Puma concolor

The puma, mountain lion or American lion (Puma concolor) is a carnivorous mammal of the Felidae family native to America. This feline lives in more places than any other wild terrestrial mammal on the continent, as it ranges from the Yukon, in Canada, to the south of the Andes mountain range and Patagonia in South America.

The puma is adaptable and generalist, which is why it lives in the main biomes throughout America. It is the second largest cat on the continent, after the jaguar, and the fourth largest in the world, after the tiger and the lion. Its size is somewhat larger than that of the leopard, although it is more related to small cats, since, unlike the large felids of the genus Panthera, which can roar (with the exception of the irbis), the Puma purrs like smaller cats.

As a hunter and ambush predator, the puma obtains a wide variety of prey. Its main food is ungulates such as deer, particularly in the northern part of its range, or guanaco and other camelids, to the south in South America, and species as small as insects and rodents. It prefers habitat with dense vegetation during stalking hours, but can live in open areas.

The puma is territorial and has a low population density. The extent of its territory depends on the vegetation and the abundance of prey. Although it is a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, such as when competing with other predators such as the jaguar.

It is a solitary feline that generally avoids people and attacks on humans are rare.

The puma was considered a dangerous beast after the European colonization of America. This consideration and the progressive human occupation of puma habitats have caused their populations to decline in almost all of their historical habitats. In particular, the puma was extinct in eastern North America, with the exception of the isolated case of a subpopulation in Florida. It is believed that this feline could recolonize part of its former eastern territory. With its wide geographical distribution, the puma has dozens of names and is mentioned with various references in the mythology of the aboriginal peoples of America and also in contemporary culture.

Names and etymology

In Spanish the usual name is "puma", a loanword from Quechua. In rural areas of many parts of America, however, it is called "lion" by analogy with the lion (although it differs from that in that this species does not have the characteristic mane). The large number of names by which the puma is known is explained by the enormous geographical breadth of its habitat: the animal was present in almost all pre-Columbian cultures and each one assigned it one or more names.

In English, the most popular names are mountain lion, and cougar, a word taken from the Portuguese suçuarana, through French, although the term originally derives from the Tupi language. In North America, "panther" is most often used when referring to the subpopulation called the Florida panther. In Nahuatl it is called miztli, in Mayan it is called koj, in Chibcha it is called chihisaba, in Mapuche (southern Chile and the Argentina) is known as pangi for the female or the entire species and trapial for the male, and in Brazil suçuarana, of Tupi origin, onça-parda, in distinction from the onça-pintada (jaguar), and unusually puma or leão-da-montanha. In Guaraní it is known as Jagua pytã, which means 'red beast', since the phenotype of the subspecies present in the geonemia of this ethnic group has fur with strong reddish tones, in distinction from jaguar or jaguareté (real beast) and from yaguá (beast) which came to mean only 'dog' (currently this term is applied in Guaraní to any dog).

Taxonomy and evolution

The puma is located in the Felinae subfamily, of small cats, while large cats are placed within the Pantherinae subfamily. The origin of the Felidae family in Asia dates back to approximately 11 million years ago. Unfortunately, taxonomic knowledge of felines remains partial and much of what is known about their evolutionary history is based on the analysis of mitochondrial DNA; furthermore, as felines are poorly represented in the fossil record, dates proposals have a wide confidence interval.

According to a recent study of felid genomes, the common ancestor of the current Leopardus, Lynx, Puma, Prionailurus, and other lineages Felinae migrated across the Bering Strait Bridge to America, approximately 8 to 8.5 million years ago. The lineages subsequently diverged. North American cats then invaded South America as part of the Great American Interchange, following the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.

The puma was once believed to belong to the genus Felis, which includes the domestic cat, but is now placed in the genus Puma along with the jaguarundi ( Puma yagouaroundi), a feline native to America, a little more than a tenth of the weight of a puma.

Studies have indicated that the puma and jaguarundi are closely related to the modern cheetahs of Africa and western Asia, but the relationship has not been resolved. It has been suggested that the cheetah lineage diverged from that of pumas in the Americas, and the former then remigrated to Asia and Africa, while other studies suggest cheetahs diverged in the Old World independently. The outline of the migration of small cats to America is, therefore, unclear.

Recent studies have shown a high degree of genetic similarity between North American cougar populations, indicating that they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group. Culver and colleagues hypothesize that the original population of North American pumas became extinct in the Pleistocene around 10,000 years ago, when other large mammals, such as mylodon, also disappeared. North America would have been repopulated by a group of pumas from South America.

Subspecies

Historical

Until the end of the XX century, 32 subspecies of puma had been recorded, however, a genetic study of mitochondrial DNA showed that many of them are too similar to be recognized as different taxa. After research, the 3rd edition of «Mammal Species of the World» recognizes only 6 subspecies, of which 5 are found only in Latin America:

• Puma concolor anthonyi Nelson & Goldman, 1931. Puma of Eastern South America (East of Brazil, Uruguay, east of Paraguay, and north-east of Argentina). It includes in its synonym the subspecies: acrocody (Goldman, 1943), borbensis (Nelson & Goldman, 1933), capricornensis (Goldman, 1946), with color (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni (Nelson & Goldman, 1931)and nigra Jardine, 1834.

• Puma concolor cabrerae Pocock, 1940. Argentine Puma (Bolivia, west of Paraguay, and northwest and center of Argentina). It includes in its synonym the subspecies: hudsoni (Cabrera, 1958)and puma (Marcelli, 1922).

• Puma concolor concolor Linnaeus, 1771. Puma of North South America. Location: French Guiana (Venezuela, western Brazil, Peru, northern Bolivia). It includes in its synonym the subspecies: bangsi (Merriam, 1901), incarum (Nelson & Goldman, 1929), osgoodi (Nelson & Goldman, 1929), soasoaranna (Lesson, 1842), destromii (Lönnberg, 1913), Ecuador (Liais, 1872)and wavula (Lesson, 1842).

• Puma concolor costaricensis Merriam, 1901. Central American Puma (Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama). Type location: Brazil. Limited by Goldman (in Young and Goldman, 1946) to Cayenne, French Guiana. It includes in its synonym: Felis bangsi costaricensis and Felis concolor costaricensis.

• Puma concolor cougur Kerr, 1792. Puma of North America (North America to the North of Nicaragua). It includes in its synonym the subspecies: arundivaga (Hollister, 1911), aztecus (Merriam, 1901), browni (Merriam, 1903), californica (May, 1896), coryi (Bangs, 1899), Floridana (Cory, 1896), hippopolestes (Merriam, 1897), improper (Phillips, 1912), kaibabensis (Nelson & Goldman, 1931), mayensis (Nelson & Goldman, 1929), Missoulensis (Goldman, 1943), olympus (Merriam, 1897), oregonensis (Rafinesque, 1832), schorgeri (Jackson, 1955), stanleyana (Goldman, 1938), vancouverensis (Nelson & Goldman, 1932)and youngi (Goldman, 1936).

• Puma concolor puma Molina, 1782. South American or Southern Puma(Chile, and center-west and south of Argentina). It includes in its synonym the subspecies: araucanus (Osgood, 1943), with color (Gay, 1847), Patagonian (Merriam, 1901), pearsoni (Thomas, 1901)and puma (Trouessart, 1904).

News

As of 2017, the Cat Classification Working Group of the Cat Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature recognizes only two subspecies as valid:

• Puma concolor concolor, currently known as South American puma or Andean mountain lion, in South America, possibly excluding the northwest region of the Andes. Since 2017, South American subspecies are considered synonyms of P. c. concolor:
  • Puma concolor anthonyi
  • Puma concolor cabrerae
  • Puma concolor costaricensis
  • Puma concolor puma
• Puma concolor cougur in North and Central America and possibly in the northwest of South America.

Puma of North America

Florida Panther

The conservation status of the Florida panther, which is North America's puma, remains uncertain. It is currently considered a population of Puma concolor couguar.

It was described as a distinct subspecies of puma (Puma concolor coryi) at the end of the 19th century. The panther of Florida had long been considered a unique subspecies of puma, with the scientific name Felis concolor coryi proposed by Outram Bangs in 1899.

A genetic study of puma mitochondrial DNA showed that many of the supposed subspecies described in the 19th century are too similar to be recognized as distinct, so it was reclassified and subsumed to the North American puma (Puma concolor couguar) in 2005. Despite these findings, it was still known as a distinct subspecies Puma concolor coryiin 2006.

In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group's Cat Classification Working Group revised the taxonomy of Felidae and now recognizes all cougar populations in North America as P. c. cougar.

Eastern Puma

The eastern cougar is the extirpated population of cougars that lived in northeastern North America. Some authorities have considered it a subspecies. The eastern cougar was unofficially considered extinct by an assessment by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 2011.

In 1792, Robert Kerr of the Royal Physical Society and the Royal Society of Surgeons assigned the name Felis couguar to the pumas of eastern North America north of Florida.

John Audubon in 1851 believed that mountain lions in North and South America were indistinguishable. The eastern cougar was first assigned to the subspecies Felis concolor couguar and the Florida panther to Felis concolor coryi. Young and Goldman based their description of the eastern subspecies on his examination of eight of the 26 extant historical specimens.

In 1955, Jackson described a new subspecies, the Wisconsin puma (F. c. Schorgeri), from a small sample of skulls.

A 1981 taxonomy by Hall accepted F. c. schorgeri, the Wisconsin cougar, and also extended the range of the eastern cougar to Nova Scotia and mapped the range of the Florida panther (F. c. coryi) as far north as Carolina of southern and southwestern Tennessee.

In 2000, Culver et al., recommended that, based on recent genetic research, all North American pumas be classified as a single subspecies, Puma concolor couguar following the more named subspecies ancient (Kerr in 1792).

The 2005 edition of Mammal Species of the World followed Culver's recommendations. This review was conducted by Dr. W. Chris Wozencraft of Bethel University, Indiana, as sole reviewer. However, the publication's website, as well as that of its affiliate, the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, continued to maintain Puma concolor couguar (western and eastern cougars) as a subspecies of Puma concolor.

Judith Eger, a scientist at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, and chair of the checklist committee of the American Society of Mammalogists, believes that Culver's work was not an adequate taxonomic revision, since it did not offer an evaluation of the existing puma subspecies and did not include morphological, ecological and behavioral considerations. According to Eger, Culver's review is only accepted by some biologists.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) continues to accept Young and Goldman's taxonomy. "While the most recent genetic information introduces significant ambiguities, a complete taxonomic analysis is necessary to conclude that a revision of the taxonomy of Young and Goldman (1946) is warranted," the agency said in 2011.

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

Pumas are slender and agile felines. Adult standing size is around 70 to 90 cm high at the shoulders. The length of adult males is around 2.7 m long from nose to tip of tail, although it generally ranges between 2.0 and 2.5 m. Not counting the tail, the length is 1.5 to 1.7 meters. The tail measures 0.7 to 1.0 m. Males have an average weight of between 55 to 75 kg. It should be noted that their size increases as they approach the poles; males can reach up to 100 kilograms. The average weight of females is between 40 and 62 kg.

The head of the puma is round and the ears are erect. It has powerful front legs, neck, jaw and fangs that help it catch and kill large prey. It has five retractable claws on the front legs, useful for clinging to prey, and four on the back legs.

The puma can be as large as the jaguar, but less robust since the puma is slender. Where the distributions overlap, the number of pumas tends to be lower than average. The puma, on average, is heavier than the leopard. Despite its size, it is not normally classified among the big cats because it cannot roar, as it lacks the specialized larynx and hyoid bone of the jaguar. Since sightings of big cats are rather rare, the identification of another type of evidence is important. In Central America and derived from a morphometric study, Aranda (1994) reports that a more or less reliable indicator is the relationship between the upper width and the lower width of the fingers, observing a tendency towards footprints with more pointed fingers in pumas, unlike jaguars. Like domestic cats, pumas vocalize high-pitched hisses, growls, purrs, as well as chirps. They are known for their cries, as referenced in some of their common names, although these are frequently confused with calls from other animals.

The coloration of the puma is uniform (hence the Latin name concolor), but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is usually golden, but may be silvery gray or reddish, with light patches on the body, including near the jaws, chin, and neck. The young are born with blue eyes and rings on their tail; The cubs are paler, and the spots continue on their flanks. Contrary to some claims, the existence of completely black pumas has not been documented. The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to some individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards.

Pumas have large paws; proportionally the largest hind legs in the feline family and strong and developed shoulders. This characteristic allows them a great jump and a great short running capacity. They have exceptional vertical jumping ability: jumps of up to 5.4 meters have been recorded. In horizontal jumps it appears that the range is 6 to 12 m. The puma can reach 72 km/h, but is better adapted to short running than chasing. It is an expert climber, which allows it to avoid canine competitors. Although it is not closely associated with water, it can swim.

Hunting and diet

The puma eats any animal it can capture, from insects to large ungulates. Like other felines, it is an obligate carnivore. Their most important prey are the various species of deer, particularly in North America: mule deer, white-tailed deer, and even large elk are hunted by the puma. A study conducted in North America found that 68% of prey were ungulates, especially deer; only in the Florida panther did they show variations, as they often prefer feral pigs and armadillos. Research in Yellowstone National Park on elk and mule deer showed that these prey are shared with the gray wolf population, with the that the cougar competes for resources. Another study in Alberta showed that in winter (November to April) ungulates accounted for more than 99% of the cougar diet. In 2008, in the US state of Florida, scientists found a male puma feeding on a 2.69 meter American alligator (subadult) that it had hunted, which demonstrates the feline's ability to kill crocodilians of larger sizes than those that had been recorded up to that time, although such cases are probably sporadic. and they do not make up a common prey due to the danger they represent (unlike the jaguar, which usually hunts subadult specimens of the largest species of crocodiles in America more frequently). On the other hand, in the case of the large adult crocodilians with which it shares habitat, the relationship is the opposite, since they are all potential predators of the puma, although conflicts probably also occur very sporadically.

In Central and South America the proportion of venison in the diet decreases. They prefer small and medium-sized mammals, including large rodents such as the chigüire. Ungulates represent only 35% of prey, about half that in North America. Competition with large jaguars may be the cause of the decrease in the size of pumas' prey. But, where the jaguar does not live, because the environment is not conducive to it, such as the forests and steppes of Patagonia, the alpine peaks of the Andes Mountains, or in other ecosystems of the open plains of South America such as the pampas grasslands; The puma is the supreme predator, and its diet is based on large herbivores, such as rheas (choiques in the alpine zone and the steppes, Andean-Patagonian; and rheas common in the grasslands of the Pampas plains), deer (such as huemules in the alpine zone, and the forests and steppes, Andean-Patagonian; and once pampas deer in the grasslands of the Pampas plains) and other native ungulates, the main prey being South American camelids (guanacos in Patagonia and the grasslands of the Chacopampa plain, and vicuñas in the alpine zone of the Andes). Studies carried out by the Rewilding Argentina Foundation on the population of pumas in Patagonia Park, in the Argentine province of Santa Cruz, showed that in the Patagonian steppe the prey hunted by the monitored specimens were greatly represented by guanaco (between 69% and 87%), in addition to choiques (between 5% and 14.5%) and wild horses (between 8% and 12.7%). Very similar data are those averaged in Chile. Other species listed as prey for the puma include mice, porcupines, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.

In windy conditions, the puma is typically an ambush predator. It hides among trees and on ledges, where it waits before making a powerful leap towards the back of its prey and suffocating it with a bite to the neck. It has a flexible spine that helps it in its hunting technique.

It is generally estimated that it kills one large ungulate every two weeks. The period for females is reduced by feeding the young, and can reach the figure of one death every three days at the time when the cubs are almost mature, around 15 months. The puma drags its victim to a favorite spot, covers it with grass, and returns to feed again after a few days. In general, the puma is considered to be a collector of its waste and rarely does it not eat the prey it has killed.

Reproduction and life cycle

Females reach sexual maturity between one and a half and three years of age. Normally the average gestation is every two or three years throughout their reproductive life, a period that can be reduced to one year. Females are in heat for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle. The gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common. Copulations are brief but frequent.

Only females participate in raising children. Female cougars are fierce protectors of their cubs, and have been seen successfully fighting much larger animals in their defense. The typical litter size is between one and six puppies, usually two or three. They use caves and other places that offer protection as burrows. Cougar cubs are born blind, are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they accompany the mother on her forays, first to the sites she visits, and after six months they begin to hunt small prey on her behalf. Survival rates are just over one per litter.

Juveniles leave their mother to try to establish their own territory around two years of age and sometimes earlier. Males tend to become independent earlier. One study has shown high mortality rates among cougars that stray too far from their mother, often due to conflicts with other cougars. Research in New Mexico has shown that "males disperse significantly more than females, are more likely to range over large areas outside their habitat, and are probably responsible for the majority of gene flow between populations in a habitat."

The life expectancy of a puma in the wild is estimated to be between 8 and 13 years and probably averages 8 to 10 years. However, there are cases of at least 18 years old, such as a female that was killed by hunters on Vancouver Island. Cougars can live up to 20 years in captivity. Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other mountain lions, starvation, accidents, and, where permitted, human hunting. Feline immunodeficiency virus, which also affects cats, is a serious disease in cougars.

Social structure and habitat

Like almost all felines, the puma is a solitary animal. Only mothers and their cubs live in groups. It is discreet and crepuscular (it is most active around dawn and dusk).

Estimates of the size of its territory vary greatly. Males have large territories of between 150 and 1000 km²; In the case of females they are reduced by half. Some studies suggest a much lower proportion of the lower limit (25 km²), with an upper limit of 1300 km² for males. Male territories may include or overlap with those of females, but not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflicts between pumas. The females' territories may slightly overlap each other.

To mark their territory and attract the opposite sex, they use scratch marks, urine and feces. Males may use a small pile of leaves and grasses together and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.

The size of the habitat and, in general, the abundance of pumas, will depend on the terrain, vegetation and the abundance of raptors. A female adjacent to the San Andreas Mountains, for example, required a large territory of 215 km² due to lack of prey. A study in South America has shown that the number of pumas in a territory varies between 0.5 and 7 individuals per 100 km².

Males are more dispersed than females to avoid direct competition for mates and territory, because they are the most susceptible to conflict. When an adult does not leave his maternal area, for example, he may be killed by his parent. When males encounter each other, they whistle and violent fights can break out if one of the two does not retreat. Hunting or relocating pumas can increase aggressive encounters, disturbing territories and young people, which can lead to temporary conflicts with people.

Ecology

Distribution and habitat

The puma occupies more territory than any other wild land animal in America. Its territory covers 110 degrees of latitude, from the north of the Yukon in Canada to the south of the Andes. Its wide distribution is due to its ability to adapt to almost all types of habitat: it is found in all types of forests, as well as in lowlands and mountainous deserts. Studies show that the puma prefers regions with dense vegetation, but can live with little vegetation in open areas. Its preferred habitat is canyons, escarpments, rocky terrain and dense jungle.

The cougar was exterminated in its large eastern North American range, with the exception of Florida, in the two centuries after European colonization, and faces serious threats elsewhere. Currently, it is found in most of the western states of America, the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, Canada, and the Yukon Territory. Due to the damage it causes to livestock, it is persecuted by farmers and has become an endangered species, currently inhabiting arid areas.

Proposals of their possible reintroduction to eastern North America have been widely discussed. DNA testing has suggested their presence in eastern North America, while a map of cougar sightings shows numerous reportedly from the western Great Plains to eastern Canada. The only unequivocally eastern cougar population is the critically endangered Florida panther.

South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) locates the puma in all Central and South American countries. State and provincial statistics are available in North America, but much less is known about the puma further south.

The total puma population is estimated at less than 50,000, according to IUCN figures, with a downward trend. At the state level in the United States, statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting that mountain lion populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population was reported at 5,000 individuals in 2006, exceeding the goal of 3,000. California has actively worked to protect the cougar and their numbers are estimated between 4,000 and 6,000.

Eco-friendly function

Other than humans, there are no predators for adult mountain lions in the wild. The puma is not, however, the main predator in much of its territory. In the north it interacts with other powerful predators such as the brown bear and the gray wolf (although a lone wolf does not pose a threat to an adult puma). In the south, the puma must compete with the jaguar.

The ecosystems of Yellowstone National Park provide a fruitful microcosm for studying predator interactions in North America. Of the three large predators, the grizzly bear appears to occupy a dominant position, often, although not always able to handle the threat of both the gray wolf and the mountain lion. One study found that black bears visited 24% of dead mountain lions in Yellowstone and Glacier National Park, and only 10% ate their remains.

The gray wolf and the puma compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While the individual puma is more powerful than the gray wolf, a lone puma can dominate a pack of canids. Wolves may occasionally rob and kill mountain lions. One report describes a large pack of 14 wolves killing a female mountain lion and her cubs. In contrast, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and wolves have been reported killed by pumas. Wolves more broadly affect puma population dynamics, competing for territorial dominance and prey, disturbing the feline's behavior. Preliminary research conducted in Yellowstone Park, for example, has revealed the displacement of the mountain lion by wolves. A researcher in Oregon notes:

“When there is a jauria of wolves around, pumas do not feel comfortable for their luck or that of their puppies... Many times a puma kills a wolf, but the phenomenon of jauries changes the turns. »

On the other hand, both species are capable of killing medium-sized predators, such as the coyote, and tend to suppress their numbers.

In the southern part, the puma and the jaguar overlap their territories. The jaguar tends to hunt larger prey than the puma where they live together and the puma can feed on a greater range of prey.

Like any predator, the puma influences the population of the species that are its prey. Predation by mountain lions has been linked to fluctuations in populations of various deer species in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia showed that the population of mule deer, a favorite prey of mountain lions, is declining, while the population of white-tailed deer, a less prized prey, is increasing. The groundhog Vancouver Island, an endangered endemic species, in a region with a dense population of cougars, has seen its numbers decline due to predation by the cougar and gray wolf.

Conservation status

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has changed the status of the puma from least concern to near threatened species, leaving open the possibility that it could be classified as vulnerable when more data on its distribution becomes available.. The puma is regulated in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which makes international trade in specimens or their parts illegal.

East of the Mississippi, the only unequivocally known population of mountain lions is the Florida panther. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service recognizes both the eastern cougar and the Florida panther, which it guarantees protection under the Endangered Species Act. Some taxonomy authorities have merged both names into the North American cougar, without recognizing the entity of the eastern or Florida subspecies. The most recent census of the Florida subpopulation gave 87 individuals, as reported by species recovery organizations in 2003.

The puma is also protected in much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, puma hunting is prohibited in Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname and Uruguay. Legal protection of the puma in Guyana was not reported. Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada; It is allowed in the US from the Rocky Mountain states to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is cornered. When the hunter arrives at the scene, he is shot from close range. The cougar cannot be legally hunted in California, except in very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a threat to public safety.

Threats to the conservation of the species include persecution because it is considered a threat to livestock, the degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, and the depletion of its prey. As with any large predator, corridors of sufficient habitat and variety of areas are essential for the sustainability of their populations. Simulations have shown that the animal faces a low risk of extinction in areas of 2,200 km² or larger. One to four new animals introduced into a population each decade markedly increases its persistence, highlighting the importance of habitat corridors.

Situation in South America

In South America this species is highly persecuted and uncontrolled by humans.

In Argentina, the species is extinct in the provinces of Entre Ríos, the south and center of Santa Fe, the center of Tucumán and in almost the entire province of Buenos Aires. In the Argentine province of Chubut, where it was abundant 50 years ago, today it is an endangered species. It was there where Dr. Nores Martínez created the Argentine bulldog dog breed, designed to take down the puma (among other species) in hand-to-hand combat between felines and dogs, in a type of hunting called "Montería hunting" in his version. Creole. For this type of hunting, dogs are often trained by making them fight with pumas in captivity, an illegal practice that continues to be carried out clandestinely. Those cougars often die prematurely from heart attacks. In the Province of Jujuy it is also a protected species, so the National University of Jujuy (UNJu) is responsible for the capture and relocation of specimens reported by shepherds as potential livestock predators, so it is not strange to see so much while some specimen caged in the headquarters of the Rectorate of that house of higher studies. In the Province of Mendoza it is a natural monument, a protected species, and one of its most fragile areas occurs in the foothills region of Paramillos de Uspallata. In the Province of Córdoba there are specimens in the mountain sectors, around the Mar Chiquita Lagoon, where the Ansenuza National Park is currently located, and the presence of specimens has also been sighted and reported in the mountains located on the edge of the Ctalamochita and Carcarañá rivers and the Arroyo de las Tortugas, the same in the mountains and low fields (called cañadas) located north of the towns of Marcos Juárez and General Roca and near Saira and Noetinger in the southeast of the province.

The governments of the Patagonian provinces of Río Negro and Chubut promote hunting, ignoring environmental regulations (January 2019) and paying hunters to kill pumas (and foxes), as a way to control the population. These killings, which often occur with poisoned baits, lead to the death of native scavenger birds and the subsequent increase in the burrowing parrot, which thus loses its natural predators, affecting crops and human settlements. In these provinces, the puma is considered a pest due to its damage to sheep farming, the latter animals contributing to the process of desertification of the Patagonian soil.

In Chile they were common between Patagonia and the current Coquimbo Region until the arrival of the Spanish, they have progressively been almost completely exterminated since then, especially throughout the Central Valley and in the vicinity of the large cities of the regions. of Biobío and Araucanía, currently being uncommon in the regions of Los Ríos and Los Lagos. Today they are more frequent in the regions of Aysén and Magallanes.

In Paraguay in the eastern region they only remain in isolated forests such as those in the Amambay and Mbaracayú mountain ranges, in the national parks in the San Rafael mountain range, and in the Ybycuí mountain range, while in the western region of Chaco they are more abundant due to the low human density recorded in that place.

In Uruguay the "native" It has been extinct for years, although they are usually found sporadically, due to the incursions made by some individuals from neighboring countries.

Attacks on humans

Due to the growth of urban areas, puma populations increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by man. Attacks on humans are rare; For the puma, recognition of prey is a learned behavior and, in general, they do not recognize humans as victims. Attacks on people, livestock, and domestic animals can occur when the puma becomes habituated to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with around twenty deaths in North America since 1890, fifty of which have occurred since 1992. The densely populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986. (after only three from 1890 to 1985), three of them fatal. Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile pumas abandon their mothers and go in search of new territories.

As with many predators, a puma may attack if it is cornered, if it is fleeing from a human being, if its instinct to hunt is stimulated, or if a person plays dead. They can be scared away by looking directly in their eyes or by shouting loudly, but calming down, and any other action that makes the person appear larger and more threatening, can also cause mountain lions to retreat. Fighting cougars with sticks and stones, or even bare hands, is often effective in defusing a cougar's attack stimulus.

Like most felines, when the puma attacks it normally bites the neck, trying to fit its teeth between the vertebrae and the spinal cord. Injuries to the neck, head and back are common and sometimes fatal. Children are at greater risk of attack, and less likely to survive an encounter. A detailed investigation of mountain lion attacks before 1991 showed that 64% of victims and almost all fatalities were children. The same study showed that the highest proportion of attacks have occurred in the Canadian province of British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island, where mountain lion populations are especially dense.

In Chile there are documented cases of puma attacks on cyclists (more frequently), sport fishermen, tourists on foot and drivers of vehicles who have descended from them.

In Argentina, most encounters are resolved with the animal fleeing and avoiding all contact. However, there was a case in the province of Río Negro of hand-to-hand fighting between a 60-year-old gaucho and a large 100-kilogram puma. The dispute was resolved, after a fierce fight, with the vaqueano killing the puma with a facón, but being seriously injured.

Safety tips against the puma

• Eliminate the low and dense vegetation that serves as a hive to the puma in the areas close to the houses.
• Install external lighting with motion sensors.
• Don't let the pets loose and don't feed them out of the house. Be cautious when you release pets, especially at dawn and twilight.
• Do not make long expeditions on foot; go in groups with adults who can take care of children.
• If you encounter a puma, do not run; this can stimulate your hunting instinct. Stay, on the contrary, firm and in front of the animal, looking for visual contact.
• Take young children in the arms, without turning their back on the puma, if possible (when attacked by a dog, experts recommend not to take children in the arms, because this can be interpreted as an act of offense and give value to the dog to attack. If this applies to the puma or not, it is an open discussion).
• Take anything to look bigger and intimidating, open your jacket and throw sticks and stones.
• It does not feel or lie down; this could create the impression that it is an ordinary fourfold prey, rather than a biped being, which is not prey to the puma.
• Respond to the attack if attacked.
• Do not climb a tree or a rock: the puma can climb much better than a human being.

If you are cycling or aerobics in wilderness areas, at least be aware that your movement may trigger the animal's "hunt and kill" reflex, so your activity may be particularly dangerous. Consult the authority or local forest guards if you expose yourself to a risk when playing sports in these places.

Hybrids

Hybrids between different subspecies

There are hybrids between different subspecies of puma in Florida, where foreign animals were introduced in order to increase the scarce population of Florida Panthers, decimated years ago by excessive hunting. This controversial measure, since it dilutes the genetic purity of the threatened western subspecies, has produced a new generation of hybrid cougars that are more vigorous and reproduce more quickly than those of pure Floridian breeds.

Hybrids with other species

With leopards

Despite not being closely related to big cats, hybrids of puma and leopard have been bred, which have been called brown pumas. Whether born to a female cougar mated with a male leopard or a male cougar mated to a female leopard, brown cougars inherit a form of dwarfism. The reported offspring grew to only half the size of the parents. They have a long puma-like body (proportional to the limbs, but nevertheless shorter than either of their parents), but short legs. The coat is variously described as sandy, fawn or grayish with brown, chestnut or 'faded' rosettes.

Current zoologists show great interest in these cases of hybridization, since they occur between two species that are not closely related.

With jaguars

A supposed hybrid of a puma and a jaguar was filmed in Mato Grosso, Brazil, at the beginning of the 20th century. He was killed by Sacha Siemel, whose opinion was that he was a hybrid of a puma and a jaguar. It had a heavy build with brown spots on a beige background and a dark stripe on its back. Cougars and jaguars are present in the area, but they occupy different niches and are unlikely to encounter each other, much less mate. The description of the supposed puma/jaguar hybrid was very similar to that of brown pumas bred in captivity.

Successful hybridization between pumas and jaguars in captivity has been alleged (in a report by Dr. Helmut Hemmer, 1966), but there is no photographic evidence.

With ocelots

Hybrids between pumas and ocelots are also known, although in this case the babies died shortly after birth.

In mythology and culture

The grace and power of pumas have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The Inca city of Cuzco has been designed in the shape of a puma. The Chanca culture, today located in present-day Ayacucho and Apurímac, had the puma as its deity. Lake Titicaca was named in honor of the puma, titi in the Aymara language, due to its shape. When you turn a map of the lake upside down, you can see the shape of a puma. The Moche people often depict the puma in their ceramics. Gods of the Incas such as Viracocha and Illapa have been associated with the animal.

In North America, descriptions of mythological puma characters have appeared in the writings of the Hotcâk ("Ho Chunk" or "Winnebago"), Wisconsin, Illinois, and Cheyenne languages, among others. For the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the puma was a harbinger of death.

The puma continues to be a symbol of strength and stealth. From combat helicopters and motor vehicles, such as the Ford Puma, to sporting goods brands PUMA AG Rudolf Dassler Sport (PUMA), to sports team names such as the professional soccer team of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the nickname of For the Argentine rugby team, the names "Cougar" and "Puma" are widely used as brands.

The mascot and emblem of the sports carried out at the National Autonomous University of Mexico is a puma, it is also the de facto name of the football team of said University.

Same case in Chile, where there is the Antofagasta Sports Club of the First Division of Chile, the only current representative of the homonymous region in the honor division. They are nicknamed "Los Pumas" since its first years of existence, so the northern team has used the puma as a shield and also as a mascot for decades. The Mapuche people also attribute mystical powers to the puma, pangui or trapial, which they compile in some legends.

The Venezuelan musician José Luis Rodríguez is nicknamed "El Puma"; nickname that made him famous.

In Uruguay, the Puma was the subject of an illustration on the reverse of the 1 peso silver coin that circulated in the 1940s. This theme was reused on the reverse of the 10 peso coin released in 2011.