Ramon Castilla

Ramón Castilla y Marquesado (San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, Viceroyalty of Peru, August 31, 1797-Tiliviche Desert, Peru, May 30, 1867) was a Peruvian military, statesman, and politician, president of Peru in the periods 1845-1851 (as constitutional president), 1855-1862 (initially as provisional president and then constitutional) and 1863 (for a few days as interim manager). He is the second president who ruled the Peruvian Republic for the longest years, only surpassed by Augusto B. Leguía, being considered the most important character of the first decades of independent Peru.

He began his military career in the royalist army, participating in the battle of Chacabuco (1817). Prisoner after the battle, he was taken to Buenos Aires where he obtained permission to leave the country and returned to Peru. Reincorporated in the Royal Army of Peru, he joined the independence cause at the beginning of 1822. He organized and was part of the cavalry of the Peruvian Legion, standing out in the battle of Ayacucho (1824). He continued with his military and political career, occupying high public positions such as the sub-prefecture of his native Tarapacá (1825) and the prefecture of Puno (1834) in the governments of Agustín Gamarra and Luis José de Orbegoso.

After the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836), he went into exile in Chile where he joined the restorative army and had an outstanding participation in the battle of Yungay (1839). During the Peruvian Restoration he served as a minister in the government of Gamarra, whom he accompanied on the campaign against Bolivia until he was taken prisoner after the battle of Ingavi (1841). After the war he returned to Peru, where he joined the constitutionalist revolution of 1843 against the government of Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco. Triumphant the following year at the Battle of Carmen Alto, he reestablished the interim government of Manuel Menéndez.

Winner of the 1845 elections, he assumed the presidency of Peru. His first government stood out for the institutional stability of the country after a long period of anarchy, the organization of the Peruvian State and the economic boom thanks to the income produced by the guano wealth. He handed over power to his successor José Rufino Echenique (1851) after fulfilling his mandate, an unprecedented event up to that time. However, after the scandal of the consolidation of the internal debt, he led the liberal revolution of 1854 and decreed the annulment of the indigenous tax and the abolition of slavery.

He defeated Echenique in the battle of La Palma (1854) and once again assumed the government as provisional president. He called a National Convention that promulgated the liberal Constitution of 1856, an event that generated a conservative reaction led by Vivanco and the outbreak of the civil war. After defeating the rebels, Castilla withdrew from the Liberals and convened a Constituent Congress that proclaimed him constitutional president after the 1858 elections. That same Congress drafted the moderate Constitution of 1860, the longest-running magna carta in the history of Peru.

In his second term, he continued with the modernization of the State and the integration of its territory, promoting the colonization of the Peruvian Amazon and even going to war with Ecuador (1858). Likewise, his government coincided with the introduction of several technological advances in Peru such as the telegraph and gas lighting and the expansion of railways. The guano boom, a product that became practically the only fiscal support for the State, also took place during those years. He handed over power to his successor Miguel de San Román; after his death he briefly resumed government internally (1863).

The following year he was elected senator for Tarapacá and president of the Senate, from where he opposed the policies of Juan Antonio Pezet in the face of tensions with Spain, which earned him exile in Europe (1865). He returned to Peru and retired to his native Tarapacá (1866), from where he opposed the government of Mariano Ignacio Prado, which exiled him to Chile. However, he returned to Tarapacá and led a revolution in defense of the 1860 Constitution that the government intended to replace with a liberal Constitution. He died during his march through the Tiliviche desert (1867); the revolution he started would overthrow Prado months later.

He is valued as the first progressive and innovative president of the Peruvian Republic and it is considered that with him the republican period truly began: he brought order and prosperity to the State, eliminated the indigenous tax, abolished slavery, founded the diplomatic service, reformed the public administration, established the budget, paid the external and internal debt, promoted the colonization of the Amazon, created the Council of Ministers, initiated educational reform, modernized the army and expanded the naval force. He is the patron of the Peruvian Army Cavalry Weapon.

Physical and psychological description

Ramón Castilla, as President of Peru.

Under-body, Castile had an iron constitution and admirable physical resistance. His martial continent accompanied by a penetrating gaze, gave him air of superiority. Valent and fast in action, he was excellent captain and the soldier's affection was conquered. Knowing men intuitively knew how to govern them. His irresistible energy and great willpower elevated him to the multitude of leaders of the first stage of our republican life.

Carlos Wiesse

Mariscal Ramon Castile, a strong patriot who devoted himself entirely to the greatness of the nation, which he dreamed united, prosperous and strong. He began to rule when he had already attained that maturity that gave the years and experience of dealing with men. Castile was not an imaginative person, but he lived from realities. He had an innate practical talent and a penetrating spirit. He was a rough and coarse man, his ways certainly were far from being elegant. His friend, Marshal Nieto, said that Castile was "third and undomitable"; sometimes he showed signs of magnanimity and liberality, but in the dictatorship he was implacable with his enemies, whom he crushed without mercy and not without features of political petty, mainly due to the difficult circumstances he had to face in power. There were two important things in his existence: the one, to know perfectly the Peruvian territory and that of the neighboring republics, and the other, to have treated almost all the political leaders of the time, hence that no one would advantage him in the leadership of the government. During his government, the era of progress began in Peru.

Rubén Vargas Ugarte

“Redeemer of the Indian, liberator of the black, founder of press freedom, demolisher of the political scaffold”, is how the newspaper El Comercio evoked the memory of Castilla.

Childhood

He was born in the town of San Lorenzo de Tarapacá on August 31, 1797, during the Viceroyalty of Peru. He was the son of Pedro de Castilla y Manzano from Buenos Aires, and Juana Marquesado y Romero, a mestizo from Tarapacan.His paternal grandfather, the Spaniard Pedro Pablo Castilla, was an employee of the treasury during the viceregal administration. While his maternal grandfather, the Genoese Giovanni Batistta Marchese (who Spanishized his name to Juan Bautista Marquesado) was a colonel of the Royalist Army of Spain.

During his childhood, he helped his father as a woodcutter, and made trips to the desert to collect dry branches of carob trees. Later he was in the custody of his brother Leandro, moving to Lima in 1810 and later to the city of Concepción, in Chile.

Military career

In the royalist army

In 1812 he enlisted, along with his brother Leandro, in the Royal Army of Peru. He was then fifteen years old. He actively participated in the campaigns against the old Chilean homeland. After the defeat of the independence insurgents, he received the office of effective cadet in Santiago in the Dragones de la Frontera cavalry regiment (1816). At the age of twenty, as an escort officer for Brigadier Casimiro Marcó del Pont in the Spanish army, He suffered defeat at Chacabuco on February 12, 1817, and had to retreat, being captured at the Las Tablas hacienda, near El Quisco.

Sent to the Las Bruscas detention camp in Buenos Aires, he managed to escape along with fellow royalist prisoner Fernando Cacho. He went to Montevideo and from there to Rio de Janeiro, from where he undertook to return to Peru, crossing the jungles of Mato Grosso (Brazil) to Santa Cruz de la Sierra (present-day Bolivia), and from there to the Peruvian highlands, to finally descend to Lime. It was a march on foot that lasted five months, crossing 2,350 leagues, many times through wild territories, and which was in itself an impressive feat.

Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela reinstated him into the royalist army, receiving the rank of second lieutenant. He then enlisted in the Dragones de la Unión regiment, which garrisoned the city of Arequipa (1818). His military career in the royalist army ended in Quito, during the final campaign of the Expedition Auxiliadora de Santa Cruz to Quito, when isolated at the head of the volunteer battalion of Catalonia as a lieutenant colonel he capitulated before the army of Marshal Sucre. However, he decided to join the liberation army that was fighting for the independence of Peru, appearing first before the Marquis of Torre Tagle, and later before General José de San Martín, in February 1822. After being subjected to careful interrogation, he was admitted to the patriot ranks.

In the independence army

He was incorporated as a cavalry lieutenant into a squadron of the Peruvian Guard Legion (later called the Húsares de Junín), which was then in training. He worked intensively recruiting and training volunteers. After the resignation of San Martín as Protector of Peru, he placed himself under the orders of the new government established in Lima. For his services in organizing Peruvian troops, he was promoted to major and later to lieutenant colonel in the cavalry.

He served President José de la Riva-Agüero loyally, until he tried to negotiate with the Spanish, for which he supported the rebellion of Colonel Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente, who imprisoned the president on November 25, 1823. Castilla was commissioned to arrest General Ramón Herrera, head of the army, who was in Santa.

Then he put himself at the service of the Simón Bolívar dictatorship, which from northern Peru was preparing the final campaign for independence. But when he refused to comply with the Liberator's order to hand over his forces to Venezuelan Lieutenant Colonel José Trinidad Morán, he was arrested in Trujillo and taken with shackles in his hands to the Caraz headquarters. He was released on the condition that he appear before the head of the Peruvian division, José de La Mar, so that he could assign him as he saw fit. La Mar incorporated him as assistant to the general staff of the United Liberation Army.

He did not participate in the battle of Junín, because he belonged to the general staff, but he was satisfied that this action was decided by the Peruvian cavalry, in whose formation he had participated. He continued throughout the campaign that culminated in the Battle of Ayacucho, where he was the first combatant to enter the royalist camp, suffering bullet and spear wounds while transmitting command orders. Antonio José de Sucre praised it in the respective part, judging it "very worthy of a singular distinction." For his remarkable performance, he was promoted to effective lieutenant colonel. In the blood hospital where he was treated, he had the opportunity to meet his brother Leandro, who had remained loyal to the king's cause, and who, like him, had also injured.

In 1825 he requested permission to visit his family in his native province, and when he passed through Arequipa, the prefect Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente appointed him sub-prefect of the province of Tarapacá. In this role, he was concerned with encouraging mining exploitation.In Arequipa he met the young Francisca Diez Canseco, daughter of Manuel Diez Canseco Nieto and Mercedes Sánchez, whom he married in 1835.

In republican wars and revolutions

As sub-prefect of Tarapacá, he opposed the Lifetime Constitution of Bolívar and the political project of creating the Federation of the Andes. When the meeting of Congress was frustrated, it was decided that said Constitution would be approved through the Electoral Colleges. All approved it, except that of Tarapacá, presumably due to the opposition of Castilla (1826).

After the Bolivarian influence had ended and the government of José de La Mar had been established, before the imminent conflict with Gran Colombia, he was transferred to Arequipa, with the mission of organizing the reserve; there he surprised a conspiracy hatched by the supporters of Bolivian President Andrés de Santa Cruz to segregate the southern departments, in August 1829, and he acted as prosecutor in the case pursued against them.

Promoted to colonel, he went to Lima in 1830. President Agustín Gamarra appointed him his aide-de-camp and in his company he left for Cuzco to fight the federalist revolution started by Colonel Gregorio Escobedo, which was put down the same day by the same cuzqueños However, Castilla continued to the border with Bolivia and assumed the leadership of the General Staff in the reserve division that garrisoned the region. There was then a serious threat of war with Bolivia, but for the moment it was resolved peacefully (1831).

Back in Lima, Castilla censured the policy followed by President Gamarra and was involved in the conspiracy of Deputy Iguaín. Arrested on January 1, 1832, he was imprisoned first in the Real Felipe Fortress and then in a pontoon anchored in Callao. It is said that he involuntarily betrayed Captain Felipe Rossel, a trusted officer of the president, who ended up being shot. While in prison, Castilla fell ill and was transferred to the Santa Ana hospital, from where he escaped, embarking for Chile in May 1833. The trial who followed him was suspended, and some time later he was acquitted.

In November 1833, he reappeared in Tarapacá, where he supported the proclamation of General Luis José de Orbegoso as provisional president. He went to Arequipa and, when the rebellion of General Pedro Bermúdez broke out, he remained loyal to the government and participated in the campaign against the southern rebels, who were defeated in the battle of Cangallo (April 6, 1834). Internal peace restored after Maquinhuayo's embrace, he was promoted to Brigadier General.

President Agustín Gamarra, whom Castile served until his death in the battle of Ingavi.

He was appointed prefect and general commander of the department of Puno on June 20, 1834, but resigned on March 24 of the following year, when the rebellion started by General Felipe Salaverry spread in Callao. He moved to Arequipa, where Orbegoso was, before whom he renewed his loyalty. He was appointed secretary general of the government, as well as chief of staff. But when Orbegoso agreed on June 15, 1835, for Bolivian intervention to restore his authority throughout the country, Castilla, inflexible in his nationalism, withdrew from him. It should be noted, however, that Castilla, like most of the Peruvian patriots, he was in favor of the union with Bolivia, but on the condition that it be with the Peruvian hegemony. Gamarra), although he was always reluctant to serve de facto governments.

Orbegoso, seeing him become a fierce critic of his decisions, relieved him of command and ordered his exile to Tarapacá; but on the way he fell ill and remained in Tacna.Santa Cruz, suspicious of his intentions, ordered his arrest, but Castilla managed to escape, embarking in Arica bound for Callao. He rejected Salaverry's invitation to rejoin the army, noting that said leader did not want to commit himself to favoring a constitutional restoration. He finally chose to go to Chile, in February 1836, the same path followed by other Peruvians after Santa Cruz's victory over Salaverry.

In Chile, Castilla formed the group of Peruvian émigrés who opposed the project of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation and who hoped to return with the support of a Chilean expeditionary force, meticulously enlisted by the omnipotent Chilean minister Diego Portales. A group of Chilean officers opposed that expedition and revolted in Quillota on June 3, 1837, arresting Portales. The Chilean forces sent to put down the uprising were joined by Castilla under the command of the Cuiraceros de Junín, a body made up of 150 Peruvian volunteers. The mutineers were defeated in the combat at Cerro Barón, but Portales was assassinated; nonetheless, the Chilean government's war plans continued their course.

From Chile, the so-called Restoration Expeditions were organized against the Confederation, made up of allied Chilean and Peruvian armies (United Restoration Army), joined by Castilla. In the first expedition, Castilla was head of the Peruvian Legion and prefect of Arequipa. He had serious differences with Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, the head of the Peruvian expeditionaries. This expedition failed in Arequipa, and Castilla, along with the rest of the restorers, returned to Chile.

He returned to Peru with the second restoration expedition, commanded this time by the Chilean general Manuel Bulnes and the Peruvian Agustín Gamarra. This expedition finally achieved its objective. Castilla fought in the combat of Portada de Guías on August 27, 1838, and in the final battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839, where his energy and his tactical vision prevented the retreat of the restorers and decided the triumph of these. By the way, it is said that when General Bulnes ordered the withdrawal with these words: "They have sobbed us, let us withdraw to San Miguel where we can continue the attack", Castilla, who commanded the cavalry, replied: "We have not come to run"., and taking some battalions he led them to the mouth of the Ancash ravine and that is how he decided the triumph of the restorers. Due to his brilliant performance, he earned his promotion to Major General.

When Gamarra's provisional government was installed in 1838, Castilla was appointed minister of war, his colleagues being Benito Laso (Government and Foreign Relations); and Manuel Bartolomé Ferreyros (Treasury).

In the second constitutional government of Gamarra he was Minister of War, from 1839 to 1840, and of Finance, until 1841, and as such he contributed to pacify the country and restore administrative order.

He was sent to quell the regenerationist revolution started in Arequipa by Colonel Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, whom he defeated in Cuevillas on April 6, 1841; this was the beginning of one of the bitterest republican rivalries: Castilla versus Vivanco.

From this time there is also an incident that he had with the French consul Armand Saillard, whom he challenged to a duel, which did not materialize. Episode that is narrated in a tradition by Ricardo Palma, but in a distorted way.

Castilla was opposed to Gamarra's alliance with the Bolivian José Ballivián, then exiled in Peru. As chief of staff, he accompanied Gamarra in the Bolivian campaign. Ballivián, forgetting his alliance with Gamarra, took the lead of the Bolivian resistance and defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Ingavi, on November 18, 1841, the same one in which Gamarra died.

Castilla was taken prisoner on the battlefield and led on foot to Oruro, from where he was transferred to Cochabamba and then to Santa Cruz de la Sierra. On several occasions he had incidents with his guards, which is why he suffered cruel mistreatment. After signing peace with Bolivia, he returned to Peru, arriving in Tacna on September 5, 1842.

The constitutionalist revolution of 1843-1844

At that time, Peru was struggling in a military anarchy and Castilla proposed to put an end to the factional wars and restore the empire of the Constitution of 1839, counting on the alliance of generals Domingo Nieto and Manuel de Mendiburu. The goal of this self-proclaimed Constitutionalist Revolution, which began in Tacna on May 17, 1843, was to put an end to the de facto government of the Directory headed by Vivanco and restore legitimate authority, that is, Manuel Menéndez, Gamarra's successor in 1841., in his capacity as president of the Council of State (position equivalent to vice president).

The first victories over the vivanquista forces were obtained in Pachía, near Tacna, on August 29, 1843, and in San Antonio, near Moquegua, on October 28. With generals Domingo Nieto, José Félix Iguaín, and others, Castilla integrated a Provisional Government Junta in Cuzco on September 3 of that year, whose presidency he assumed after the mysterious death of Nieto, since it is not certain if he died of illness or poisoning, on February 17, 1844.

An episode of this war was the so-called Magna Week, in which the prefect of Lima Domingo Elías, until then loyal to Vivanco, rose up against the Directory and organized the defense of the capital against the threat of the Vivanquista forces commanded by by José Rufino Echenique. But this attack did not take place because Felipe Pardo y Aliaga warned Echenique that Vivanco and Castilla were preparing for a final meeting near Arequipa.

In effect, the constitutionalists of Castilla defeated the leadership forces of Vivanco in the battle of Carmen Alto, on July 22, 1844. After a short interim period by Justo Figuerola, on October 7 of the same year he was reestablished in the command Manuel Menéndez, with the mission of making the constitutional transfer of power.

Election of 1845

The most important task of the Menéndez government was holding elections for President of the Republic, senators and representatives (at that time the elections were indirect, through electoral colleges). Manifestly, the popularly favored presidential candidate was Ramón Castilla. Domingo Elías also presented his candidacy, representing the civilians. But the military then had much more power and influence in the population. So Castilla obtained a categorical victory. Congress was installed on April 16, 1845, under the presidency of Manuel Cuadros Loayza, and after reviewing the minutes of the electoral colleges, it proclaimed Castilla the winner (April 19, 1845).

First Constitutional Presidency (1845-1851)

Portrait of Ramón Castilla.

Castilla was sworn in as Constitutional President on April 20, 1845, before the Congress of the Republic, for a six-year term, in accordance with the Constitution of 1839. He ruled until 1851, being the first Peruvian president to completed his term.

His government was moderate and progressive. He carried out a policy of harmony, repealing the expatriation decrees issued against the losers of the Confederation. Even in 1847 he restored their rights, having omitted, from the beginning, also to persecute the supporters of the Vivanco regime; he employed, apart from this, in the posts of the administration competent men.

This first government of Castile meant the following for Peru:

• Institutional stability.
• Ordering the national economy by the budget regime.
• Foreign economic prestige due to cancellation of external debt.
• Relevant international position on the continent.
• Intellectual and material progress.
• Initiation of the development of the Amazon.

Internal order

With this government began the stage that the historian Jorge Basadre has called the "Republican Apogee", a stage of republican history that would culminate in the combat of May 2, 1866, in Callao.

Castilla made a government based on the free play of public institutions, and sustained on his strong personality as a great leader. His government was of order without reaching arbitrariness. He respected the freedom of the press, within the frameworks allowed by law, preventing its overflows. It was also a government of national union. Castilla called on his political rivals to collaborate with his government. Thus, vivanquistas such as Felipe Pardo y Aliaga, José Gregorio Paz Soldán and José Rufino Echenique joined. In any case, there were conspiracies that were severely defeated. When General José Félix Iguaín revolted in August 1848, he was defeated and reduced to prison; and when in February 1849, a new uprising was planned by generals Juan Crisóstomo Torrico and Miguel de San Román, they were taken prisoner and deported.

Economic aspect

In the economic field, Castilla addressed three fundamental points: the reorganization of public finances by the budget regime; the system of consignments for the sale of guano; and the payment of internal and external debts.

Establishment of the National Budget

The Budget is the calculation that a government makes in advance of the income that it will have in a given year; Expenditures or expenses are determined on this calculation. In the successive Constitutions it had been stipulated that the governments had a budget, but due to the continuous political instability this requirement could not be met. However, Emilio Romero, in his Historia Económica del Perú, affirms that the first draft of the budget was made in 1827, although it was not approved by Congress. This situation was definitely changed by Castilla, who on October 21, 1845 and through his Finance Minister Manuel del Río presented the budget for the 1846-47 biennium to the Chamber of Deputies. Although it was not approved by Congress, the government put it into practice, which is why it is considered the first budget of the Republic. It was 5,963,361 pesos as expenses and 4,191,800 as annual income. The first budget that had the approval of Congress was the one for the 1848-49 biennium, promulgated in March 1848. This budget included the amount of 5,322,423 as annual income and 5,315,310 as annual expenses. The list of income was constituted mainly by customs revenues and the contribution of indigenous people. From then on, this important financial instrument of the State was present in parliamentary discussions.

Guano and consignments

Starting in the 1840s, Peru found itself in possession of unexpected wealth: guano from the islands and coasts, the product of the depositions of millions of seabirds. Known for its fertilizing properties since pre-Hispanic times, these were rediscovered at the beginning of the Republic and from 1841 it began to be sold in large quantities to Europe, whose worn-out crop fields urgently needed it. At first, the State delivered these deposits in rented to individuals, who made large profits. Given the profitability of the business, the State annulled these lease contracts and implemented the system called Consignations (1849). Through this system, the State maintained ownership of the guano until its final sale, but entrusted it to a specific firm (the consignee) the extraction, transport and sale of guano. The consignee had to achieve the best possible price for the product; then he deducted from the final sale price all the expenses incurred and a commission, and delivered the difference to the State. This way he received large sums, with which the fiscal box was left comfortable, being used preferably for national defense and to pay external and internal debts. It was a time of economic prosperity for the State, which lasted until 1870 and was known as the Guano Era.

The payment of external and internal debts

When Castilla came to power, Peru had a large internal and external debt that it decided to pay with guano revenues. The internal debt was owed to individuals who had contributed, in kind or in money, in favor of the War of Independence and during subsequent wars and revolutions. The external debt had been contracted by several countries: England and Colombia, contracted during the independence struggle; with Chile, for the expenses of the liberating army of San Martin and the restorative armies; with Spain, as stipulated in the Capitulation of Ayacucho; also with France and the United States. By laws passed in 1847, 1848 and 1850, Castilla ordered the payment of the internal debt, payment which is known as "consolidation of the internal debt", which would originate a tremendous corruption scandal in the next government of Echenique. By a law of 1848, the payment of the external debt was ordered to all countries, with the exception of Spain, which was placed on the condition that it first recognize the independence of Peru. This massive payment of the external debt was a good measure, since this is how international confidence in the country was cemented.

National Defense

Castilla, as a good soldier, put a lot of dedication to national defense, taking into account that Peru bordered four countries, always ready to attack. His prolonged stay in Chile in the days of Portales made him see clearly the danger that being unarmed meant for Peru. Therefore he did the following works:

• He tried to give the army the necessary technical capacity and gave it modern armament. Percussion rifles (which happened to the former spark rifles) were brought in, and the old cannons were replaced with modern larger shells.
• The Central Marine School was reopened for the training of heads and officers of the Navy, based in Bellavista.
• He gave the country an efficient squad, acquiring the frigate Mercedes and the bergantines Guisse and Gamarra. He also acquired the first steam warship that arrived in South America, the Rimac (July 1847) and then acquired another, the frigate Amazonthat came during the next government. It is said that the naval policy of Castilla was summed up in this phrase: "If Chile builds a boat, Peru must build two." Peru became the first naval power in South America.
• He built Paita's naval station.
• He founded the Naval Factory of Bellavista, to attend to the maintenance and repair of the naval units. He also had an armory mastery for the repair of the armament, and a copper and iron casting for the manufacture of cannons. He became the best in South America and would be destroyed by the Chileans in 1881.
• With regard to internal security, the police service was consolidated both on foot and on foot.

As proof of the naval power that Peru had then, a significant event happened: some Peruvian citizens who sent merchant ships to California, in the middle of the gold rush, asked Castilla for protection. The president complied with the request and sent the brig Gamarra, which remained in San Francisco Bay for ten months.

Americanist international politics

José Gregorio Paz Soldán (1808-1862), Peruvian jurist and internationalist. Chancellor of the Republic, under the first government of Ramón Castilla.

Castilla's international policy was aimed at giving Peru the prestige it should have among the countries of America and the world. He mainly understood the following points:

• The decree of 31 July 1846 on the organization of the diplomatic and consular corps, as well as another supplementary decree on attachments to the Legations, was issued. It was the basis of Peruvian legislation on the subject and served as a model for the rest of the American countries. Legations were established in the United States, England, Chile, Bolivia and Ecuador. Consulates were opened in Paris and Brussels. Because of this, Castile is considered the founder of Peruvian diplomacy.
• Castile strongly denounced the preparations for the so-called Expedition Flores, which in 1846 prepared in Spain the general of the Ecuadorian army Juan José Flores, in order to establish in South America a monarchy for a Spanish Bourbon prince. The first American Congress of Foreign Ministers, chaired by the Foreign Minister of Peru, José Gregorio Paz Soldán, attended by the Foreign Ministers of Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and New Granada (Colombia). At that meeting, the principle that any foreign attack on an American country should be considered as an attack on all was laid, and therefore everyone should join the defence. The Flores expedition failed due to the energetic Peruvian attitude.
• Between 1847 and 1848 the first American Congress met in Lima. The purpose of this Congress (chaired by the Peruvian Manuel Bartolomé Ferreyros) was to “establish the foundations of the future peace and security of the peoples of South America”. The international policy of Peru was thus aimed at a sincere and noble American ideal.
• Relations with Bolivia, affected since the 1841 war, were normalized. Although a peace treaty had been signed in 1842, there were still several litigations with that country, particularly of a commercial nature; one of them was the invasion of the Bolivian feble currency (low law) in southern Peru. The representatives of both countries signed the Arequipa Treaty (November 3, 1847), which freed Bolivia to trade through the port of Arica. Bolivia, for its part, promised not to circulate its currency in the Peruvian south.

Educational aspect

Book of Slavery in Peru on the freedom of slaves.

Castilla, advised by experts on the subject, addressed the educational problem that had been abandoned since the founding of the Republic. On June 14, 1850, he gave the first Regulation of Public Instruction, by which the State assumed the direction and administration of education in the country. It also began to separate the three degrees of education that were given in schools, colleges, and universities, although it maintained the existence of the Colegios Mayores, one of which became the Colegio Guadalupe, which maintained the confusion that had existed since the colonial era between secondary and higher education.

It was in this period that higher education had an important development in the schools of San Carlos and Guadalupe, as well as in the Colegio de la Independencia (later the School of Medicine of the University of San Marcos) that under the direction of the Dr. Cayetano Heredia initiated the reform of medical studies in Peru. The Santo Toribio Seminary was also highlighted.

Intellectual aspect

Under the protection of individual freedom, internal order and material progress, ideological struggles gained momentum. This took place between the conservatives, led by the priest Bartolomé Herrera, and the liberals, represented by Benito Laso, Francisco by Paula González Vigil and Pedro Gálvez.

Herrera was rector of the Convictorio de San Carlos, which he turned into the bastion of the conservatives, while the Colegio Guadalupe, directed by the Spaniard Sebastián Lorente, was that of the liberals. One of the Guadalupe professors was the aforementioned Pedro Gálvez (brother of the hero of the Dos de Mayo combat). Interesting debates between conservatives and liberals took place in this way, on various topics, such as the suffrage of the Indians. In 1849, Bartolomé Herrera and Pedro Gálvez were elected deputies, who took the ideological discussions carried out until then from the chair to the parliamentary platform.

Other works

San Juan de Dios station in Lima, from the railway from Lima to Callao, around 1870.

• In 1848 they definitely abolished the majorazgos. At the end of this regression of colonialism, the rise of new people to high social life was allowed, by virtue of the privilege of wealth.
• In the face of the farmers' complaint about the lack of labour in the camps, the Congress passed on November 17, 1849 the General Immigration Act, popularly known as the "Chinese Law", since, in practice, it encouraged the immigration of Chinese or Cuis for agricultural work and the extraction of the island guan. European settlers (Irlands and Germans) also arrived, but in lesser amounts.
• The preparation of republican codes to replace the old Spanish laws that still govern in the country began. A Commission of Jurists was formed to draft the first Civil Code, which was approved by the Congress and began to govern from July 28, 1852, remaining in force until 1936.
• Steam navigation was boosted, started in 1840. The crossing was no longer just from Callao to Valparaiso, but it spread to Panama, increasing the number of steams.
• The first railway in Peru was ordered to be built, which was at the same time the first in South America. He covered the route from Lima to Callao. The construction began on 30 June 1850 and opened on 17 June 1851. There is a discussion that if it was actually the first of the subcontinent. It is said that a railway from the British Guiana is actually the oldest in the continent, the same one that was delivered to the traffic in 1849. It is certain that Lima al Callao was the first to perform the cargo and passenger service in the Hispanic South America, as well as the first in the southern hemisphere. Chile inaugurated its first railway in December 1851; Brazil in 1854, and Argentina in 1857.
• The mail service was reorganized, giving it due security and guarantee.
• The first mechanical loom was implanted in 1847, the same as the serial manufacturing of the first yarns and cotton fabrics.
• Bujía factories, sulfuric acid, crystals and paper were created. The first paper factory was installed by the owners of the newspaper Trade from Lima.
• The Central Market of Lima was built, which replaced the ancient and unhealthy merchants.
• Drinking water services were installed with iron pipes in the ports of Callao, Arica and Islay.
• The Police, Public Benefit and Statistics Regulations were issued.
• Churches, hospitals, schools, markets, customs, barracks, prefectures, roads and bridges were built throughout the Republic.
• The remains of Presidents José de La Mar and Agustín Gamarra were repatriated.

Election of 1851

For the 1851 elections, Castilla sponsored the candidacy of General José Rufino Echenique, with the support of conservative sectors. Other important candidates were General Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, supported by the conservatives; and Domingo Elías, civilian, founder of the Progressive Club, supported by businessmen and liberal intellectuals. Generals Antonio Gutiérrez de La Fuente, Miguel de San Román and Pedro Pablo Bermúdez also nominated.

Echenique triumphed in this election, which according to historian Jorge Basadre was the first true electoral process in the republican history of Peru, although with serious indications of bad maneuvers.

Echenique was given command on April 20, 1851 and his management somehow became the extension of the first government of Castilla, but he found himself involved in the scandal of the consolidation (or cancellation) of the internal debt, in from which his relatives and friends benefited financially, being the first scandalous case of corruption in republican Peru.

The Liberal Revolution of 1854

Raising the repudiation of the consolidation scandal as a flag, the civil leader Domingo Elías rose up in Ica, but was defeated by the government forces in the battle of Saraja, on January 7, 1854. This event was immediately followed the uprising in Arequipa, in whose manifesto the government was accused of indolence in the face of the outrages inflicted by the Bolivian government. Castilla led the rebellion, displacing Vivanco and counting on the support of the young liberal leaders Pedro Gálvez Egúsquiza and Manuel Toribio Ureta. Domingo Elías, General Miguel de San Román and General Fermín del Castillo also joined the rebellion. This insurrection was a great popular movement that led to a very prolonged and costly civil war for the country.

During the fighting, Castilla declared himself provisional president; in Ayacucho he decreed the definitive abolition of indigenous tribute (July 5, 1854); then he defeated Echenique's forces in Izcuchaca, immediately marching to Huancayo where he signed the historic decree abolishing slavery in Peru (December 3, 1854). The definitive victory of the revolution was consummated on the outskirts of Lima, in the battle of La Palma, where Echenique's troops were defeated (January 5, 1855). The next day violence and panic broke out in Lima, where the houses of the "consolidated" were assaulted.

Provisional Presidency (1855-1858)

Sculpture of Ramón Castilla in the Plazoleta de la Merced (Jirón de la Unión, opposite the Basilica of La Merced).

After the battle of La Palma, a provisional government was installed in Lima with Castilla as President, and the liberals Pedro Gálvez, Manuel Toribio Ureta and Domingo Elías as ministers, plus General Miguel de San Román who held the Ministry of War. An important measure was the decree of March 25, 1855, signed by Castilla and Pedro Gálvez in the city of Huancayo, which announced the absolute freedom in communication of thought through the printing press; great advance that was added to the important liberal decrees of the abolition of slavery and the contribution of indigenous people.

But the first and most important measure that the government took was to call elections for the meeting of a National Convention or Congress, whose purpose would be to reform the Constitution. For the first time, elections were called with direct and universal suffrage: direct, since the Electoral Colleges would not be elected, but directly the representatives of the new Congress; and universal, because all Peruvians would vote without any limitation, regardless of being illiterate or having no fortune. However, elections for President were not called.

After the elections, the National Convention was installed on July 14, 1855 and ratified Castilla as Provisional President. Once his government was installed, Castilla, with an authoritarian temperament, separated from his liberal ministers and summoned his friends. Thus began the break with the liberals.

The Liberal Constitution of 1856

The Constitution of the Peruvian Republic (1856). This constitution was promulgated by President Ramón Castilla.

At the National Convention a tense dispute arose between the liberal majority and the conservative minority in favor of Castilla. The most notable of the liberal tribunes was José Gálvez Egúsquiza, brother of Pedro Gálvez. The Convention, in addition to functioning as a constituent assembly, exercised the Legislative Power in its entirety, dictating laws of a permanent nature and also of circumstances. Finally, after great debates, in October 1856 the discussion of the new Constitution, which was to replace the Conservative Constitution of 1839, was finished.

The Constitution of 1856, of a liberal tendency, limited the powers of the executive power, establishing the vacancy of the Presidency of the Republic for attempting against the form of government or dissolving Congress. It established that the presidential term would last four years and not six years as in the previous Constitution; created the Council of Ministers; it abolished personal privileges, abolished the death penalty; established direct popular suffrage for all citizens who knew how to read and write; he reestablished the Departmental Boards and the Municipalities. The liberals failed to impose freedom of worship, and the State continued to protect the Catholic religion, not allowing the exercise of other cults, but ecclesiastical ties and privileges were suppressed, as well as tithes and scoops.

President Castilla swore to this Constitution, which was promulgated on October 19, 1856, but expressed his disagreement with it, especially due to the decrease in the powers of the president, thus increasing the situation of confrontation between the government and Congress.

The Convention was dissolved on November 2, 1857 by a patrol of soldiers under the command of Colonel Pablo Arguedas, while Castilla was engaged in the siege of Arequipa, in the context of the civil war that broke out the previous year. Although Castilla condemned this act, it was evident that such a situation suited him, so much so that once he returned to Lima, he did not reinstate the parliament.

Civil War of 1856-1858

The conservatives, unhappy with the prevailing liberal regime, rallied around General Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco and rose up against the government.

The rebellion broke out in Arequipa on October 31, 1856, where the recently proclaimed Constitution was burned in a public act. From there it spread to Moquegua, Ayacucho and Piura. The squadron joined the movement; Among the rebellious sailors were Miguel Grau and Lizardo Montero. Taking advantage of their command of the sea, the revolutionaries headed north, but failed in their attempt to revolt that part of Peru. Then, they headed for Callao, disembarking and attacking the population on April 22, 1857, an attack that was rejected by the Chalaco people. As a reward for this act, Callao received the name of Constitutional Province, for having defended the constitutional government.

Arequipa's assault from 6 to 7 March 1858.

The rebellion was confined to Arequipa, with little chance of victory. However, the Arequipa people decided to resist. To lay siege to the city, the government forces left Puno under the orders of General Miguel de San Román. The Arequipa people organized themselves, forming battalions and building defenses. In the outskirts of the city, bloody encounters took place. One of them, which took place in Yumina, on June 28, 1857, was considered a triumph by the vivanquistas, although they failed to break the siege that the government supporters placed on them. Castilla decided to personally take command of the army and arrived at the theater of operations by sea; and after joining the forces of San Román, he laid siege to Arequipa.

Finally, after eight months of siege, Castilla ordered the attack on Arequipa. It began on the night of March 5, 1858 and resumed the next day, being very bloody. The people, entrenched in San Antonio, Santa Rosa and Santa Marta, fought tenaciously. In the famous Malakoff Fort, the poet Benito Bonifaz heroically succumbed. There were entire battalions, such as the so-called Immortal Columns, that did not surrender and were annihilated. In the Santa Rosa ditch, blood ran like water. At 11:30 a.m. on March 6, the Castilian army met in the Plaza de Armas of Arequipa, thus culminating in the fight. The rebellion was defeated. Vivanco fled to Chile.

Second Constitutional Presidency (1858-1862)

Ramon Castilla's presidential band.

Election of 1858

Although Vivanco's rebellion failed, his intention, that is, to end the influence of the liberals in government decisions, ended up prevailing. The Convention, dissolved in November 1857, was not reconvened and even the main liberal leaders were sent into exile.

Castilla called elections for an Extraordinary Congress and for the election of the Constitutional President of the Republic, since he was only provisional President. He presented himself as a candidate. For their part, important liberal leaders such as Benito Laso, Francisco Javier Mariátegui, José Gálvez Egúsquiza, Francisco de Paula González Vigil and José Gregorio Paz Soldán, organized and launched the candidacy of General José Miguel Medina. After the elections, Castilla won. The new Congress was installed on October 12, 1858 and proclaimed Castilla Constitutional President, for a four-year term.

New Congressional Election (1859)

The Extraordinary Congress suspended its sessions in May 1859, announcing its reinstatement as Ordinary Congress for July of the same year. But the government thwarted that initiative, decreeing elections for new representatives, who would meet the following year. Castilla argued in this regard that Congress, by attempting to convene itself, had made an anti-constitutional decision, since only the Executive was competent to convene it. However, he spread the version that in reality, Castilla had found out that Congress intended to vacate him and that is why he made such a decision.

One of the most notable controversies that took place in the 1858-59 Congress was the debate on the abolition of the death penalty, a principle that had already been established in the 1856 Constitution. which was supported by the government of Castilla (some authors attribute the merit of carrying out this reform to Castilla).

The Moderate Constitution of 1860

In his second government, Ramón Castilla preferred to surround himself with moderate advisers who helped to appease the political upheaval of the time.

The liberal Constitution of 1856 had not satisfied the country. The Congress of 1860, elected in the new elections called by Castilla, arrogated the power of Constituent Assembly, proceeding quickly to discuss and reform the Constitution. Great debates ensued. Bartolomé Herrera, who presided over the Congress, was once again the leader of the conservatives. On the liberal side, the absence of the Gálvez brothers was noted.

The new Constitution was promulgated on November 13, 1860. It was neither liberal nor conservative, but moderate. It restored the death penalty, but only for cases of qualified homicide; prohibited presidential re-election; restored the indirect voting system; the division of Congress into two chambers (senators and representatives) was clearly defined; it established the minimum age of 25 years to be a deputy and 30 to be a senator; he respected the Municipalities; and established the primacy of the Catholic religion over other cults. This Constitution, more sensible and realistic than the previous ones, has been the one that has governed the longest in Peru, since it was maintained until 1920.

A group of liberals who remained in Lima plotted various plots against Castilla. On July 25, 1860, a muffled horseman tried to assassinate Castilla in the Plaza Mayor in Lima, only managing to wound him with a shot in the arm. And on November 28 of the same year, several armed civilians and a part of the Lima battalion (which was tricked out of its headquarters) attacked the president's home located on the corner of Divorciadas and Higueras streets; but the troops reacted and the attack was repelled.

Guano boom

Garnish in the Chincha Islands, 1866.

In 1857 all records were broken in the sale of guano: it came to represent 83% of all state revenue. Guano became practically the only support of the State. Then began the problems with the consignees, who made large profits. As the public treasury was always in need of money, the consignees advanced loans to the State on account of the guano that they would exploit in the future, with high interests, which in the long run would bring economic ruin to the country, since guano was only wealth. passenger. But for the time being, Peru was enjoying the income from guano.

At the heights of 1860, Peru exported, in addition to guano, saltpeter from Tarapacá, borax, silver, and wool. Instead, it imported food, clothing, furniture, and luxury items such as silks, wines, and liquors.

Chinese workers (coolies) continued to be allowed in to exploit guano through "el enganche". The first to bring Chinese to Peru was Domingo Elías.

The educational work

Castilla promulgated on April 7, 1855 a new Regulation of Public Instruction, which would remain in force until the government of Manuel Pardo y Lavalle (1872-76). This Regulation adequately structured the educational system, providing that public instruction had three grades: the popular, the average and the superior. Thus, the lack of definition that existed in this field ended, since until then secondary education had not been differentiated from higher education.

Under the concept of popular instruction were the schools of first letters, those of arts and crafts, those of childhood and the normal school. The State proposed to massify it and make it free for the poor. The construction of school premises was planned, but since the necessary resources were not available, this reform remained mostly on paper.

Middle or secondary education was considered a stage of expansion and improvement of popular education for those who wished to pursue liberal or scientific careers. It was also contemplated that it was free for the poor. The Guadalupe School was incorporated into this plan, and stopped providing higher education, to concentrate only on secondary education, as it has been doing until today.

Regarding university education, it was considered that the University was an organic whole made up of five Faculties: Theology, Medicine, Jurisprudence, Philosophy and Letters, and Natural Sciences and Mathematics. It was decided that the former Residence Halls, as they correspond to these faculties, would be incorporated into the University. But it happened that neither the University of San Marcos nor the Convictorio de San Carlos (to whose structure the last three faculties corresponded) fully accepted the reform and clung to their former privileges. Only years later, in 1866, this reform was completed, and the Carolina convictorio became the Faculty of Humanities and Law of the University of San Marcos.

Americanist politics

Castilla's international policy, in this second government, as had already happened in the first, was inspired by a deep feeling of American solidarity, and by a conscience always attentive to the pride of the homeland and the dignity of the nation. At that time, the great European powers intervened in some independent countries of America and Castile's policy was to vigorously oppose those claims by calling for American unity. Let's see some aspects of this policy.

• Following the spirit of the American union affirmed at the Congress of Lima of 1847, the minister of Peru in Chile, Cipriano Coronel Zegarra, signed in Santiago de Chile a continental treaty of defensive alliance (15 September 1856). In addition to Peru, they signed this treaty Chile and Ecuador.
• It was signed in Washington on November 19, 1856, under the leadership of the Peruvian diplomatic representative Juan Ignacio de Osma, a project of American alliance and confederation, between Peru, Mexico, New Granada, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Guatemala and El Salvador (which were all the Latin American representatives accredited in the US capital), to deal with European aggressions.
• He helped Nicaragua and Costa Rica, with money and diplomatic efforts, cope with the invasion of the U.S. filibuster William Walker (1856). To that end, a diplomatic mission chaired by Pedro Gálvez Egúsquiza was sent to Central America.
• He strongly protested against the reinstatement of Santo Domingo to the Spanish monarchy as Protectorado (1861). The Dominicans were supported in their fight against the invaders, inviting the American countries to a joint action against the Spanish occupation.
• He protested against the Franco-Spanish aggression against Mexico in 1861 and sent a diplomatic mission chaired by Manuel Nicolás Corpancho, to lend all possible support to the Mexican people and the government of Benito Juárez. When Napoleon III decided to install in Mexico a throne for Maximilian Austria, Corpancho, on behalf of Peru, strongly protested and openly supported the Juarez government, so the usurper government forced him out of Mexico. Corpancho died tragically during his return trip to Peru, when the ship he was travelling in the Gulf of Mexico was set on fire.
• He protested in 1861 against the project of Ecuadorian President Gabriel García Moreno to turn his country into a French protectorate.

Development of the Amazon

Statue in honor of Castile in the homonymous square located in Iquitos, a city that greatly benefited from its policies.

Castilla was interested in the development of the Peruvian Amazon, thus continuing the policy that he began in his first government. To this end, it was of vital importance to obtain free navigation in the Amazon from Brazil in order to achieve an exit to the Atlantic Ocean, since the Commerce and Navigation Convention of 1851 had not granted such a benefit. After slow and laborious diplomatic work, the goal was achieved by signing the River Convention with Brazil on February 22, 1858.

Once free navigation in the Amazon was achieved, Castilla was concerned about the development of the region, for which he gave the following measures:

• It created the Litoral Province of Loreto (January 2, 1857) which later became the Maritime and Military Department of Loreto (January 7, 1861). Later, in 1866, under the government of Mariano Ignacio Prado, it became the Fluvial Department, and in 1868 it was under the definitive category of Department.
• It bought a fluvial flotilla composed of ships Morona, Pastaza, Napo and Putumayo to patrol the Amazon rivers.
• He created the river apostoadero of Iquitos, located in what until then was a village of huts, and that began to develop to become an important city of the Peruvian east, true human feat created in the middle of the jungle.

National Defense

The frigate Amazon.

• The frigate Amazon He made a trip around the world. He left the Callao on October 26, 1856, in command of José Boterín. It crossed the Pacific, bordered the coast of China, crossed the strait of Singapore, reached Calcutta where it remained for four months in repairs; then it circumnavigated the eastern and southern coast of Africa, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, headed north, arrived to the island of St. Helena, passed near the Azores Islands, until it reached Europe, anchoring in London. He then entered South America; he went to Rio de Janeiro, went further south to bend the Strait of Magellan, and continued to the coast of Chile, stopping in Talcahuano, from where he came to Peru, playing Arica, and finally to Callao, where he arrived on May 29, 1858. It was born more than 40 000 miles in 308 days and remained 272 days in port.
• The armour of the army was improved in its three fields: infantry, cavalry and artillery, adapting it to modern technique. Colonel Francisco Bolognesi was sent to Europe for the purchase of striped cannons, rifles and other military implements.
• The Military College was reorganized, leading to the preparation of military and civilian engineers.
• Shoe brigades were introduced into the army.

War with Ecuador

In 1857, Ecuador entered into an agreement with its British creditors awarding them, in payment, the territories of Quijos and Canelos, which in the opinion of the government of Peru belonged to it, based on the Royal Decree of 1802. After several exchanges of notes, the situation she tensed up. The Ecuadorian Foreign Ministry requested the withdrawal of Peruvian Minister Juan Celestino Cavero from Quito. Diplomatic relations were broken. Congress authorized Castilla to use all means in order to achieve satisfaction on the part of Ecuador, including war.

The first measure that Castilla took was to decree the peaceful blockade of the entire Ecuadorian coast (October 26, 1858). Guayaquil began to suffer the ravages of the siege, for which the general commander of that place, General Guillermo Franco, agreed to sign an armistice with the head of the Peruvian fleet, Vice Admiral Ignacio Mariátegui (August 20, 1859). Shortly after, Castilla approved the suspension of the blockade of the entire Ecuadorian coast, in order to facilitate an agreement with the Ecuadorian government.

But it happened that Ecuador entered a period of political anarchy, before the beginning of a civil war in which four provisional governments were established: a triumvirate in Quito, presided over by Gabriel García Moreno, a supreme leadership in Guayaquil, the commanded by Guillermo Franco and which dominated the entire coast, a puppet government of Franco in Cuenca and a federal government in the province of Loja, under the command of Manuel Carrión.

The problem posed to Castilla was that, since there was not a single fully legitimate government in Ecuador, it was not possible to start talks, since there was a risk that one faction would invalidate what the other accepted. Castilla then prepared a naval and military expedition against Ecuador, and on September 29, 1859, he embarked himself. He left Dr. Juan Manuel del Mar in power in Lima.

The Peruvian navy was made up of 15 ships, which transported six thousand soldiers. Since Castilla's purpose was not to humiliate Ecuador or to seize territory, he sent a note to each of the heads of the Ecuadorian factions, giving them 30 days to come to an understanding and form a legitimate government; should this not occur, he announced his intention to resume military operations.

Anonymous painting of the centuryXIXwhich represents the taking of Guayaquil by the Peruvian forces in 1860.

When the term expired and since the internal conflict in Ecuador had not been resolved, the Peruvian squadron appeared in Guayaquil on November 12, 1859, without firing a fire. The defenders of the port wanted to negotiate and Castilla demanded that his troops be allowed to disembark, which was accepted. Peruvian troops took possession of the heights of Mapasingue (November 25), from where Guayaquil and its approaches were dominated. As the governments of Guayas, Azuay and Loja came to be momentarily unified under the command of Franco, Castilla decided to agree with this chief, rather than with García Moreno, who had the government of Quito and a large part of the Ecuadorian highlands.

Thus, with the authorization of Franco, the Peruvian troops entered Guayaquil on January 7, 1860, without having to fire a shot. On January 25, Castilla signed the Mapasingue Treaty with the Franco government, in which, essentially, Ecuador recognized the validity of the Royal Decree of 1802, and therefore Peruvian sovereignty over the territories of Quijos and Canelos; it declared null and void the allotment of territories made to its English creditors and it was established that within a period of two years, a Commission specially appointed by the two countries would proceed to mark the limits between both States. Castilla did not want to be implacable or fierce with Ecuador and before leaving, he gave the Francoist army uniforms, shoes and rifles.

Nevertheless, Franco was not the legitimate ruler of Ecuador, but merely a secessionist dictator in Guayaquil, and he was defeated by the troops of the Quito government, headed by García Moreno, on September 26, 1860. This government disapproved of the treaty of Mapasingue on April 8, 1861. The Peruvian government had no reaction to this fact, because it sensed that the opinion of its citizens was against the war, apart from the fact that the attention of the foreign ministry was on other matters, such as a possible war with Bolivia and European threats to the continent. The Peruvian Congress, already in the government of Miguel de San Román, was in charge of disapproving the Treaty of Mapasingue, in 1863.

The problem with Ecuador would continue for much longer, becoming a hundred-year-old issue. In Peru Castilla has been reproached for not having given him a solution then, having everything in his favor to do so. The continuous border problems between the two countries would give rise to a new Peruvian-Ecuadorian war in 1941, known as the War of '41.

Other important works and events

Lima Penitentiary Building, considered the most solid in the capital. Photo of 1875.

• In compliance with the Constitution of 1856, and by law of 4 December 1856, the Council of Ministers was first organized in the republican history of Peru. Although since the founding of the Republic there was a body of ministers who made their decisions according to the President, their role had not yet been formalized and regulated. Ministers were to be five: Foreign Affairs; Government, Worship and Public Works; Justice, Instruction and Benefit; War and Navy; and Finance and Trade. One of them was to serve as president of the Council of Ministers (the equivalent of Prime Minister or Prime Minister).
• The Public Works Directorate was established to centralize and promote such work and to monitor the conduct of State engineers.
• The installation of the gas light was completed in Lima (1855), this being the first city in South America that had such lighting.
• Drinking water service was opened in Lima (1857).
• The Benemérita Sociedad Fundadores de la Independencia was founded in 1857 and President Ramón Castilla was appointed as his first born president.
• The telegraphic service was established between Lima and Callao (1855), which was the first line established in South America.
• The railway from Lima to Chorrillos (1858), the second from Lima and the third from the country, whose station in Lima was in the former convent of the Incarnation, was inaugurated.
• The Central Penitentiary of Lima was built under the direction of Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán. Conceived as a workplace and refurbishment, it was inaugurated by the president himself on July 23, 1862, and for a long time it was the most solid building in the capital. He stood for a century, until he was demolished in 1961. Several prisons were also built in the interior of the country.
• The quays of Callao, Chorrillos, Pisco and Paita were built, and the Callao floating dam.
• The Company of Firefighters Volunteer Union Chalaca No. 1, the first of its kind in South America (1860).
• The first Carriage Regulation was issued.
• The e-mail system was improved, the franking was established with stamps or "sports of francs" (1857).
• The monuments to Simon Bolivar and Christopher Columbus were opened in Lima.
• The Lima Trade Exchange was installed.
• The National Club was founded on 19 October 1855.

Ramón Castilla in 1864.

• The Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure were promulgated on 1 October 1862 to govern from the following year. These codes replaced the old Spanish criminal law.
• By law of May 24, 1861, the country ' s census was carried out, totalling 2 487 916 inhabitants in 1862.
• Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán was commissioned in 1860 to prepare the General Map of Peru. Paz Soldán presented a draft and then traveled to Europe to record it, with the accuracy and perfection required. He also took care of the book edition Geography of Peruof his brother Mateo Paz Soldán.
• Two departments were set up: Cajamarca (by decree of 11 February 1855 and ratified by law of 30 September 1862); and Piura (by law of 30 March 1861), both degaged from the department of La Libertad.
• Intellectual life and, in particular, legal studies were enriched, with the appearance in 1860 of two books: Dictionary of the Peruvian Legislation of Francisco García Calderón Landa, and Civil Law Treaty Toribio Pacheco and Rivero.

The Elections of 1862

At the end of the second government of Castilla, a stubborn electoral struggle was looming between three candidates: Marshal Miguel de San Román, General Juan Antonio Pezet and Dr. Juan Manuel del Mar; the first had official government support. But the fight was extinguished when Del Mar died, victim of a sudden illness, and when Pezet decided to accompany San Román as a candidate for the first vice presidency. The liberals also supported San Román.

After the elections, San Román was elected as president; General Pezet was elected as First Vice President, and General Pedro Diez Canseco as Second Vice President.

Charged Commander (1863)

Efigie de Ramón Castilla en el Panteón de los Próceres en Lima.

President Miguel de San Román had an ephemeral government, as he died on April 3, 1863, barely six months into his term. On an interim basis, Castilla again assumed command of the Nation, since neither of the two vice presidents were then in Lima. He was given such a commission, because he was the highest ranking officer in the army.

Many feared that Castilla would take advantage of the occasion to perpetuate itself in power, but as soon as Pedro Diez Canseco (the second vice president) returned, on April 9, he handed over command. So he was only in power for a few days. Diez Canseco also held power temporarily, due to the absence of the first vice president, Juan Antonio Pezet, who had traveled to Europe for health reasons. Four months later, Pezet returned and assumed the presidency on August 5; according to the Constitution, the period of San Román had to end.

Last years

In 1864, Castilla was elected senator for Tarapacá and president of its chamber; from that position he condemned the international policy of the Pezet government regarding the aggression of the Spanish Pacific squadron. He personally went to the Government Palace to rebuke Pezet quite harshly, for which he was arrested and sent into exile, being taken to the beaches of Gibraltar, in February 1865. But this measure did not favor the government, as Pezet ended up being overthrown, thanks precisely to the revolutionary spark that Castilla left lit, which would give rise to figures belonging to the second generation after independence. In his absence, the battle of Dos de Mayo of 1866 took place, the last action of the Spanish fleet in Peruvian waters, which was celebrated as a victory by Peru and its South American allies.

Upon his return to Peru, on May 17, 1866, Castilla was honored in Lima, on which occasion he said at the moment of raising the glass: «I toast, gentlemen, to the old who won independence and to the young that on May 2 they knew how to consolidate it." But he opposed President Mariano Ignacio Prado and was deported to Chile; From there, already in his seventies, he rebelled in defense of the moderate Constitution of 1860, which the government was trying to replace with the liberal Constitution of 1867. He disembarked in Pisagua (port of Tarapacá, then Peruvian territory) with a small escort, returning to Peru with the purpose of leading the revolution. He undertook a journey by land to the city of Arica, but with very poor health and overwhelmed by the scorching heat, he died in the Tiliviche Valley on May 30, 1867. His last words were a prayer raised to the Supreme Being: "Lord One more month of life and I will have made my country happy. No, a few more days."

Offspring

Doña Francisca Diez Canseco de Castilla, wife of President Ramón Castilla.

Married to Francisca Diez-Canseco y Corbacho, a lady from Arequipa, daughter of General Manuel José Diez-Canseco Nieto and sister of Francisco and Pedro Diez Canseco Corbacho, soldiers and politicians. He had no offspring in her. However, he had three recognized natural children (two before marriage and one during their marriage), and some point out that there were three other unrecognized children.

The three recognized children he had before his marriage to Francisca were the following:

• The first, Manuel Castilla Cárdenas, born in 1825, was the result of his relationship with María de Cárdenas Rivera. This Manuel married in 1850 with Francisca Sotomayor and produced a son, Baldomero. Through the eldest son of Baldomero, Damasus Castilla Loayza, the direct descent of the Marshal continues to the present day.
• The second, Federico Castilla, born in 1833 product of his relations with Francisca Villegas. He became captain of the Peruvian navy and suddenly died of a disease on May 31, 1860, leaving a three-month-old baby, the result of his marriage to Dominga Irribarren. The girl died also a few years later.
• The third, Juan Castilla, born in 1851 of his relationship with Carolina Colichón. Since the four years (possibly because of his mother's marriage) he lived in Francisca's house, who raised him as a son. As a teenager, Juan went to London, Paris and Madrid to study, and graduated from a book holder (what is now called an accountant). When Castile died in 1867, John was in London and Francisca made a huge effort to keep his studies. In 1870 he returned to Peru and dedicated himself to business. When the war broke out with Chile, he joined in the defense of Lima, and as the chief assistant of Colonel César Canevaro, he died in the battle of San Juan and Chorrillos, on January 13, 1881.

In addition, Castilla and his wife raised two nieces as their adopted daughters: María Mercedes and María de los Ángeles Diez Canseco de Olazábal. They were the daughters of Manuel Diez Canseco Corbacho, Francisca's brother. Castilla married them to two of his secretaries: Mercedes to Dr. Manuel Yrigoyen Arias, who became a brilliant diplomat, and Angelita to Captain Manuel Velarde Seoane. The family that stood out the most was that of the Irigoyen Diez Canseco, which has lasted until today.

Effigy of Castile

Monument to Mariscal Ramón Castilla, Plaza Chile, Buenos Aires.

In his work History of the Republic of Peru, the historian Jorge Basadre makes a memorable effigy of the Grand Marshal Ramón Castilla, which we will now extract.

Ramón Castilla is, in short, the best of the first fifty years of the Peruvian Republic. He is that figure that everyone calls taita (father), the liberator of the black, the redeemer of the Indian, a very simple man from the people, and who came with his name deep inside the crowds. A patriot to the letter, his love for Peru was not only "palanganada" (bragging), but he more than demonstrated it in practice, as a military man and ruler. He knew how to be a leader and a statesman at the same time, and brought order and prosperity to the State, for this reason, shouting "Long live Castilla!" people were going to kill each other, and at the same cry revolutions were made and undone until the very day of his death.

But this same caudillo and statesman, who had to govern in the midst of the economic prosperity of the guano that enriched so many, died poor and with debts, and for this reason the poet Carlos Augusto Salaverry said:

The pen of history will say one day,
When his scepter the truth recovers:
"He was as patriotic as he could,
And though the gold spread to its plants,
The people blessed him: he died poor. "

“Reading his biography one can exclaim: "Here you learn to succeed". Before the victor of Barón, Yungay, Intiorco, Cuevillas, Pachía, San Antonio, Carmen Alto, Izcuchaca, La Palma, Arequipa, Mapasingue, it is worth saying: Here is a Peruvian warrior whose exaltation can be done without lamentations of "yaraví"». (Basadre).

The house of Castile

Already as president, Castilla had two houses in Lima: one in Chorrillos, probably on Calle del Tren, and another on Calle Divorciadas e Higueras (current intersection of shredded Cuzco and Carabaya). The first was totally destroyed by Chilean barbarism during the Pacific War, while the second survives to the present day, albeit in precarious conditions, awaiting restoration. It is an old colonial house dating from the 17th century. Castilla acquired it in 1850, from the estate of Mariano de la Puente, for 20,000 pesos. After Castilla's death, her widow Francisca Diez Canseco, overwhelmed by her husband's debts, sold the property for 30,000 pesos. After passing through a series of owners, it was acquired by the State, going into the hands of the INC (currently the Ministry of Culture).

Tributes

La Tomba del Mariscal Ramón Castilla, in the Pantheon of the Proceres in Lima.

Efigie of bronze by Ramón Castilla, in the Plazoleta de La Merced in Lima.

By a law approved in the Congress of the Republic on June 25, 1867, it was established that the Executive Branch make the necessary provisions for the funerals of Castilla, which would be held in Lima. The government of Colonel Mariano Ignacio Prado (against whom he had revolted) ordered the spending of 16,000 soles on the Mariscal's mausoleum, which was to bear the inscription: "Peru to the Great Mariscal Ramón Castilla". A congressional commission attended the funeral, and her widow, Dona Francisca Diez Canseco, was assigned a montepío as if her husband had died in garrison. The death of Castilla caused a deep repercussion throughout the country and paralyzed for some time the offensive of opponents of the government, prior to the outbreak of the revolution that overthrew the government of Mariano Ignacio Prado.

Apart from that sumptuous mausoleum erected in the Presbítero Maestro Cemetery, it took a long time for a monument worthy of the memory of the Great Mariscal to be erected in the center of Lima. The first was inaugurated in 1915, in the Plazoleta de La Merced (Jirón de la Unión, in front of the Basilica of La Merced), and was the work of the Lima sculptor David Lozano. This monument, of modest dimensions, represents a pedestrian effigy of Castilla, in a simple attitude.

On December 9, 1940, Argentine Army Lieutenant Colonel Raúl Aguirre Molina delivered the following speech while presenting a commemorative plaque to the Castilla monument in Lima:

In my land, in its most beautiful atmosphere, that of the gauchos, a Creole conquers fame and named, when in the fair campers, not being able to master the ferocity of the redomon, the rider falls to the ground with the reins in his hand. Castile sublimized the feat. When his trumpet of orders touched Stop! At the end of the day, the chief standing on the ground, supported his head on the chest of his assistant, and, as a good soldier of cavalry, he died with the reins in his hand.

The great representative monument had to wait longer. In 1967, when celebrating the centenary of the death of Castilla, the Plaza Unión (located at the crossroads formed by Avenidas Alfonso Ugarte, Argentina and Emancipación) was chosen as the place where the equestrian statue of the Grand Marshal was to be erected, whose execution was He commissioned the sculptor from Pisqueño José Luis Peña y Peña. The architect Fernando Belaúnde Terry was then President of the Republic and doctor Luis Bedoya Reyes mayor of Lima. The monument was inaugurated in 1969 and the name of said public space was changed to Plaza Castilla, but it is a name rarely used today.