Rain forest
The rainforest, equatorial or tropical humid forest is the jungle or dense forest with a tropical climate that is characterized by high rainfall (2,000 to 5,000 mm per year) and a high average temperature. They are rainforests that are located near the Earth's equator, in South America, Africa, the islands of Southeast Asia and Melanesia, also reaching southeastern Mexico, Central America, Madagascar, Indochina and northeastern Australia. It represents the true and most widely known concept of the jungle.
Of the 3 types of tropical forest, the tropical forest is the largest and most important ecosystem. Its vegetation is made up of evergreen and broad leaf species. Epiphytic species are common. It is an ecosystem with a great wealth and variety of species and of great interest because its biodiversity is a source of many resources: food, medicines, substances of industrial interest. Although they occupy less than 7% of the surface of the emerged lands, they contain more than 50% (according to some scientists this percentage would rise to more than 90%) of the world's animal and plant species. One hectare of tropical rainforest can contain more than 600 tree species.
The soil of these forests is very poor compared to the wealth of life it supports, since most of the nutrients are found in living things and not in the soil. When this ecosystem is destroyed, by logging or fire, its recovery is very difficult because the bare soil becomes crusty and hard, undergoing a laterization process. The poor soils of these forests are not suitable for agriculture, because in three or four harvests they lose their nutrients.
General information
Rainforests can be characterized in two words: hot and humid. Average monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm (66 in) and can exceed 10 m (390 in). It is generally between 1,750 mm (69 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). This high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients into the soil.
Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity. About 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are home to half of all living animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests. A single hectare of rainforest can contain 42,000 different species of insects, up to 807 trees of 313 species, and 1,500 species of higher plants. Rainforests have been calls the " largest pharmacy in the world ", because more than a quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them. There are probably millions of species of plants, insects, and microorganisms yet to be discovered in tropical forests.
Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity. Habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, rapid human-driven habitat destruction is suspected to be a leading cause of species extinction. Tropical rainforests have been subject to logging and agricultural clearing throughout the XX century, and the area covered by rainforests all over the world is rapidly declining.
History
Rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most of today's tropical rainforests are located on fragments of the Mesozoic-era supercontinent of Gondwana. Landmass separation resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity, while at the same time the drier climate stimulated diversification of the reptiles. The split left rainforests located in five major regions of the world: tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and New Guinea, with smaller outliers in Australia. However, details of the origin of the rainforests remain uncertain. due to an incomplete fossil record.
Other types of tropical forest
Various biomes may appear similar or blend through ecotones with the rainforest.
Seasonally moist tropical forest
Wet seasonal tropical forests generally receive high rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season, which is why they are sometimes called 'tropical mixed forest'. They are found in parts of South America, Central America, and the Caribbean, off the coast of West Africa in parts of the Indian subcontinent, and in much of Indochina.
Rainforests to mountains
These are found in mountainous areas of cooler climates, and are known as cloud forests at higher elevations. Depending on the latitude, the lower limit of rainforests is generally between 1,500 and 2,500 m, while the upper limit is generally between 2,400 and 3,300 m.
Flooded tropical rainforests
Tropical freshwater swamp forests, or "flooded forests," are found in the Amazon Basin (Várzea) and elsewhere.
Varzea Tropical Forest
Along the Amazon River and many of its tributaries, high annual rainfall that occurs mostly in a rainy season causes extensive seasonal flooding of areas from river and river discharge. The result is a water level rise of 10–15 m (33–49 ft), with nutrient-rich water.
Climate
The typical tropical forest is rainy (pluvisilva), has an equatorial climate (type Af) or monsoonal (Am) and is characterized by a warm climate throughout the year and with a daily range of temperature greater than the seasonal range. Likewise, the lengths of the days are essentially the same throughout the year. Precipitation is seasonal, but rarely becomes so dry that it manifests as drought; there may be one or more relatively dry (less than 1,500 mm) months in almost all parts of this zone, and only some areas are truly wet year-round. The wet and dry seasons are associated with the movement of the "thermal equator" around the geographic equator. There are usually two rainy seasons per year near the equator, as the sun passes over each of the equinoxes, but only one at latitudes far from the equator. Strong winds are associated with storms and the dry season, but calm winds prevail most of the year.
The temperatures are not extreme, the maximum can be 35 °C, but they are constant. The average annual temperature is between 25 and 27 °C. The difference between the coldest month and the warmest is less than 2 °C. Rainfall, which is greater than 1,500 mm, is distributed regularly throughout the year, which is why a constant high humidity is maintained.
The microclimate above the canopy is substantially different from that below the canopy, which is significant for plants and insects.
Soil
The soils suffer from the phenomenon of ferralitization; that is, the release of iron oxides from the parent rock
The soils of this region are typically moist. Chemical weathering is pronounced due to high rainfall, for which the soil profiles are deep and there is little development of the horizons below the superficial organic layer. Silica and other cations are washed away, leaving an acid soil with high proportions of aluminum and iron oxides; the soil color is often reddish or yellowish-red. Under certain rainy conditions, iron compounds concentrate in a particular horizon ("laterite"), which can harden and be impenetrable by roots. The decomposition is very fast, concentrating the organic materials of the soil right on the surface and most of the nutrients are retained in the epigeal biomass (above the soil).
Due to the prevailing climatic conditions, the rock that originates the soil and on which the ecosystem is based undergoes an intense process of disintegration and chemical alteration that generates a thick layer of altered rock.
Soil types
Soil types are highly variable in the tropics and are the result of a combination of several variables such as climate, vegetation, topographic position, parent material, and soil age. Most tropical soils they are characterized by significant leaching and poor nutrients, however there are some areas that contain fertile soils. Soils in tropical rainforests fall into two classifications including Ultisols and Oxisols. Ultisols are known as eroded, acidic clay soils deficient in important nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Similarly, Oxisols are acidic, old, typically reddish, highly weathered and leached, however they are well drained compared to Ultisols. The clay content of Ultisols is high, making it difficult for water to penetrate and flow. The reddish color of both soils is the result of strong heat and humidity, which form iron and aluminum oxides, which are insoluble in water and are not readily absorbed by plants.
The chemical and physical characteristics of the soil are strongly related to the productivity of the soil and the structure and dynamics of the forest. Physical properties of the soil control tree turnover rates, while chemical properties, such as available nitrogen and phosphorus, control forest growth rates. Soils of the eastern and central Amazon, as well as the tropical forests of Southeast Asia, are old and poor in minerals, while the soils of the western Amazon (Ecuador and Peru) and the volcanic zones of Costa Rica are young and rich in minerals. Primary productivity or wood production is highest in the Western Amazon and lowest in the Eastern Amazon, which contains highly degraded soils classified as Oxisols. Additionally, Amazonian soils are highly degraded, making them devoid of minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium, which come from rock sources. However, not all tropical rainforests are found on nutrient-poor soils, but rather on nutrient-rich floodplains and volcanic soils located in the Andean foothills and volcanic areas of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America.
Infertile, heavily weathered and heavily leached, Oxisols have developed on the ancient shields of Gondwan. The rapid bacterial decomposition prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminum oxides through the tardification process gives oxisols a bright red color and sometimes produces mineral deposits (eg bauxite). On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils can be quite fertile.
Nutrient recycling
This high rate of decomposition is a result of phosphorous levels in soils, precipitation, high temperatures, and extensive communities of microorganisms. In addition to bacteria and other microorganisms, there are a host of other decomposers, including such as fungi and termites, which also help in the process. Nutrient recycling is important because the availability of below-ground resources controls the above-ground biomass and community structure of tropical forests. These soils are typically limited in phosphorus, which inhibits net primary productivity or carbon uptake. The soil contains microbial organisms such as bacteria, which break down leaf litter and other organic matter into inorganic forms of carbon usable by plants through of a process called decomposition. During the decomposition process, the microbial community respires, taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The rate of decomposition can be assessed by measuring oxygen uptake. High temperatures and rainfall increase the rate of decomposition, allowing leaf litter to decompose rapidly in tropical regions, releasing nutrients that are immediately absorbed by plants through surface or groundwater. Seasonal patterns in respiration are controlled by litter fall and precipitation, the driving force that moves decomposable carbon from litter to the soil. Respiration rates are highest at the beginning of the wet season because the recent dry season results in a large percentage of leaf litter, and thus a higher percentage of organic matter leaching into the soil.
Buttress roots
A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct buttress roots of the trees. Instead of penetrating into the deeper layers of the soil, buttress roots create an extended root network at the surface for more efficient nutrient uptake in a highly nutrient-poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest are found near the surface due to the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the roots of the buttresses are at the surface so that the nutrients Trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for additional nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains. rainfall by diverting nutrient-rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller streams, while also acting as a barrier to soil flow. Additionally, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to tropical forest trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand severe storm impacts, thus reducing the occurrence of downed trees.
Forest succession
Succession is an ecological process that changes the biotic community structure over time toward a more stable and diverse community structure after an initial disturbance in the community. The initial disturbance is often a natural phenomenon or a human-caused event. Natural disturbances include hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, river movements, or an event as small as a fallen tree creating gaps in the forest. In tropical rainforests, these same natural disturbances have been well documented in the fossil record, with encouraging speciation and endemism attributed to them. Human land use practices have led to large-scale deforestation. In many tropical countries such as Costa Rica, these deforested lands have been abandoned and forests have been allowed to regenerate through ecological succession. These young, regenerating successional forests are called secondary forests or second-growth forests.
Forest structure
Tropical rainforests are divided into different strata, or layers, with vegetation arranged in a vertical pattern from the topsoil to the tree canopy. Each layer is a unique biotic community containing different plants and animals adapted for life. life in that particular stratum. Only the emergent layer is unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in temperate rainforests.
Forest floors
The forest floor, the lowest layer, receives only 2% of sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps, and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively bare of vegetation due to low sunlight penetration. This more open quality allows for easy movement of larger animals such as: ungulates such as the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), the tapir (Tapirus sp.), the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and apes such as the western lowland gorilla (gorilla gorilla)), as well as many species of reptiles, amphibians and insects. The forest floor also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which quickly disappears, because warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi that grow here help break down animal and plant waste.
Understory Layer
The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory is home to a number of birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, and predators. Examples include leopard (Panthera pardus), poison dart frogs (Dendrobates sp.), ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua), boa constrictor (Boa constrictora), and many species of Coleoptera. Vegetation in this layer generally consists of mildew-tolerant shrubs. shade, grasses, small trees, and large woody vines that climb trees to capture sunlight. Only about 5% of sunlight penetrates the canopy to reach the understory, making understory green plants rarely grow to 3 m (10 ft). As an adaptation to these low light levels, understory plants have often developed much larger leaves. Many seedlings that will grow to canopy level are in the understory.
Canopy layer
The canopy is the main layer of the forest that forms a roof over the other two layers. Contains most of the larger trees, usually 30-45m tall. Tall, broad-leaved evergreens are the dominant plants. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, as it often supports a rich epiphytic flora, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses, and lichens. These epiphytic plants cling to trunks and branches and receive water and minerals from rain and debris that accumulates on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. It could be said that the total species richness of arthropods in the tropical canopy could reach 20 million. Other species that inhabit this layer include many avian species such as the yellow-wattled hornbill (Ceratogymna elata), the collared sunbird (Anthreptes collaris), the gray parrot (Psitacus erithacus), the keel-billed toucan (Ramphastos sulfuratus), the scarlet macaw (Ara macao) and other animals such as the spider monkey (Ateles sp.), giant African swallowtail (Papilio antimachus), three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus), kinkajou (Potos flavus) and tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla).
Popup Layer
The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees, called emergents, that grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although some species occasionally grow to 70–80 m in height. Some examples of emergents include: Balizia elegans, Dipteryx panamensis, Hieronyma alchorneoides, Hymenolobium mesoamericanum, Lecythis ampla, and Terminalia oblonga. These trees must be resistant to high temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Several unique species of fauna inhabit this layer, such as the crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the royal colobus (Colobus polykomos), and the great flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus).
However, the stratification is not always clear. Tropical forests are dynamic and many changes affect the structure of the forest. Emergent or canopy trees collapse, causing gap formation. Openings in the forest canopy are recognized as important for the establishment and growth of rainforest trees. It is estimated that perhaps 75% of tree species at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica, depend on canopy opening for seed germination or for growth beyond sapling size.
Diversity
Of all the biomes, this is the one with the greatest diversity of plants. There are thousands of tree species and it is possible to find a few hundred of them in relatively large areas. Plants extending as far south as gymnosperms are rare, except the Cycadaceae. Monocots and ferns are very diverse, many of them arborescent. Many of the tree families are from large families found primarily in these forests (some found only here), including Piperaceae, Morace, Annonace, Lauraceae, Capparidaceae, Leguminosae, Meliaceae, Anacardiaceae, Sapindaceae, Sterculiaceae, Guttiferae, Myrtaceae, Melastomaceae, Araliaceae, Myrsinaceae, Sapotaceae, Verbenaceae, Bignoniaceae and Rubiaceae. Most of the large families are distributed on all tropical continents. The Orchidaceae (orchids) is a large family and, in this biome, its species are primarily epiphytes. The lianas and vines are found mainly in the families Vitaceae, Leguminosae, Passifloraceae, Convolvulaceae and Cucurbitaceae. The families Oxalidaceae, Begoniaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Gesneriaceae, and Acanthaceae are important herbaceous families.
There is also greater animal diversity in this area, with an almost unimaginable variety of insects possible in just a few hectares of rainforest. As in plants, many species are rare (few per unit area) and specialized. There is not much diversity of large mammals in the primary forest because dense vegetation hampers their movements, but a few larger orders (Chiroptera, Primates) are especially well represented. Other characteristic mammal groups include tree shrews, squirrels, guinea pigs, sloths, pangolins, deer and woodbuck, civets, and other cats.
Birds reach their greatest diversity in this area, being possible to observe, in some relatively small localities, up to more than 500 species. Among the characteristic groups are pigeons, parrots, toucans, hummingbirds, cotingas, birds of paradise, hornbills, horneros, anteaters, pittas, babblers, and tanagers. Also lizards, snakes and frogs exhibit their greatest diversity in the rainforest, including many groups restricted to this forest. With so much water available, there is a tremendous diversity of aquatic animals in the area, although the differences from temperate zones are not as great as in the case of terrestrial groups.
Some species of fauna present a tendency towards the decrease of their populations in the rainforests, for example reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles, which deserves close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn may directly affect the reptile species that feed in these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, as they are less likely to use resources. alternatives.
Flora
Tree growth is luxuriant, with emergent trees up to 60 meters and canopy trees up to 30 meters or more. The canopy is continuous except over bodies of water. These are complex forests with at least four moderately well-defined levels: upper canopy, lower canopy, understory, and shrub/herb. Due to the dense leaf canopy, plant growth is suppressed and the understory is relatively open in mature forest; the dense "jungle" of the popular concept is associated with the pre-climax stages.
The trees are slender and reach about 50 m. The rectilinear trunk is usually provided with buttresses to hold it, since the rooting is always very superficial. There is an extreme dispersion of the trees, without any of them predominating. Most of the lianas are woody and can reach up to 200 m winding around the trees. Epiphytes also proliferate, such as orchids and tillandsias.
There is another very curious plant formation, found in the salty coastal silt of the intertropical zone, called mangrove. The mangroves are provided with roots-stilts that are intermingled in a dense thickness and other shrubs, which have pneumatophores (respiratory organs that emerge from the water). The mangrove forms a band of several kilometers along the coasts and plays an important role in building the forest, consolidating the soft silts.
Daisies are also in abundance, as are tulips, orchids, and recently discovered lion's-eye flowers.
Strates
Trees (such as mangroves) determine several strata, whose crowns have opposite sizes: from 20 to 55 m. Below is the shrub layer that takes advantage of 3% of light and the lower herbaceous layer with only 1.2% of light. In addition to them are lianas and epiphytes that make sure they receive light on the branches of the trees.
Plant adaptations
Due to intense competition for light, many trees have the ability to remain semi-dormant under the canopy, until a light gap appears; then they start to grow rapidly. Most of the light-receiving leaves of understory species form a single tier to avoid shading each other. The epiphytes, epiphylls and lianas represent strategies of small plants to grow in the higher parts where there is more light. The leaves of the upper canopy are leathery and drought resistant to withstand the strong solar intensity at this level. Some leaves change their orientation during the day to avoid sun stress; this is controlled by turgor pressure. The elongated tips of the leaves can serve to remove water from wet leaves, allowing respiration.
New leaves on many plants have no chlorophyll (they look red or white); they acquire it after they have reached their final size and have survived potential browsing by herbivores. Extensive buttresses provide the necessary support as the root systems are superficial and spread laterally to take advantage of the surface layer of nutrients. Mycorrhizae (symbiotic associations of fungi) in the roots allow a direct connection with the litter layer for efficient nutrient uptake. Pollination and seed dispersal are mainly done by animals, and interactions between plants and animals are highly developed here.
Animal Adaptations
The animals are active throughout the year and there is a very high diversity; this leads to intense interactions between species. Due to the high diversity of predators, anti-predator adaptations are maximized here. Camouflage is virtually perfect on most smaller animals. Not only do brown and green colors predominate but also, in some species, the color changes with the ground color. In addition to this color mimicry, there is a form mimicry, and many insects, lizards, snakes, and frogs resemble leaves, twigs, or lianas, down to the smallest details.
Animals as different as the clouded leopard and python have similar markings, and the same type of leaf is imitated by animals as different as cathydids and chameleons.
A considerable part of animal activity occurs in the upper canopy, where light is not limiting and plant productivity is highest; in this complex landscape, adaptations for moving through the trees abound. Modes of locomotion include climbing, jumping, brachiation, gliding, and flight. There are many specific adaptations such as sharp claws for climbing, opposite digits and prehensile tails for encircling trunks and branches, long hind legs for jumping, etc.
In this bioclimatic zone, the number of animal/plant interactions is greatest, with many complex adaptations to facilitate these interactions, including not only destructive interactions such as in herbivores but also mutually beneficial interactions such as in pollinators and dispersal of animals. the fruits. Many major groups of birds (hummingbirds and others) and mammals (bats) that feed on flowers are tropical, as are most fruit-eating birds and mammals. These species travel throughout the forest in search of fruiting trees, with much social interaction occurring within and between species. The animals that remain on the ground benefit from the fall of the ripe fruits.
Complex, and often coevolutionary, interactions with high levels of mutualism and commensalism are common.
Due to high species diversity, some groups exhibit "aspect diversity" (large differences in appearance) important, perhaps as a measure against the search image of predators and/or for rapid recognition of the species.
Human effects
Original hunter/gatherer populations had relatively little effect on the environment, but with population increase, especially when true population centers developed, a substantial proportion of large animals such as monkeys and monkeys were hunted. some rare cats More recently, habitat destruction is the most serious problem, both from small-scale "slash and burn" as well as large-scale deforestation for agriculture and/or cattle ranches. After a few burrowing episodes, the soil essentially loses all its nutrients, becomes sterile and hard (laterization) and neither supports much plant growth nor acts as a water sink. Then erosion becomes a big problem, with a significant drag of mud towards the water currents that remain contaminated.
Habitat destruction is more serious in this biome than in the others due to the tremendous diversity of tropical rain forest species, the limited range of many, and especially because so many of them have not been described or are known very little. Nowhere else is there a greater chance of extinction of species, even many that we will never know about.
Among the animal species that are still being persecuted are cats (for their fur) and animals to be used as pets (parrots, freshwater fish).
A wide variety of plants from this biome have been cultivated by humans. The high levels of secondary compounds in tropical plants make them valuable as spices, stimulants, and medicines, and many others are cultivated for food, clothing, and shelter. Recent discoveries indicate that we are barely tapping into the potential value that tropical plants have for humans.
Human use
Room
Historically, most shady forests have not supported dense human populations. Food resources in the jungle are widely dispersed due to high biodiversity; they abound especially in the canopy, where their production requires a considerable expenditure of energy. The soils are poor, and the rain quickly erodes the clearings open for cultivation.
In spite of everything, humans have exploited and continue to exploit the jungle in various parts of the world. Many farmers, mainly in the Amazon and Papua New Guinea, get their food from open farms in the jungle, hunting and gathering. Other towns, hunter-gatherers, subsist thanks to the barter of valuable products of the forest, such as feathers, skins and honey, with agricultural towns. Other groups of hunter-gatherers exploit the forest seasonally, but inhabit adjacent savannahs or open forests, where food is much more abundant.
A variety of indigenous people live in the rainforest as hunter-gatherers, or subsist as small part-time farmers supplemented in large part by trading high-value forest products such as furs, feathers and honey with agricultural people living outside of the forest. The peoples have inhabited the rainforests for tens of thousands of years and have remained so elusive that only recently have some tribes been discovered. These indigenous peoples are highly threatened by loggers looking for ancient tropical hardwoods such as Ipe, Cumaru and Wenge, and by farmers looking to expand their land, for cattle (meat) and soybeans, which are used to feed livestock in Europe and China. On January 18, 2007, FUNAI also reported that there were confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now surpassed the island of New Guinea as the country with the highest number of uncontacted people. tribes. The province of Iran Jaya or West Papua on the island of New Guinea is home to approximately 44 uncontacted tribal groups.
Pygmy peoples are groups of hunter-gatherers who live in equatorial jungles characterized by their short height (less than one and a half meters, or 59 inches, on average). Among this group are the Efe, Aka, Twa, Baka and Mbuti peoples of Central Africa. However, the term pygmy is considered pejorative, so many tribes prefer not to be labeled as such. Some notable indigenous peoples of the Americas, or Amerindians, include the Huaorani, Ya̧nomamö, and Kayapo peoples of the Amazon. The traditional agricultural system practiced by tribes in the Amazon is based on open area cultivation (also known as slash and burn or shift cultivation) and is considered a relatively benign disturbance. In fact, when looking at the level of individual built-up plots, a number of traditional farming practices are seen as beneficial. For example, the use of shade trees and fallow land help preserve soil organic matter, which is a critical factor in maintaining soil fertility in the highly degraded and leached soils common in the Amazon. There is a diversity of forest people in Asia, including the Lumad peoples of the Philippines and the Penan and Dayak peoples of Borneo. The Dayaks are a particularly interesting group, noted for their traditional headhunting culture. Fresh human heads were required to perform certain rituals such as the "kenyalang" of Iban and the "mamat" from Kenyah.
Crops
Tropical rainforests have the highest variety of fruits than any other biome in the world, providing 250 varieties, while temperate forests only produce 20. Only in the jungles of New Guinea there are two hundred and fifty-one species of trees with edible fruits, of which only forty-three were cultivated in 1985. Due to their climate and region of cultivation, the fruits that grow in this region are called called tropical.
Coffee, cocoa, vanilla, coconuts, guavas, pineapples, bananas, mangoes, papayas, avocados and sugar cane are considered among the most consumed and acclaimed fruits in gastronomy throughout worldwide, originating exclusively from the umbrophilous forests, they are cultivated, mainly in plantations in regions that were forests.
A quarter of the medicines used today come from the shady forests. For example, "the basic ingredients of contraceptive hormones, cocaine, stimulants and tranquilizers" (Banks 36), curare and quinine.
Tourism
Currently, one of the greatest economic values of the rainforest is national and international tourism. The economic benefit of tourism is an incentive for the conservation of the forests.
Animal Products
Among the animal products of the jungle, honey and meat, skin and ivory from hunting stand out. Also the ivory of the elephants, although it has been penalized in many places.
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services include non-extractive uses, such as maintaining biodiversity, controlling rainfall and flooding, and increasing scientific knowledge.
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