newton's Third Law of Motion applied to motion in space. Later, he wrote about testing him:

"I began to realize that there was 'more' Thanks to Newton's Laws. The third law was tested with devices suspended by rubber bands and by floating devices in the creek behind the barn, the law was conclusively verified. It made me realize that if it were possible to discover or invent a way to navigate through space, it would be the result of physical and mathematical knowledge".

Studies

Goddard continued his formal education at the age of 19 at South High Community School in Worcester. Robert was a student of the Goddard Scholars Program (it would be named in his honor, years after his graduation). Goddard was an outstanding student, for which he was twice elected as class president. To make up for lost time due to his health problems, he used to read multiple books on mathematics, astronomy, mechanics and composition.In 1904 he gave the graduation speech as the valedictorian of the class. In his speech, he titled & # 34;On Taking Things for Granted & # 34; (On taking things for granted) Goddard included a section that would become emblematic of his life:

"Just like in the sciences we've learned, we're too ignorant to call anything impossible, which is why as individuals we can't know for sure our limitations, but we can say, almost completely sure., that nothing is out of our reach. We must remember that it is not possible to predict how much wealth, fame, or utility we will achieve until we sincerely try; we must think that all sciences have been, at some point, in the same state as us, and yet they have often shown that yesterday's dream is today's hope and tomorrow's reality&# 34;.

Goddard enrolled at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1904. He quickly impressed the head of the physics department, A. Wilmer Duff, who assigned him as a laboratory assistant and tutor. At the WPI, Goddard joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and began a long courtship with fellow high school student Miriam Olmstead, an outstanding student. They were engaged, but later drifted apart, ending the engagement in 1909.

Goddard received his B.S. (Bachelor of Science) in physics in 1908, and after being an instructor in physics for a year, he began graduate studies at Clark University in Worcester in the fall of 1909. Goddard received his M.A. in physics in 1910 and his Ph.D. in 1911, both postgraduates at Clark. He was an honorary member of physics until 1912, when he accepted a fellowship at the Palmer Physical Laboratory at Princeton University.

Early Scientific Writings

During high school, Goddard wrote his thoughts on space travel in an article called "The Navigation of Space," and submitted his work to Popular Science News. However, the publisher rejected it, arguing that it was not possible to use it "in the near future".

While still a student, Goddard wrote a paper proposing a method for balancing aircraft using gyro-stabilization. His idea was published in the Scientific American magazine in 1907. In his journals, Goddard claimed that his paper was the first proposal for automatic stabilization for aircraft in flight, although his proposal was published in parallel to large papers. advances in the development of functional gyroscopes.

His first paper on a liquid-fueled rocket came on February 2, 1909. Goddard had begun studying ways to increase the efficiency of a rocket using methods other than solid fuel. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidant. Goddard believed that, with such liquid propellants, he could achieve 50% efficiency (i.e., half the combustion energy converted to exhaust gas kinetic energy).

First patents

Around 1910, radio was the new technology, thus a fertile field for innovation. While working at Clark University, Goddard began to investigate the effects of radio waves on insulators in 1911. In order to generate radio frequency power, he invented a vacuum tube that operated as a cathode ray tube. His patent (USPTO #1159209) was issued on November 2, 1915. This was the first use of a vacuum tube for signal amplification, predating even Lee de Forest.

In 1913, during his spare time and using calculus, he developed mathematical models that enabled him to determine the position and velocity of a rocket in vertical flight, given the weight of the rocket, the weight of the propellant, and the velocity of the gases exhaust. His first objective was to build a rocket focused on the study of the atmosphere, not only with the idea of investigating for the meteorological field, but also to know parameters such as temperature, density and wind speed in order to design vehicles capable of traveling into space.. Goddard denied that his ultimate goal was to develop a rocket to travel into space, since most scientists, especially in the United States, considered the subject an unrealistic scientific pursuit. Later, in 1933, Goddard said: "We must by no means be dissuaded from the possibility of space travel, test by test and step by step, one day we shall succeed, whatever the cost."

In early 1913, Goddard became seriously ill with tuberculosis and had to leave his post at Princeton. He later returned to Worcester, where he began a lengthy recovery process.

It was during this period of recovery that Goddard began to produce some of his most important work. As he got better, he began working an hour a day. In Worcester's technological environment, patents were considered essential, not only to protect the original work, but as documentation of the first discovery, so he began to see the importance of his ideas as intellectual property. In May 1913, he began to worry about patents for his rocket research. His father took the documents to a patent firm in Worcester. His first patent application was filed in October 1913.

In 1914, his first two landmark patents were accepted and registered. The first, USPTO Patent No. 1102653, describes a multi-stage rocket fueled by an "explosive material" solid. The second, USPTO Patent No. 1103503, describes a rocket powered by solid fuel or liquid propellants (gasoline and liquid nitrous oxide). The two patents would eventually become important documents in the history of rocketry.He issued 214 patents, some posthumously by his wife.

Rocket Research

In the fall of 1914, Goddard's health improved, so he accepted a position as a professor and researcher at Clark University. His position at Clark allowed him to continue his rocketry research. He ordered numerous supplies for prototype launch rockets and spent much of 1915 preparing the first tests of it. His first test launch was carried out one afternoon after his classes in 1915. The launch was strong enough to set off the school's alarm, and Goddard had to ensure that the experiments were carried out on him, despite being a study. Seriously, they were harmless. After the incident, Robert performed his experiments in the physics lab.

He performed static tests on solid fuel rockets to measure their thrust and efficiency. He verified his estimates, which stated that such devices converted only 2% of their fuel into thrust. Goddard applied Laval nozzles, generally used for steam turbine engines, greatly improving efficiency (referring to the internal efficiency of the engine: the ratio of the kinetic energy of exhaust gases to the available thermal energy of combustion). By mid-1915, Goddard had achieved an average efficiency of 40% with a muzzle velocity of 2,051 meters per second. By connecting a powder-filled combustion chamber to several nozzles, Goddard was able (in static tests) to achieve an efficiency of more than 63% and exhaust velocities of more than 2,134 meters per second. Despite little recognition, said engine was a great advance. These experiments suggested the possibility of rockets powerful enough to leave Earth. This device, and subsequent experiments sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, were the beginning of modern rocketry and, to some extent, space exploration. Goddard, however, claimed that to get into space, liquid propellants would be necessary.

That same year, he designed an experiment in Clark's physics lab to show that a rocket would behave the same way in a vacuum as it does in space. Many other scientists were still not convinced.His experiment showed that the performance of a rocket decreases due to atmospheric pressure.

From 1916 to 1917, Goddard built and tested ion thrusters, thinking they could be used for travel into outer space. These glass engines were tested at atmospheric pressure, where they generated a stream of ionized air.

Sponsorship of the Smithsonian Institution

By 1916, the cost of his research had become too high for his modest teaching salary, so Goddard began soliciting financial assistance from potential sponsors, some of them the Smithsonian Institution, the National Geographic Society and the Aero Club of America.

In his letter to the Smithsonian in September 1916, Goddard claimed that he had achieved an efficiency of 63% and a speed of nearly 2,438 meters per second. With these performance levels, he claimed that a rocket would be capable of lifting 0.45 kg to a height of 373 km with an initial launch weight of only 40.64 kg.

The Smithsonian Institution became interested and requested an initial research plan. Goddard responded with a detailed manuscript, which he had already completed, entitled A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes (A method of reaching extreme altitudes).

In January 1917, the Smithsonian agreed to provide Goddard with a five-year sponsorship totaling $5,000. Later, Clark University contributed $3,500 and the use of its physics laboratory to the project. The Worcester Polytechnic Institute also allowed him use of its magnetism lab, a safe place for testing.

It wasn't until two years later, at the insistence of Dr. Arthur G. Webster, head of Clark's physics department, that Goddard agreed with the Smithsonian Institution to publish his work.

While at Clark University, Goddard also investigated solar energy, using a satellite dish to focus the sun's rays onto a machined piece of mercury-sprayed quartz, which, in turn, heated the water and created an electric generator. Goddard claimed that his invention had overcome all the obstacles that had defeated other scientists and inventors, so he published his findings in the November 1929 issue of Popular Science .

Military Rocket

Not all of Goddard's research was geared toward space travel. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, the country's universities began to lend their services for war research. Goddard believed that his research could work for a variety of military applications, including mobile artillery, field weapons, and naval torpedoes. He made proposals to the Navy and the Army, although there are no records of interest from the Navy. On the other hand, the army was very interested, meeting on multiple occasions with Goddard.

During this time, Goddard was contacted in Worcester by a businessman who was looking at the possibility of making rockets for the military. However, as the businessman's enthusiasm grew, Goddard's suspicions did too. The talks ended when Goddard began to fear that the company would appropriate his work. Later, an Army officer tried to get Goddard to cooperate, but was stopped by General George Squier, who had been contacted by Smithsonian Institution secretary Charles Walcott. Goddard became suspicious of the companies and was careful to ensure their security. He worked with patents, with a 'protect his ideas' mentality. After the incident, the Signal Corps sponsored Goddard's work during World War I.

Goddard proposed to the Army the idea of a tube-shaped rocket launcher as an infantry weapon, a concept that would become a precursor to the bazooka. The recoil-free weapon was a side project of his work on rocket propulsion. rockets. During his stay at Clark University, and while working at the Mount Wilson Observatory, he designed a tube rocket launcher, which would later be commonly used in World War I. Goddard and his partner, Dr. Clarence N. Hickman, successfully demonstrated their rocket to the US Army Signal Corps at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, on November 6, 1918. The design consisted of two lecterns as Launch pad. The Army was impressed, but the Compiègne Armistice was signed five days later, and development was halted with the end of World War I.

Goddard fell ill with tuberculosis, so the development of the bazooka was delayed. He was appointed as a consultant to the United States Government at Indian Head, Maryland, until 1923, although his focus had shifted to research on rocket propulsion and liquid fuels.

Later, former Clark University researcher Dr. Clarence N. Hickman, Colonel Leslie Skinner, and Lt. Edward Uhl continued Goddard's work on the bazooka. Such development would materialize in the shaped charge warhead anti-tank rockets used in World War II and many other high-powered rocket-based weapons.

A method to reach extreme altitudes

Forced to publish

In 1919 Goddard believed that it would be premature to publish the results of his experiments, since his engine was not sufficiently developed. Dr. Webster, however, realized that Goddard had accomplished a significant amount of work and insisted that he publish his progress. Thus, that same year, Goddard asked the Smithsonian Institution to publish the report presented at the end of 1916.

In late 1919, the Smithsonian published Goddard's groundbreaking work: A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. The report describes Goddard's mathematical theories regarding rocket flight, his experiments with rockets of solid fuel and the possibilities he saw for exploring the Earth's atmosphere and outer space. Together with Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (1903), Goddard's little book is considered one of the pioneering works of rocket science; 1,750 copies were distributed worldwide.

Goddard performed an extensive number of experiments with solid fuel rockets (nitrocellulose gunpowder). An important development for his experiments was the implementation of the steam turbine nozzle invented by Gustaf de Laval, which allowed for more efficient energy conversion. Goddard increased the efficiency of his rockets from 2% to 64% and obtained velocities of exhaust of more than Mach 7.

Although most of his work concerned theoretical and experimental relationships regarding rocket mass, thrust, and velocity, there is a final section, entitled "Calculation of the minimum mass required to lift one pound to an altitude infinite", where the possibility of escaping Earth's gravitation is discussed. It was determined that a rocket with an effective escape velocity of 7,000 feet per second and an initial weight of 602 pounds would be capable of delivering a payload of a pound at an infinite height. As a theoretical experiment, the idea of launching a rocket to the Moon, adding a certain glimmer to its surface, so that it is visible through a telescope, is included. Goddard discussed the matter seriously, estimating the amount of fuel needed, and his conclusion was that a rocket of 3.21 tons of mass would produce a "barely visible" flash; from Earth, assuming a payload weight of 10.7 lbs.

To avoid criticism of his ideas on space travel, Goddard shared his progress only with trusted groups, although he did publish his progress on atmospheric sounding rockets, a topic more accepted by the scientific community at the time. In March 1920 Goddard sent a letter to the Smithsonian proposing the launch of rockets to the Moon, sounding rockets for sending messages to other civilizations, the use of solar energy in space, and the idea of high-speed propulsion. ionic. In that same letter, Goddard describes the concept of an ablative heat shield, suggesting a landing craft designed to penetrate the atmosphere in the same manner as a meteor.

Criticism

The publication of his paper brought him national attention from newspapers in the United States, but most of the criticism was negative. Although the section on the trip to the Moon was a small part of the work (eight lines on the penultimate page), tabloids misrepresented and ridiculed his work. The Smithsonian had to refrain from commenting, and received a large amount of correspondence ridiculing the investigation. David Lasser, co-founder of the American Rocket Society, wrote in 1931 that Goddard was subjected to one of the most violent press attacks to date.

On January 12, 1920, a front-page New York Times article, "Believes Rocket Can Reach Moon", reported on of a statement by the Smithsonian about a "high-efficiency rocket." The main application was "the possibility of sending recording devices to extreme altitudes within the Earth's atmosphere", giving it advantages over the balloons used up to now due to the ease of recovery, since the rocket would go up and down directly. There was also mention of a proposal to send a large enough amount of magnesium flash powder to the Moon that it would ignite on impact with the Moon and be visible in a telescope, proving that the rocket had been capable of leaving Earth.

The New York Times

On January 13, the day after the front-page story, an anonymous New York Times editorial, in a section titled "Topics of the Times&# 34;, scoffed at the proposal. The article, titled "A Severe Strain on Credulity", apparently initially approved of the idea, but was quick to question it:

Dr's rockets. Goddard, those powerful enough to leave Earth, are a practical idea, and therefore promising. As a rocket, it could be said that it includes auto-registration instruments that will report the flight limit and parachute that would return it to Earth. However, it is not certain that the devices will return to the starting point; in fact, it is obvious that it would not be so, because the parachutes would modify the return, as with the balloons. The rocket, or whatever is left of it after the explosion, would have to be directed to the place from where it departed. Such a conflict is a major drawback.

The article also criticized concepts related to what would happen to the rocket once it left Earth:

The longest and most complicated journey begins after leaving the atmosphere: the rocket could neither accelerate nor remain stable due to the explosion of the loads. Ensuring such behaviour would be denying a fundamental law of dynamics, and only Dr. Einstein and his dozen chosen ones have a license to do so.

Lastly, the writer claimed that "his idea is not original" and that Goddard's understanding of Newton's laws was wrong:

That Professor Goddard, with the support of Clark College and the Smithsonian Institute, does not know Newton's third law, nor the need to have something better than the vacuum to react against is absurd. It only seems to lack widely disseminated knowledge at the high school level.

Contrary to what the Times reports, however, pushing is possible in a vacuum.

Consequences

A week after the New York Times article, Goddard issued a signed statement to the Associated Press, in an attempt to defuse what had become a sensationalist story:

"Too much attention has been given to my proposal for space travel and too little to atmospheric exploration... Whatever the possibilities of the method, whether or not they have been proposed, none of them can be carried out. without first exploring the atmosphere".

In 1924, Goddard published the article "How my speed rocket can propel itself in vacuum" (How My Rocket Could Go Alone in a Vacuum), in Popular Science, in which he explained the physical development and provided details of the experiments he had performed to test the theory. However, regardless how he explained his results, he could not make himself understood. In 1929, after one of Goddard's experiments, a local Worcester newspaper published an article mocking his research. The title was "Rocket Misses Moon Target by 238,799(1/2) Miles".

As a result of harsh criticism from the press and other scientists, and the realization that most of the applications for his work would be military, Goddard became increasingly paranoid. He began working alone, until the First and Second World Wars, which greatly limited the impact of his work. Another limiting factor was the lack of support from the US government. As Germany became increasingly involved in warfare, Goddard refused to communicate with German researchers, despite constantly receiving correspondence from them.

A correction

On July 17, 1969 (the day after the Apollo 11 launch), forty-nine years after its editorial mocking Goddard, The New York Times published a short article titled &# 34;A correction". The statement in three paragraphs summarized his 1920 editorial, and concluded by stating that:

Recent researches have confirmed the findings of Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century. It has been established that a rocket can operate in the vacuum and therefore in the atmosphere. The Times Sorry for the mistake.

First flight with liquid fuel

First tests

Robert Goddard on 16 March 1926, in the framework of launching his most notable invention: the first liquid fuel rocket.

Goddard began experimenting with liquid-fueled rockets in September 1921, successfully testing the first liquid-propellant engine in November 1923. It had a cylindrical combustion chamber, mixing and atomizing liquid oxygen and gasoline.

During 1924 and 1925, Goddard had trouble developing a high-pressure piston pump to deliver fuel to the combustion chamber. He wanted to expand his experiments, but his funding did not allow it, so he decided to forgo pumps and use a fuel feed system that applied pressure to the fuel tank from the inert gas tank, a technique used currently.

On December 6, 1925, he put the simple pressure feed system to the test. A static test was carried out in the firing booth of the Clark University Physics Laboratory. The engine successfully lifted its own weight for only 27 seconds, but the experiment was a success for Goddard, demonstrating that a liquid-fueled rocket was possible. The test was an important step in the creation and development of a liquid-fueled rocket. liquid.

Goddard conducted an additional test in December, and two more in January 1926. After that, he began preparing for a possible launch of the rocket system.

First flight

Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket (gasoline and liquid oxygen) on March 16, 1926, at Auburn, Massachusetts. Present at the launch were his team leader Henry Sachs, Esther Goddard and Percy Roope, Clark's assistant professor in the physics department. Goddard's journal states:

March 16. I went to Auburn in the morning. Esther and Mr. Roope left at 1 pm. The rocket was tested at 2.30. It rose 41 feet and went to 184 feet, in 2.5 seconds. Then the bottom half of the nozzle burned out. I took the materials to the lab...

The entry below says:

March 17, 1926. The first rocket flight using liquid propellants was made yesterday at Aunt Effie's farm in Auburn... The rocket didn't lift at first, but the flame went out and there was a constant roar. After several seconds it rose, slowly until clear of the frame, and then at the speed of an express train, curving to the left, hitting the ice and snow, still going at a fast pace.

The rocket, later nicknamed "Nell," climbed only 41 feet during a 2.5-second flight and landed 184 feet away in a cabbage field. Nevertheless, it was an important demonstration of that liquid propellants were a viable option. The launch site is now a National Historic Landmark, the Goddard Rocket Launching Site.

Viewers familiar with more modern rocket designs may have difficulty distinguishing the rocket from the launch pad. The complete rocket is significantly taller than Goddard's, but does not include its pyramidal support structure. The rocket's combustion chamber is the small cylinder at the top; the mouthpiece is visible below it. The fuel tank, which is also part of the rocket, is the larger cylinder opposite Goddard's torso. The fuel tank is directly below the nozzle, and is protected from engine exhaust by an asbestos cone. Asbestos-wrapped aluminum tubes connect the engine to the tanks, providing support and fuel for transport. Such an arrangement is no longer used, as experiment showed that this was no more stable than the placement of the combustion chamber and the nozzle at the base. In May, after a series of modifications to simplify the plumbing, the combustion chamber and nozzle were placed in the now classic position, at the lower end of the rocket.

Goddard determined that the fins alone are not enough to stabilize the rocket in flight and keep it on the desired trajectory. He added moving vanes in the exhaust, governed by a gyroscope, to control and steer his rocket. (The Germans used this technique on their V-2.) He also introduced a more efficient swing motor, basically the method used to steer large liquid-propellant missiles and launchers today.

Lindbergh and Goddard

After the launch in July 1929 Goddard again regained the attention of the newspapers. Charles Lindbergh learned of his work in an article in the New York Times. During this time, Lindbergh had begun to wonder about the future of aviation, and had considered jet propulsion and rockets as likely next steps. After checking with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and assuring himself that Goddard was a bona fide physicist and not a nutcase, he telephoned Goddard in November 1929. They met soon after, in his office at Clark University. During the meeting, Lindbergh was immediately impressed by the research and Goddard by the traveler's interest. He explained his work openly to Lindbergh, forming an alliance that would last the rest of his life.

By late 1929, Goddard had been attracting additional notoriety with each release, so he was finding it increasingly difficult to carry out his research without distraction. Lindbergh began seeking additional funding for Goddard's work, offering to use his fame to work on Goddard's behalf. In 1930 Lindbergh made several proposals to industry and private investors. However, they proved virtually unsuccessful after the recent US stock market crash in October 1929.

Guggenheim Funding

In the spring of 1930, Lindbergh finally found a funder in the Guggenheim family. Daniel Guggenheim agreed to fund Goddard's research over four years for a total of $100,000 ($1.6 million today). The Guggenheim family, especially Harry Guggenheim, would continue to support Goddard's work for years to come. Goddard and his family soon moved to Roswell, New Mexico.

Because of the rocket's military potential, Goddard, Lindbergh, Harry Guggenheim, the Smithsonian Institution and others tried in 1940, before the US entered World War II, to convince the Army and Navy of its value. They offered Goddard's services, but initially there was no interest. Two young officers finally found the means to try to hire Goddard just before the war. The Navy beat out the Army by securing Robert's services to build liquid-fueled rockets, to be used in rocket assisted take-off (JATO). These rockets were the forerunners of some of the large engines that launched rockets during the space age.

America's Lack of Vision

In general, there was a great lack of vision and interest on the part of the United States regarding the potential of rocketry, especially in Washington. Although the Met Office was initially interested (1929), it was unable to secure government funding. Between the two world wars, the Guggenheim Foundation was the main source of funding for Goddard's research. The liquid-fueled rocket was neglected. for his country, according to aerospace historian Eugene Emme. Other nations took notice and advanced development, especially the Germans. Interestingly, Goddard displayed remarkable prescience in a 1923 letter to the Smithsonian. He knew the Germans were very interested in rocketry and said he "wouldn't be surprised if the research turned into a career," wondering how long it would take for the "theoreticians" to come to terms with it. Europeans to build rockets.

In 1936, the United States military attache in Berlin asked Charles Lindbergh to visit Germany to find out what he could about its progress in aviation. Although the Luftwaffe showed off its factories and was openly willing to display its growing air power, regarding rocketry they were silent. When Lindbergh told Goddard what had happened, Goddard said: "Yes, they must have plans for a rocket, but... when will our own people listen to us?"

Most universities in the United States were also making slow progress in developing the potential of rocketry. Just before World War II, the head of MIT's department of aeronautics, at a meeting held by the Army Air Corps to discuss funding for the project, said that the California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech) "could take on the Buck Rogers Job (rocket research). MIT taught basic rocketry and Cal Tech had courses on rocketry and aerodynamics. After the war, Dr. Jerome Hunsaker of MIT, having studied Goddard's patents, stated: "Every liquid-fueled rocket that flies is a Goddard rocket."

While living in Roswell, Goddard continued to be head of the physics department at Clark University, which deserves credit for allowing him to devote most of his time to rocket research. Likewise, the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) allowed astronomer Samuel Herrick to dedicate himself to research in the orientation and control of space vehicles, and shortly after the war, to teach courses in space orientation and orbit determination.. Herrick began communicating with Goddard in 1931, asking him if he should work in this new field, which he named astrodynamics. Herrick said that Goddard had the insight to advise and encourage him in his use of celestial mechanics "anticipating the basic problem of space navigation."

Roswell, New Mexico

Charles Lindbergh took this photograph of Robert H. Goddard's rocket on September 23, 1935 in Roswell, New Mexico.

Goddard towing a rocket in Roswell.

1930-1941

With new financial backing, Goddard eventually moved to Roswell, New Mexico, during the summer of 1930, where he worked with his team of technicians for years. He had consulted a meteorologist as to the best area to do his work, and Roswell seemed ideal. There they would not endanger anyone, would not be bothered by onlookers, and would experience a more moderate climate (which was also better for Goddard's health).

In September 1931, their rockets had the appearance of a smooth shell with fins. Goddard began experimenting with gyroscopic guidance, and made a test flight in April 1932. A gyroscope electrically controlled the rudder flaps on the exhaust, similar to the system used by German V-2s more than 10 years later. Although the rocket crashed after a short climb, the guidance system had worked, so Goddard considered the test a success.

A temporary loss of Guggenheim funding, as a result of the depression, forced Goddard to return to Clark University until the fall of 1934, when funding resumed. Upon his return to Roswell, he began work on his A series rockets, 4 to 4.5 meters long, fueled by gasoline and liquid oxygen pressurized with nitrogen. The gyroscopic control system was located in the middle of the rocket, between the propellant tanks.

The A-4 used a simple pendulum yaw system, as the gyroscope was being repaired. On March 8, 1935, it flew 1,000 feet, then turned into the wind and, in Goddard's words, "roared in a powerful descent across the prairie, near the speed of sound." On March 28, 1935, the A-5 successfully flew vertically to a height of 1.46 kilometers using the gyroscopic guidance system. It then proceeded to a nearly horizontal trajectory, flew 3,900 m and reached a top speed of 880 km/h. Goddard was elated that the guidance system kept the rocket on a vertical trajectory.

Between 1936 and 1939, Goddard began work on the K-series and L-series rockets, which were much more massive and designed to reach great heights. The K series consisted of a static test bed for a more powerful engine, achieving a thrust of 283 kg in February 1936. This work had problems with the combustion chamber. In 1923, Goddard had built a regenerative circulation-cooled engine, which circulated liquid oxygen around the outside of the combustion chamber, but he considered the idea too complicated. He later used a method that involved spraying excess evaporating gasoline around the inside wall of the cooling combustion chamber. However, it didn't work well. Going back to a smaller design, the L-13 reached an altitude of 2.7 kilometers, the highest of any of its rockets. Weight was reduced through the use of thin-walled fuel tanks wound with high-tensile wire.

Goddard experimented with many of the features of today's large rockets, such as multiple combustion chambers and nozzles. In November 1936, he flew the world's first rocket (L-7) with multiple chambers, hoping to increase thrust without increasing size. It had four combustion chambers, reached a height of 60 m, and corrected its vertical trajectory using BLAST vanes. This flight demonstrated that a rocket with multiple combustion chambers could fly stably and be easily guided.

From 1940 to 1941, Goddard worked on the P-series, turbopump-propelled rockets (also using gasoline and liquid oxygen). The pumps produced higher pressure propellants, allowing for a more powerful engine (greater thrust) and a lighter structure (light weight and no pressurization tank). However, both launches from him ended in a collision after reaching an altitude of only a few tens of meters. The turbopumps worked well, but Goddard was not satisfied.

When Goddard mentioned the need for turbopumps, Harry Guggenheim suggested that he contact pump manufacturers. Neither was interested, since the cost of these miniature bombs did not seem feasible to them. Goddard's team therefore had to proceed on its own from September 1938 to June 1940. Goddard's wife, Esther, later said that the bomb tests were "the most difficult and discouraging phase of the investigation."

Goddard was able to test most of his rockets. Many would be classified as failures, usually as a result of an engine malfunction or due to loss of control. Goddard, however, did not see them as failures, but as learning opportunities.Most of his work involved static pretesting, standard procedure today.

Launches

Between 1926 and 1941 Goddard launched the following 35 rockets:

Parts of some of Goddard's rockets.

Analysis of results

Goddard's rockets were considered unsuccessful as instruments for reaching extreme altitudes (their maximum height was only 2.7 km). German scientists reached 2.4 km with the A-2 rocket in 1934, 8 km with the A-5 in 1939 and 196 km with the A-4 in 1942, reaching the outer limits of the atmosphere and space.

Goddard's pace of development was slower than the Germans because he did not have the resources they had. Reaching great heights was not his main goal. Robert was looking to refine his liquid fuel engine and systems such as guidance and control, with the idea of creating a vehicle stable enough for future experiments. He had managed to build the turbo pumps necessary for the creation of larger rockets when World War II broke out and changed the course of American history. Goddard hoped to return to his experiments at Roswell after the war.

Despite attracting the attention of the United States military with his work, Goddard was turned down during the World Wars because the government argued that there was no money for new experimental weapons. The German military intelligence agency, for on the contrary, he paid attention to Goddard's work. Robert noticed that some of his letters had been opened and some of his reports had disappeared. A German soldier stationed in the United States, Friedrich von Boetticher, sent a four-page report to the Abwehr in 1936, while spy Gustav Guellich sent a mix of factual and fabricated information, claiming to have visited Roswell and witnessed one of the releases. The Abwehr was very interested and asked more and more about Goddard's work. The report sent by Guellich included information about fuel mixtures and the concept of "fuel curtain" cooling. From then on, however, the Germans began to receive less and less information about Goddard.

The KGB had a spy in the US Navy. In 1935, they received a report that Goddard had written for the Navy in 1933. It contained test results, flights, and suggestions for military uses of his rockets. The Soviets considered this information very valuable; although the report provided few design details, it gave direction for the development of such weapons.

Annapolis, Maryland

Navy Lt. Charles F. Fischer, who had visited and gained Goddard's trust, knew Robert was doing valuable work, so he was able to convince the Bureau of Aeronautics, in September of 1941, that Goddard could build the JATO unit the Navy wanted. Before the Navy contract went into effect, Goddard began applying his technology to build a variable thrust engine. By May 1942 Goddard had a unit that met Navy requirements and was capable of launching a loaded aircraft on a short runway. In February he received part of a PBY with bullet holes apparently received in the attack on Pearl Harbor. Goddard wrote Guggenheim that he "couldn't think of anything that would give him greater satisfaction than using his technology in response to the attack."

In April Fischer notified Goddard of interest from the Navy in developing his work at the Engineering Experiment Station in Annapolis. Esther, concerned about the effect the weather would have on Robert's health, objected. Goddard, for his part, replied: "Esther, don't you know there's a war going on?" Fisher wanted a bigger project than JATO, he was thinking of a long-range missile, but Robert brushed it off hoping for an even bigger project later.He classified the project as impossible, and was sorely disappointed.

Goddard and his team had been working in Annapolis for a month when they received a telegram from the Navy, transmitted from Roswell. The message contained orders for Robert. In August the engine was capable of producing 800 pounds of thrust for 20 seconds, and Fischer was keen to test it out in a PBY. On the sixth test run, with all bugs ironed out, the PBY, flown by Fischer, was launched from the River Severn. Fischer managed to land and prepare for a new launch. Goddard wanted to check the unit, but radio contact with the PBY had been lost. On the seventh test the engine caught fire. The plane was 150 feet up when the flight was aborted. Thanks to the installation of a safety device added by Goddard there was no explosion and no lives were lost. Solid fuel JATO engines proved safer and cheaper, which is why they were eventually selected by the military.

Despite Goddard's efforts to convince the Navy that liquid-fueled rockets had greater potential, the Navy showed no interest in long-range missiles. The Navy, for its part, asked him to refine the engine JATO. Goddard made some improvements to the engine, and in November he showed the new prototype to the Navy and some officials in Washington. Fischer invited spectators to operate the controls, the engine ran at full throttle and roared at various levels of thrust. The test turned out perfect, exceeding the requirements of the Navy. The unit produced an average thrust of 600 pounds for 15 seconds and a full thrust of 1,000 pounds for over 15 seconds. One Navy Commander commented: "It was like being Thor, like playing with lightning." By this time Goddard had produced the essential control system for rocket plane propulsion. Goddard and his family celebrated by attending the Army vs. Navy football game and Fischer's cocktail party.This engine was the basis for the XLR25-CW-1, the 15,000-pound-thrust Curtiss-Wright engine that powered the X-2 rocket. After World War II Goddard's team went to the Curtiss-Wright Corporation to clear the patent for the project; "although his death, in August 1945, prevented him from participating in the actual development of this engine, it is evidently a direct descendant of his design". In September 1956, the X -2 became the first aircraft to reach 126,000 feet in altitude; and on its last flight it exceeded Mach 3 (3.2) before losing control and crashing. The X-2 program allowed major advances in areas such as steel alloys and aerodynamics at high Mach numbers.

V-2

In the spring of 1945, while working in Annapolis, Maryland, Goddard saw one of the German V-2 missiles. The rocket had been captured by the US Army from the Mittelwerk factory in the Harz mountains, and samples of it began to be shipped by Special Mission V-2 on May 22, 1945.

After close inspection, Goddard was convinced that the Germans had "robbed" his work. Although the details were not exactly the same, the basic design of the V-2 was similar to one of Goddard's rockets. The V-2, however, was technically far more advanced than its greatest success. The Peenemünde rocket group, led by Wernher von Braun, may have drawn ideas from contacts prior to 1939, although they also relied on the work of their own pioneer, Hermann Oberth, as well as the benefit of intensive state funding, large-scale production facilities, and flight tests allowed them to refine their designs.

In 1963, however, von Braun, reflecting on the history of rockets, said of Goddard that: "His rockets... may be simple by todays standards, but he was the one who led the way by incorporating many features used in our most modern rockets and space vehicles'. He further added that: "Goddard's experiments with liquid fuel saved us years of work, and allowed us to perfect the V-2 much sooner than expected".

Three Goddard-developed features appeared in the V-2: turbo-pumps to inject fuel into the combustion chamber, gyroscopically controlled vanes in the nozzle dedicated to stabilizing the rocket, and excess alcohol around the chamber walls. so that a curtain of gas evaporation would protect the engine walls from the heat of combustion.

Although not part of the original plan, Goddard's liquid-fueled rockets played an important role in bringing World War II to an early end. The Germans had watched Goddard's progress before the war, becoming convinced that liquid-fueled rockets were feasible. General Dornberger, head of the V-2 project, seized on the idea of "a race against the United States" and that Goddard had disappeared (to work with the Navy) to gain high priority from Hitler. However, it turned out to be a strategic error, and an estimated cost of some $1.5 billion at the time was spent on a weapon that did not cause the desired fear and lacked the precision to be effective enough.

Goddard's Secret

Goddard refused to share details of his work with other scientists. Frank Malina, a rocketry student at the California Institute of Technology, visited Robert in August 1936. Goddard refused to discuss his research unless it was already published. Theodore von Kármán, Malina's mentor, was not happy with Goddard's attitude, writing: 'Of course, we at Caltech wanted more information from Goddard, but for mutual benefit. Goddard believed in secrets... The problem with secrets is that one can easily go in the wrong direction and not know it'. very excited" and that Caltech had, as a result, made changes to its liquid-fueled rocket based on Goddard's work and patents. Malina remembered his visit as a pleasant experience, in which he was able to see practically all the components that Goddard used.

Goddard's concerns about keeping his work secret led to criticism of his lack of cooperation with other scientists and engineers. His approach at the time was that independent development, without any interference, would bring faster results despite less technical support. George Sutton, a genius on von Braun's team in the 1940s, said that he and his colleagues had never heard of Goddard or his contributions, and that they would have saved time if they had had the details of the work. of the. Sutton admits that the delay may have been due to his lack of interest in pursuing Goddard's patents. However, he claims that the information was not well distributed in the United States during that period, and instead Germany and the Soviet Union had copies of it. The Patent Office did not disclose rocket patents during World War II. However, it is interesting that Aerojet Engineering Corporation, a branch of the Guggenheim Laboratory of Aeronautics at Caltech (GALCIT), filed two patent applications in September 1943 referenced to Goddard USPTO Patent No. 1102653 on the multi-stage rocket.

In 1939, von Karman had received funding from the Army Air Corps to develop rockets to support aircraft takeoffs. In 1940 Goddard found out and openly expressed his displeasure that he had not been considered. Malina did not understand why the Army did not arrange an exchange of information between Goddard and Caltech, since both were under government contract. Goddard did not believe that his work would be of use to Caltech: they designed solid-fueled rockets, while he used liquid fuels.

Goddard was concerned with avoiding the criticism and ridicule he had faced in the 1920s, which he believed had damaged his professional reputation. Robert lacked interest in conversations with people who had less understanding of rocketry than he did.Goddard's health was often poor due to tuberculosis, and he was not sure how long he had to live; as a result, he assumed that he had no time to waste arguing with other scientists and the press about his new field of research, or helping the amateur rocket launchers who wrote to him.In 1932 Goddard wrote to H.G. Welles:

How many more years will I be able to work? I don't know, I hope at least the rest of my life. This does not end, "getting the stars," in a literal and figurative sense, is a problem that will occupy entire generations, so no matter how much progress is made, there will always be the excitement of knowing that it is only the beginning.

Goddard spoke to professional groups, published articles and papers, and patented his ideas; however, he refused to discuss his designs until he had tested them himself.After criticism he avoided any mention of spaceflight, focusing only on high-altitude research.

However, Goddard's tendency to withhold his work was not absolute. In 1945 GALCIT, while building the Corporal WAC for the Army, began having problems with the performance of the rocket motor. Frank Malina went to Annapolis and consulted with Goddard, who solved the problem using liquid propellant, which resulted in a successful launch of a high-altitude research rocket.

During the World Wars Goddard offered his services, patents, and technology to the military, and made some significant contributions. Just before World War II, several Army officers, including some high-ranking ones, believed that Goddard's research was important, yet they were unable to generate sufficient funds for his work.

Toward the end of his life, Goddard, realizing that he would not be able to make significant progress alone, joined the American Rocket Society, where he would become director and make plans to work seriously in the aerospace industry (Curtiss-Wright).

Personal life

On June 21, 1924, Goddard married Esther Christine Kisk, a secretary at Clark University, whom he had met in 1919. Esther became a rocketry enthusiast, photographing some of Goddard's work, in addition to helping in their experiments and in the paperwork of the same. They used to go to the movies in Roswell, were involved in community organizations like Rotary and the Women's Club. The couple had no children. After Goddard's death, his papers were arranged and an additional 131 patents were obtained for his work. Goddard played the piano and used to paint New Mexico landscapes with artist Peter Hurd.

Goddard was raised Episcopalian, however he was not overtly religious. The Goddards were associated with the Roswell Episcopal Church, which they attended occasionally. On one occasion he spoke to young people about the relationship between science and religion.

Health

TB severely affected Goddard, weakening his lungs, affecting his ability to work. Robert worked with a less than average life outlook. After arriving in Roswell, he applied for life insurance, but was denied by the company doctor, arguing that Robert would need treatment in Switzerland, a place where he could obtain better care. Goddard's health began to deteriorate further. in the humid climate of Maryland. He was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1945. He kept working, able to speak only in a whisper. Goddard passed away in August 1945, in Baltimore, Maryland.He was buried in Hope Cemetery in his hometown of Worcester, Massachusetts.

Patents

The Guggenheim Foundation filed suit in 1951 against the United States government for prior infringement of Goddard's patents. In 1960, the parties settled the lawsuit, with the US military and NASA paying a total of $1,000,000. Half of the settlement went to Goddard's widow, Esther. At the time, the case was the largest government payment ever made for a patent case.The amount of the settlement exceeded the total amount of funding Goddard received for his work throughout his entire career..

Legacy

• Goddard got 214 patents, 131 after he died.
• He influenced important personalities who would later work in the Space Programme, such as Robert Truax (USN), Milton Rosen (NASA), astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Jim Lovell, Gene Kranz, Samuel Herrick (UCLA) and General Jimmy Doolittle (NACA).
• Some of his awards include: the Langley Gold Medal of the Smithsonian Institute in 1960 and the Congress Gold Medal on September 16, 1959.
• The Goddard Space Flight Centera NASA facility in Greenbelt, Maryland, established in 1959 was named in his honor.
• The lunar crater "Goddard" also bears this name in his honor.
• Likewise, the asteroid (9252) Goddard commemorates its name.
• Dr. Robert H. Goddard Collection and Robert Goddard Exhibition Room are in the Special Collections area within the Robert Goddard Library at Clark University.
• School Robert H. Goddard High School was completed in 1965 in Roswell, New Mexico, the school pet is called "Rockets".
• A small statue of Goddard is located on the site where the first liquid propulsion rocket was launched, now the Pakachoag Golf Course in Auburn, Massachusetts.
• Release 13 FedoraLinux was named in honor of Goddard.
• The Star Trek TV series: The Next Generation has a take-off site named "Goddard".
• Goddard Ave. In Norman, Oklahoma is named in his honor.
• Goddard Park In Auburn, Massachusetts is named in its honor, the park has two rockets and is next to the Auburn Public Library.

Robert Goddard on a postal stamp. Bronze plate in Auburn, Massachusetts, the site of its first launch of a liquid fuel rocket on March 16, 1926. Insignia of the 50th anniversary of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Robert H. Goddard High School in New Mexico.

Achievements

• First American to mathematically explore the viability of rocket propulsion to reach heights large enough to reach the Moon (1912).
• First man to receive an American patent for the idea of a multi-stage rocket (1914).
• First of all, through static evidence, the rocket propulsion operates in the vacuum and does not require air for the thrust (1915-1916).
• First to develop light pumps suitable for liquid fuel rockets (1923).
• First to successfully develop and fly a liquid fuel rocket (16 March 1926).
• He made the first launch of a useful scientific load (a barometer, a thermometer and a camera) in a rocket (1929).
• First to implement pallets in the engine escape of a rocket for orientation (1932).
• First to develop gyroscopic control devices as a guide to the flight of a rocket (1932).
• First to launch a liquid fuel rocket with a speed greater than that of sound (1935).
• First to launch and guide a rotary motor rocket (in the tail section) and gyroscope (1937).

Quotes

• "It is difficult to define the impossible, yesterday's dream is today's hope and tomorrow's reality" (During his high school graduation speech "On taking things for granted"June 1904).
• "On the evening of October 19, 1899 I went up to a cherry tree and with a saw that I still hold and an axe, I cut off the dead branches of the tree. It was a quiet and colorful evening, full of beauty, of those we have during October in New England. Looking into the fields in the east, I imagined how wonderful it would be to make a device that could reach Mars. He was a different child when I came down from the tree that was when I came up, my existence now seemed intentional." (Originally written in an autobiographical sketch.)
• "An idea is considered banal until someone achieves it. Once realized, it becomes something common." (Your answer to the criticisms of a reporter The New York Times, 1920)
• "It is not easy to differentiate the success of experimental failure... the work that is finally successful is the result of a series of failed tests in which the difficulties are gradually eliminated..." (Written to a correspondent at the beginning of 1940).

Life

• 1882 Robert Goddard was born in Worcester, Massachusetts.
• 1909 Goddard lives with his grandmother.
• 1908 Write Old Tech, a musical composition.
• 1908 Graduated at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
• 1919 Published A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes.
• 1920 Report The New York Times January 12th.
• 1924 He married Esther Christine Kisk.
• 1926 The launch of his first rocket from Auburn, Massachusetts.
• 1930 He moved to Mescalero Ranch, Roswell, New Mexico.
• 1945 He died, due to throat cancer, in Baltimore, Maryland.
• 1969 It is recognized in the International Space Hall of Fame.

Patents

• Patent USPTO n.o 1102653 - Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard
• Patent USPTO n.o 1103503 - Rocket apparatus - R. H. Goddard

External links

• Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia gallery on Robert Goddard.
• Space Pioneers
• Robert Goddard in TIME 100 Archived on 24 May 2009 at Wayback Machine. (English)
• R. Goddard's biography at NASA
• Robert Goddard and his rockets