Puebla

Puebla ( listen)officially the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla, is one of the thirty-one states that, together with Mexico City, make up Mexico; located in the central highland of Mexico, its capital and largest city is Puebla de Zaragoza. Politically it is an autonomous, democratic and secular state, composed of 217 municipalities.

The territory of Puebla has an area of 34,251 km², making it the twenty-first largest state in Mexico, bordering on the north with Tlaxcala and Hidalgo, to the northeast with Veracruz, to the south with Oaxaca, to the southwest with Guerrero and to the west with Morelos and the state of Mexico.

Puebla is the fifth most populous state in the country with an estimated population of 6,168,883 inhabitants in 2015, behind the State of Mexico, Veracruz, Jalisco and Mexico City and with 168.56 inhabitants/km² it is the sixth most densely populated, behind the State of Mexico, Morelos, Tlaxcala, Aguascalientes and Guanajuato. Most of the inhabitants have Spanish as their mother tongue, which the country recognizes as a national language along with 67 indigenous languages of the nation, although around 287 linguistic varieties are spoken in the country.

Human presence in Puebla dates back to 32,000 years before the present. As a result of thousands of years of cultural development, various Mesoamerican cultures arose in the Puebla territory. The current territory of Puebla was one of the main scenarios of pre-Hispanic cultures such as the Mexica, Toltec, Olmec, Totonac, Nahua, Mixtec, Zapotec and Otomi, among others. For 300 years, the entire current territory was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, being one of the most important regions of the Viceroyalty in the Spanish Empire.

According to the Ministry of Tourism (Mexico), Puebla is the main tourist destination without a beach in Mexico. This is largely due to the tourism promotion carried out by the state government since 2012, promoting religious tourism, business, cultural, adventure, extreme, gastronomic and ecotourism that the entity offers as well as the promotion of its 9 magical towns and its 3 sites declared World Heritage Sites by Unesco.

In economic terms, by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) it is the eighth national economy. And it is the fourth national place in ease of doing business according to Doing Business 2016. According to the Human Development Index (IDH) report of the UN, has a high Human Development Index of 0.774, and ranks 29th in the country.

The state of Puebla has been of great importance in the history of Mexico. Inside it have been found the oldest remains of corn and sweet potato cultivation in the Tehuacán region; It was the scene of such important pre-Hispanic cities as Cantona and Cholula. During the viceregal era, the city of Puebla became the second most important city in New Spain, thanks to its strategic location between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz. As a state of Mexico it was founded on December 21, 1823.

At the end of the 19th century, the state was one of the first to industrialize, thanks to the introduction of mechanical looms that favored the development of textile activities. Despite all this, in more recent dates, municipalities in the Mixteca, Sierra Norte and Sierra Negra regions have become net expellers of the population, whose main destinations are Mexico City and for two decades the United States. Joined.

Toponymy

The name of the state comes from the name of the state capital, the city of Puebla. Historians have two versions of the origin of the city's name, both with documentary evidence. According to the first version, the name comes from the Puebla letters, with which the Spanish monarchs gave permission to the conquerors to found new cities. The second, more likely version says that the name comes from the name of the Franciscan priest Juan de la Puebla, who in Spain was involved in the selection of missionaries who accompanied the conquistadors who founded the city.

History

Puebla in pre-Hispanic times

Puebla de Zaragoza, located in the central and middle portion of the Puebla valley at an altitude of 2,200 meters, is the center of one of the regions with a warm, temperate climate, with very old human settlements in what is now the Mexican territory. The area where the city is located has different topographic eminences that limit it in three out of four extremes. To the north is the Acueyametepec, today known as Loreto and Guadalupe; to the east the hill of Amalucan and, further south, the Tepozúchil, which mark the western end of Tepeaca, followed by the hills of La Calera, Las Navajas and finally El Chiquihuite. To the west the hill of San Juan Centepec, to the extreme south, gently sloping. The valley of Atlixco and Valsequillo opens.

The Tehuacán Valley, characterized by being a dry region with few resources for human survival, was one of the most important sites in the earliest times of human occupation in Puebla. During the lithic stage, which begins with the arrival of man in Mexico (around the year 30,000 B.C.) and ends around 7,000 B.C. C., with the first signs of agriculture, the Tehuacán Valley was the scene of the development of a human group that would eventually become one of the first corn growers in Mesoamerica. The oldest indications of human presence in Puebla come from El Riego, dated with carbon 14 in the year 20,000 BC. C. The occupants of El Riego used a very simple lithic technology, in which the lack of projectile points is characteristic. The tools were oriented to the collecting activity and the processing of vegetables, as well as the use of small animal species.

Olmeca Figurilla de Las Bocas

During the following horizons of the lithic stage, in the Cenolithic and the Protoneolithic, the development of corn agriculture took place in the Tehuacán region. Recent investigations have questioned whether the domestication of this cereal took place in Mexico, and suggest that it is a crop from the Peruvian Andes. If this is true, it can be said that the occupants of the Tehuacán Valley had very early contacts with South America. Otherwise, the region would still be the site of the oldest remains of maize farming, dating from 6500 B.C. C. and 2500 a. C. The vestiges found are small fossilized corn kernels (corn joints) found in various caves in the mountains surrounding Tehuacán, as well as stone tools associated with their processing, such as the metate. The sites where this evidence has been found make up what is called the "Coxcatlán Complex", which is the name of its most representative site.

During the Early Preclassic period, the Tehuacán Valley was also one of the settings where Mesoamerican ceramics first developed. Ceramics is taken by archaeologists who study Mesoamerica as a defining feature of sedentary life. Perhaps the oldest of all human settlements in Mexico is Ajalpan, also in the Tehuacán Valley, where a circular stone structure has been found, dated to the year 3000 BC. C. At this site, remains of tecomates (almost spherical clay containers) were also discovered, which have been dated to the year 2300 BC. C., about one hundred and fifty years later than the first pottery from Puerto Marqués, on the coast of Guerrero. Towards the end of this first part of the Preclassic, Tehuacán would become a peripheral region of Central Mexico. In what is now the territory of Puebla, the valley of Puebla-Tlaxcala then became a region of great importance, always linked to the large cities of the valley of Mexico.

Pyramid of Chiconquiáhuitl in Cholula.

Around the 12th century BC. C., in the valley of Puebla arose a complex of agricultural populations that were integrated into a wide network of commercial exchange dominated by the Olmecs. Among these were Amalucan, Totimehuacan, Las Bocas and Cholula. The latter would eventually become the protagonist of the pre-Columbian history of the upper basin of the Atoyac River. During the Classic period it was an important ally of Teotihuacán, and when it declined, Cholula experienced one of its heydays. It competed at that time with Cantona, a city located in the Oriental Valley. Meanwhile, in the south, Acatlán became one of the most important centers of the Ñuiñe culture, dedicated to the trade of cochineal and other products of the Mixteca Baja. Around the VIIth century, Yohualichán flourished in the northern sierra of Puebla, a city related to the Totonac culture of El Tajín, the one that its architecture imitates.

Bag type codicefrom the Mixteca Poblana.

To the fall of Teotihuacán, which occurred in the 8th century d. C., the region of the valley of Puebla saw one of the most splendor times of Cholula, the old city of Quetzalcóatl. However, this city, which became one of the largest in Mesoamerica, was abandoned by most of its inhabitants. On the other hand, in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Cantona took over as one of the great cities of the Mesoamerican Epiclassic. Cantona competed with El Tajín and its satellite states (such as Yohualichán itself) for control of the trade routes in the Gulf of Mexico. By the X century AD, Cantona declined like most regional Epiclassic centers. A century later, Chichimeca migrants from the north repopulated Cholula.

During this new period of human occupation, Cholula once again became one of the most important cities in Mesoamerica. For this reason, it received the name of Tollan-Chollollan, which raised it to the same rank as the historical Tula and Teotihuacán. According to some interpretations of the Nuttall codex, Cholula could be the great Nahua ally of Lord Ocho Venado, the Mixtec lord who in the 11th century undertook a campaign of conquests in the Mixtecapan. Although it was not independent of the great centers of power in the Valley of Mexico, Cholula played a very important role in the politics of the Postclassic period of Mesoamerica. It was an important ally of the Mexica in the Puebla-Tlaxcala valley, as was Huejotzingo. Therefore, when the Spanish arrived in Mexico, Cholula was the scene of a massacre perpetrated by the newcomers and their Tlaxcalan and Zempoaltecan allies.

Conquest

The Cholula Matanza, according to the Tlaxcala Canvas.

The Spanish arrived on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in 1519. The condition of submission of various indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the power of the Mexican State led to the establishment of various alliances between the newcomers and the natives. The Totonacs of Cempoala (currently in Veracruz) were one of the first peoples to ally with the Spanish, seeing in them a chance to free themselves from the rule of the Triple Alliance. From there, the Spanish penetrated towards the Altiplano through the Sierra Norte de Puebla, being the first Europeans to cross it, making stops in Zautla and Ixtacamaxtitlán, to reach the valley of Puebla-Tlaxcala, where the Tlaxcalans used the Otomi of Tecóac as a first line of defense. Seeing that the Otomi were unable to stop the advance of the Spanish and their allies from the northern Gulf coast, the rulers of the República de Tlaxcala decided to ally themselves with the newcomers, also as a means of getting rid of of the Mexican yoke.

On October 18, the Spanish and their indigenous allies attacked the city of Cholula. The Tlaxcalans claimed that this intervention was in response to the murder of one of their envoys in the city, to ask them to join them and the Spaniards. However, the versions collected by other texts authored by non-Tlaxcalans suggest that they were the ones who incited the Spanish against Cholula and Huejotzinco, whom they considered allies of the Tenochcas and therefore, enemies of the Tlaxcalans.

The Spanish advanced through the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca valley heading west through the Huexotzinco region, from where they reached the point known today as Paso de Cortés, in the Sierra Nevada. From there they followed Mexico-Tenochtitlan, from where they were expelled by Cuitláhuac on June 30, 1520. Helped by the indigenous people, the invaders took refuge in Tlaxcala from where they attacked some populations with a Mexica presence or allied to Tenochtitlan, among them Huexotzinco, Tepeaca, Itzocan and Cuauhquechollan. At Tepeaca, Cortés established a Spanish settlement, and the Indian settlement took the name of "Segura de la Frontera" in 1520. Later, the inhabitants of these towns would end up allying with the Spanish in the final campaign against the Mexicas and in other campaigns of conquest. For example, the people of Cuauhquechollan accompanied Pedro de Alvarado on his journey to Guatemala.

Viceroyalty

Ruins of the Franciscan convent of Tecali de Herrera, built in the centuryXVI.

Motoly. It is likely that it was the very guardian of Tlaxcala who performed the stroke of the city of Puebla, legendaryly attributed to the angels.

Alternately to the Spanish military conquest, an active Christianization of the native peoples took place in New Spain. In fact, one of the reasons that served to justify the Spanish occupation of America was the expansion of the Christian religion among the natives. The Franciscans first penetrated the territory of Puebla, who accompanied the Spanish expeditionaries in New Spain during the first years after the fall of Tenochtitlan. The Franciscans built conventual establishments especially in the center of the province of Puebla, in towns such as Tecamachalco, Tepeaca, Tecali, Quecholac, Cholula, Huaquechula, Zacatlán (Sierra Norte) and Tehuacán. The Dominicans settled mainly in the south of the state —Izúcar, Tepexi, Huehuetlán— and the Augustinians in the north —Xicotepec— and southwest of the province —Tlapa, Chiautla, Chietla—.

After the Spanish conquest of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was consummated, in the territory of Puebla the distribution of domains for the Spaniards and the assignment of Indian parcels to those who participated in the Conquest took place. But given the privileges that were granted to Tlaxcala, the populations of the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca valley region were protected by a special statute of indigenous self-government, at least in name. In accordance with the agreement, the Tlaxcalan populations were freed, and restrictions were placed on the establishment of Spaniards in those regions, although this did not prevent the fact that there were Spaniards who harassed the Tlaxcalan people, forcing them to work for the conquistadors. Given the situation of tense relations between Spaniards and indigenous people in the valley, the Second Audience of New Spain granted permission to populate the Tlaxcala region with Spaniards. The new Spanish population, founded as Puebla de los Ángeles on 16 April 1531 In 1531, he settled in a region that, according to legend, was pointed out by angels to Julián Garcés, bishop of Tlaxcala. However, it is possible that it was the Franciscans of Tlaxcala, including Toribio de Benavente —known as Motolinía, which in Nahuatl means He who grieves— who chose the site where the new town was built. Spanish.

Puebla's strategic position between the Valley of Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico coast played an important role in the development of Puebla's viceregal history. The city of Puebla became an obligatory passage for trade between the capital of New Spain and the port of Veracruz; The latter was the point through which the greatest commercial traffic between New Spain and its metropolis was carried out. According to the reports sent by the special judge, Juan Salmerón, the new population was prospering rapidly, also attracting indigenous settlers and a good part of the newcomers to the viceroyalty. The success of Puebla implied confrontations with the encomenderos, who saw future divisions of land and indigenous labor threatened. The success of the population was an argument to request the King of Spain the abolition of alcabalas, the creation of a municipal charge with the town of Totimehuacan, the transfer of the bishopric from Tlaxcala to Puebla and the creation of a provincial audience. However, a flood wiped out the first foundation in Puebla on the banks of the San Francisco River, making it necessary to move it to another, safer site. The transfer of the population did not deprive it of the privileges it had obtained —such as the provision of work by the indigenous people of the Puebla-Tlaxcala valley. In 1532 the document that elevated Puebla to the category of city was issued, although the document reached Angelópolis until 1533, perhaps retained by the viceroyalty authorities in the capital. In that year, the Audiencia appointed a corregidor for Puebla, Tlaxcala and Cholula who would meet with its own council. In July 1533, the Cabildo de México filed a complaint against the city of Puebla with the Council of the Indies, arguing that Puebla was exploiting Spanish allies in the conquest of Mexico—the Tlaxcalans—and depriving the capital of the tributes it received. the natives of the region had to surrender. The lawsuit demanded to conclude with the privileges for Puebla, which occurred a year later.

The fertile valleys of the province of Puebla —such as Atlixco, Puebla-Tlaxcala, and Izúcar— became producers of a good part of the cereals and other farm supplies that were destined for consumption in Mexico City and Angelópolis. The prosperity of the city of Puebla favored the rapid urbanization of that town, which was embellished with large civil and religious constructions.

Around the 18th century, Puebla was renowned for the quality of its wheat and flour. Hundreds of mills had been established on the banks of the Atoyac, and the surplus production was exported to the Antilles and Central America. The breeding of sheep cattle contributed to the development of the textile industry, whose production was consumed by numerous obrajes that became pillars of the economy of New Spain. Other industries developed in parallel, such as cotton fabrics, soap, hats, saddlery, copper and iron objects and above all, its famous and renowned Talavera pottery from Puebla; industries that persist to date.

The War of Independence in the Municipality of Puebla

At the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence, the administration of Puebla proved to be one of the most loyal to the Spanish government. The mayor Manuel de Flon, Count of Cadena, was called to reinforce the royalist army in the Battle of Monte de las Cruces, where the insurgents under the command of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla defeated the Spanish although they did not finally advance on the capital of New Spain. Flon's troops, in the company of Calleja, harassed the insurgent troops as far as Guadalajara, giving them a series of defeats that later ended the first stage of the war. However, in the Battle of Calderón Bridge, the mayor of Puebla was killed in combat. The high clergy of Puebla were also favorable to the royalist cause, even Bishop González del Campillo came to accuse Hidalgo of being part of a French conspiracy to bring the Spanish kingdoms under the rule of Napoleon.

Zacatlán There the "provisional government" of Osorno was established.

Mariano Matamoros was one of the most active insurgents in the populated territory during the time of organizing the Mexican independence war.

Manuel Mier and Terán defended the Congress of Anáhuac in Tehuacán, where they took refuge after the capture of Morelos in Tezmalaca.

After the execution of the first insurgent chiefs in 1811, the incipient rebel groups that had arisen in the Sierra Norte strengthened in Puebla. In this area, the rebellion was strengthened under the command of José Francisco Osorno. The region of Izúcar and Tehuacán also showed support for the independence, and especially in Tlapa, in the south of the intendancy, where the rebels placed themselves under the orders of José María Morelos y Pavón. The negotiations undertaken by the viceregal government through the bishop of Puebla in 1811 were unsuccessful, since the Junta de Zitácuaro refused to receive the pardon, as did Morelos when he met with an envoy from González de Campillo in Tlapa. Meanwhile, in the north, Osorno had established a provisional government in Zacatlán. The insurgents from the Sierra Norte subsequently seized an important area in the north of Veracruz, as well as in the north of the Intendancy of Mexico, including such important positions as Tulancingo, Real del Monte and Pachuca. With the resources taken from the mines in the Osorno region, he financed the creation of regiments in Huamantla and San Juan de los Llanos.

In the south, Izúcar received Morelos in December 1811, at the same time that Valerio Trujano's advance into the Mixteca of Puebla formed an insurgent corridor between the Izúcar valley and the Tehuacán valley. On February 23, 1812, the royalist Ciríaco del Llano besieged Izúcar, although he was unable to take the square and had to go to support Calleja and the troops that were besieging the insurgents in Cuautla. After his victory in Cuautla on May 2, 1812, Morelos and his troops headed for Izúcar. Mariano Matamoros remained in command of 2,000 soldiers in this town, while Morelos and the rest of the Insurgent Army headed for Tehuacán —which had been taken on May 3, 1812 by the independentistas led by the priest of Tlacotepec, José María Sánchez—, supported by Trujano who controlled the Mixteca. Meanwhile, the city of Puebla was devastated by an epidemic. This emergency situation forced the mayor and the city council to take some measures, including the construction of a hospital and that of the Fort of Loreto, given the possibility of an attack by the insurgents, who were in plazas that year. nearby such as Atlixco and Tepeaca, in addition to controlling the north of the intendancy. In the east, the victory of Nicolás Bravo in San Agustín del Palmar on August 12, 1812 once again put the authorities of the city of Puebla on alert, since that this insurgent victory cut off the passage between Angelópolis and the port of Veracruz.

In November 1812, Morelos left Tehuacán to go to the city of Oaxaca, a city that he took at the end of that year. At the beginning of 1813, he was joined in Oaxaca by General Matamoros from Izúcar. In April of that same year, Morelos and his troops crossed the south of the municipalities of Oaxaca, Puebla and Mexico to go to Acapulco, which was completely surrendered on August 20, 1813 with the surrender of Fort San Diego. In the north of the intendancy, Osorno defeated the royalists in Zacatlán, so that the insurgents surrounded the second city of New Spain from the north, east and south. After the Chilpancingo Congress was held in the south of the Mexican government, the insurgents suffered a series of defeats that led them to lose several of their most important positions.

In Puebla territory, the confrontation between Juan Nepomuceno Rosáins (commander of Tehuacán) and Ignacio López Rayón (ally of the Zacatlán rebels) favored some royalist victories in the administration, among them, the capture of Tehuacán and Zacatlán, although this last city would be recovered by Osorno shortly after. The divisions of the Puebla insurgents and the defeat of Miguel Negrete, one of the main leaders of the insurgency in Puebla, were the events that marked the year 1814 for the Puebla independentistas. In that same year the Constitution of Apatzingán was promulgated, already with the Congress of Chilpancingo in flight before the royalist persecution. In his flight, Morelos led the members of the congress to Uruapan (Michoacán) and in September 1815 he tried to take it to Tehuacán (Puebla), although he was captured in Tezmalaca and shot on December 22, 1815 in San Cristóbal Ecatepec (Mexico). The members of Congress arrived in Tehuacán, where they were received by Manuel Mier y Terán. However, the differences between the deputies and General Mier and Terán facilitated the defeat of the insurgency in that square. The congress was dissolved at the proposal of Mier y Terán on December 15, 1815.

After that episode, Mier y Terán proposed that a new body of government be elected, but except for José Francisco Osorno, none of the other insurgent leaders supported the proposal. In 1816, the north of Puebla was recovered by the royalists led by Manuel Concha. Zacatlán was occupied by the Spanish on August 20, with the help of numerous insurgents who went over to the opposite side. Osorno fled to Tehuacán, which in those days was also facing harassment from the Spanish. In December, the population was besieged by the Spanish. On January 19, 1817, Mier y Terán entered into negotiations with the viceregal government. After securing amnesty for the participants in the conflict, including the royalists who went over to the insurgency during the siege, Mier y Terán surrendered the Cerro Colorado plaza on January 21.

With the surrender of the insurgents in Tehuacán and Zacatlán, the insurgent movement was practically extinguished in the Puebla intendancy, as Ciriaco del Llano wrote in February 1817. However, the restoration of the Constitution of Cádiz in 1820 generated a landscape of political instability. Bishop Antonio Joaquín Pérez —who as deputy to the Cortes for the Puebla mayor had supported the revolution of the Persians in 1815— spoke in favor of the liberal government, but the Church was actually considering the possibility of supporting the restoration of absolutism. The election of the provincial councils was a source of disgust for the intendancy of Puebla, which was incorporated into the deputation of Mexico. The Angelópolis city council pressed for the establishment of a Puebla deputation and a commercial consulate in the city, but was repressed by the mayor Del Llano.

Creation of the state of Puebla

The territorial evolution of Puebla is a process by which the borders of that Mexican state have been defined. Its antecedents go back to the viceregal era, when the city of Puebla was founded and later the province of the same name was created. During the time of the Bourbon reforms to the organization of the American domains, the province of Puebla became the intendancy of the same name. The provisional regulations of the first Mexican Empire, which acquired its independence in 1821, provided that the former viceroyalty municipalities be established in provinces with the same territory that they had during the viceregal era. During the months of 1823 that elapsed between the fall of the Empire and the establishment of the Republic, a debate took place about the form of government that the country would adopt. Before it was approved by the Constituent Congress, Puebla adopted an autonomous government as a free state on December 23, 1823.

20th century

At the beginning of the XX century, in Puebla, the armed struggle was carried out by a family that sympathized with the ideals of Francisco I. Madero, included in the Anti-re-election Club, which at that time championed the opposition candidacy to the Porfirio Díaz regime, which after 30 years, materialized thanks to electoral fraud and hindering Madero's presidential campaign, his seventh re-election. That family was that of the Serdán brothers, the role played by the Serdán brothers was decisive for the beginning of the armed struggle in the region and the country. The Profirista regime creates an environment of social inequality, due to which the Aquiles Brothers, Carmen and Máximo Serdán are the first participants in the conspiracy against this government. On July 19, 1909, the first meeting of the Anti-reelection Club was held, so the state government closely followed the footsteps of the family, and began actions to search for weapons and the rebels around the home. of the family, located on Calle 6 Oriente in the center of the city of Puebla. And it was then that on November 18, 1910, the police chief Miguel Cabrera and the Serdán brothers found themselves in a fierce confrontation. The first fell dead and later reinforcements appeared, the 1st and 17th battalions as well as Zaragoza. The confrontation lasted more than three hours, Máximo Serdán lost his life the same day, his brother Aquiles the next day, while his sister Carmen and their mother, Doña Carmen Alatriste, were taken to jail.

People's Popular Movement (1962-1981)

• 1962: Movement for University Reform and the Movement for University Reform (MRU).
• 1963: Fights of street vendors and mobilizations against the rise to the rates.
• 1966: Mobilization of citizens for housing.
• 1968: Student Movement.
• 1970: Mobilizations against the caress in life, struggle of the railway workers, struggle of the workers of Volkswagen, struggle of workers of the teachers struggle of peasants for the land and the struggle of the university students.
• 1971: The struggles of 1970 continue, except for the struggle of university students.
• 1972: Mobilizations of the Volkswagen union, mobilizations of street vendors, university movement, popular movement and struggles of electricians, as well as of railroaders, in addition to the struggle of the University Council.
• 1973: Intense struggle of sellers, earth invasions and university struggle.
• 1974: The struggle of citizens for housing, the struggle of the electricians, workers' strikes in the textile industry organized by the "FROC-CROC" and the strike organized by the CTM.
• 1975: Election of the rector of the "UAP", presentation of the Program of University Reform and Movement of the sellers in the "28 of October".
• 1976: Movement of the drivers of United Buses, Movements of sellers and railroads, strike of academics of the University of the Americas and the defeat of the democratic trend by the electricians.
• 1977: Movement of the Transport Workers Golden Star, strike of workers of the Tamariz and Haro hospital.
• 1979: Strike of the telephonists.
• 1981: Movement of teachers, Movement of the workers of "Z" and the election of the rector of the UAP, in addition to the division of the university left.

During the second half of the XX century, the panorama was different, the city of Puebla was transformed above all into the social sphere, these changes accompanied Mexico in the year 1968, shaping it as a modern and colonial city. that later in the year of 1987 is declared a Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

21st century

On July 4, 2007, a tragedy occurred in the Sierra Negra of Puebla. Near the town of San Miguel Eloxochitlán, a bus with more than 50 passengers was buried by an avalanche caused by heavy rains in the state of Puebla. The Mexican Army applied Plan DN-III-E and the rescue forces rescued close to 36 bodies and the rescue maneuver was terminated a few days later. Governor Mario Marín and President Felipe Calderón expressed their regret over this event. The summer of 2007 has been marred by heavy and continuous rains and drop in temperature.

Geography

Puebla occupies the 21st position among the 32 Mexican states due to its surface area of 34,251 square kilometers. It is bordered to the north by the state of Hidalgo; to the east, with the state of Veracruz; to the south, with Oaxaca and Guerrero; and to the west with the states of Morelos, Mexico, Tlaxcala and Hidalgo. It does not have access to the sea, although until before 1849, when the state of Guerrero was created, it had an outlet to the Pacific Ocean, and it also had control of the Tuxpan district, which became part of the state of Veracruz. Most of the Puebla territory is located in the Transversal Neovolcanic Axis. The climate is different between regions, and goes from the cold of the high mountains to the hot semi-desert of the Mixteca.

Relief

Landscape of maizales in the Valley of Tehuacán.

The state of Puebla is located in the central region of Mexico, to the east of the capital of the republic. Its territory is full of contrasts, although the ravines and the mountains are a constant in most of it. The center of the state is occupied by the Puebla-Tlaxcala valley, shared with Tlaxcala. This valley is wide and has a temperate climate, with an average altitude of 2,160 meters above sea level (m a.s.l.). It is part of physiographic province X of the Neovolcanic Axis.

Main elevations of the state of Puebla
Name	msnm
Volcano Citlaltépetl	5 610
Popocatépetl Volcano	5 500
Volcano Iztaccíhuatl	5 220
Sierra Negra Volcano	4 580
Source: INEGI

The western limit of the Puebla valley is the Sierra Nevada, essentially formed by the Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes. It reaches heights above 5000 m a.s.l. no. m.. The summits of these volcanoes occupy the second and third places for their elevation at the national level, and they were normally covered with snow throughout the year. Popocatépetl is an active volcano that has been estimated to be 23 thousand years old. years, and it has become one of the most monitored in the world after the increase in its volcanic activity. The Sierra Nevada marks the western limit of the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca valley and the border between Puebla and the states of Mexico and Morelos.

To the southeast of the Sierra Nevada, the Neovolcanic Axis is home to numerous mesas. The most immediate is the Nealtican malpaís, a deposit of volcanic, sandy and stony material, which is home to a dense pine-oak forest. Immediately to the south of the malpaís and to the southwest of the poblano-tlaxcalteca valley extends the fertile valley of Atlixco. To the south of this valley begins the Mixteca Poblana, of abrupt relief. Among the hills that make up the Sierra Mixteca —actually formed by numerous mountain ranges— there are several valleys with a warm semi-dry climate. Due to its economic importance, the Matamoros Valley stands out. Other valleys nestled in the Mixteca are those of Chiautla and Acatlán, lower than that of Matamoros. The valleys of the Mixteca barely exceed 1,000 m s. no. m., and the mountains that surround them hardly reach 2000 m s. no. m. at the highest points. The highest altitude in the region is Cerro Tecorral, in the municipality of Izúcar de Matamoros, with 2,060 m a.s.l. no. m..

Landscape of the valley of Tehuacán

To the east of the Mixteca Poblana is the Tehuacán valley, which is an elongated plain that extends from the Tepeaca Valley (which includes the municipalities of Tepeaca and Tecali de Herrera) —a pass between the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca and the tehuacanero valley- to the southeast of the state. On the border with Oaxaca, the Valley of Tehuacán gives rise to the Cañada de Cuicatlán, which is a set of faults caused by the folding of the Neovolcanic Axis, the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre del Sur. Both the ravine and the valley are part of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve. The Tehuacán valley is separated from the Mixteca by the Sierra de Zapotitlán, higher than the Sierra Mixteca, with altitudes higher than 2,000 meters on several occasions. no. m..

View from the top of the Pico de Orizaba

To the east of the Tehuacán valley is another mountain range that is commonly known as the Sierra Negra de Tehuacán, part of the Neovolcanic Axis and of abrupt relief, with altitudes above 2000 m a.s.l. no. m.. The Sierra Negra emerged over the Sierra Madre Oriental, burying it with its intense volcanic activity, although the latter emerges further south, in the state of Oaxaca, under the name of Sierra Mazateca.

To the north of the Sierra Negra and the valley of Ciudad Serdan rises Pico de Orizaba, the highest point in Mexico and the border between Puebla and Veracruz, covered by perpetual snow threatened by climate change. To the west, Citlaltépetl is the Sierra Negra volcano. The western slope of the Sierra Negra and the Citlaltépetl form the Llanos de San Andrés (2,500 m.a.s.l.) that progressively descend towards the west to the Tepeaca Valley and the Llanos de San Juan. These constitute the transition zone between the Neovolcanic Axis and the southern section of the Sierra Madre Oriental, which in Puebla takes the name of Sierra Norte de Puebla. It occupies the north of Puebla, in a space of one hundred kilometers by fifty. The Sierra Norte extends towards the territory of Hidalgo and Tlaxcala; at the same time that it separates the plateaus of the center of Puebla and the Coastal Plain of the Gulf. This last natural region corresponds to a small portion of the extreme north and northeast of the poblano territory.

Hydrology

Hydrological Regions of Puebla
Name	Sup.
(green)	59.15
Pánuco (red)	0.44
Tuxpan-Nautla	23,76
Papaloapan (yellow)	16,88
Source: INEGI

The territory of Puebla is located on four Mexican hydrological regions. Almost two thirds of the territory corresponds to the Balsas region that flows into the Pacific Ocean. Of the basins that make up this region, the Atoyac river drains an area equivalent to 49% of the populated area. The Atoyac receives the waters of numerous tributaries, among them the Zahuapan, the Nexapa, the Acatlán and the Mixteco. Much smaller percentages correspond to the basins of the Amacuzac and Tlapaneco rivers that join the Atoyac to give rise to the middle course of the Balsas river. In this region there are some important dams, highlighting the Valsequillo Dam. One of the major problems in the Balsas region is the presence of a large industrial activity in the area. This implies a high rate of contamination of surface currents and groundwater tables in the basin, which in turn have major repercussions for the balance of ecosystems and for human populations.

The rest of Puebla's territory is located within three hydrological regions that drain into the Gulf of Mexico. The Pánuco region represents less than 1% of the surface of the state and corresponds to a small section in the municipality of Honey. Second in importance is the Tuxpan-Nautla region, with 23% of the state surface. It is subdivided into four basins that have their sources in the Sierra Norte de Puebla. The Tecolutla river basin drains more than 16% of the surface of Puebla. It receives water from rivers such as the Apulco, the Laxaxalpa and the Necaxa. On the latter is the Necaxa Dam. The relief of the upper basin of Tecolutla originates waterfalls that constitute a tourist attraction. Some of them are Las Brisas (Cuetzalan del Progreso) and San Pedro Atmatla (Zacatlán). To the north of the Tecolutla river basin is the San Marcos river, belonging to the Cazones river basin. The extreme north of Puebla is part of the Tuxpan river basin, where the mighty Pantepec river flows. The Pantepec floods have caused several natural disasters in the region, such as in 1999, when more than a hundred families from Huehuetla (Hidalgo) lost their homes and 254 people were swept away by the current of the river in the Sierra Norte de Puebla.

The third most important hydrological region in the state of Puebla is the Papaloapan region, in the southeast of the state and drains around 17% of the surface. The mighty Papaloapan River has its sources in the arid Tehuacán Valley, where the Tehuacán and Zapotitlán rivers are born. Already in the Coastal Plain of the Gulf of Mexico, the Papaloapan receives the waters of other rivers born on the eastern slope of the Sierra Negra de Tehuacán, such as the Coyolapa and the Petlapa. A small portion of the Jamapa river basin also belongs to this region, in the Sierra de Quimixtlán to the north of Citlaltépetl.

Climatology

The dominant climates in the Puebla territory are temperate climates, with varying degrees of humidity. The third part of the territory has a sub-humid temperate climate with rains in summer. This portion corresponds to the central region of the state, where the valleys of Puebla-Tlaxcala and Atlixco meet, the southern slope of the Sierra Norte de Puebla and the western slope of the Sierra Negra de Tehuacán. The lack of rain in these regions is partly explained by the presence of the high mountains in the eastern part of the state, which prevent the passage of moisture-laden clouds from the Gulf of Mexico. In this portion of Puebla territory, annual temperatures are 16° on average, and rainfall ranges between 600 and 800 mm per year. The rainiest season is summer. The Echeverría station (21-034) located in the Puebla Valley, recorded an average of 165 mm of rain in the month of June during the years 2001 to 2005. Also with warm temperatures, but with higher humidity, there are some areas from the middle regions of the sierras of Tehuacán, Nevada, Norte and Citlaltépetl. As a whole, the spaces with a temperate climate in Puebla add up to around 40% of the surface of the territory.

Another 39% corresponds to warm climates. These correspond to the regions of the Mixteca Poblana and the eastern slope of the Sierra Norte and Tehuacán, as well as the region of the Sierra de Quimixtlán, in the central east of the state. The warm temperatures are due to a lower altitude compared to geographical areas such as the Valley of Puebla. To give an example, in the Mixteca the summits of the hills rarely exceed 2000 m a.s.l. no. m., while the valley of Puebla has an altitude of 2,160 m s. no. m.. A different situation is that of the eastern slopes of the state. In addition to being at a lower altitude compared to the highland plateaus, they are closer to the Gulf coast. This also establishes a fundamental difference between the Mixteca and the other warm-climate regions in Puebla: the Mixteca is considerably drier than the Sierra Norte and Sierra Negra de Tehuacán. While the Piaxtla meteorological station (Mixteca Poblana) registers an average rainfall of 727 mm per year, the isohyets of the Sierra Negra exceed 3,000 mm and those corresponding to the Sierra Norte reach 4,000 mm.

Slightly more than 18% of the surface of Puebla has some type of dry or semi-dry climate. It is mainly the southern part of the Tehuacán Valley and the San Juan and San Andrés Plains, located behind the high mountains of the eastern part of the state. Another region with this type of climate is found in the south of the Mixteca, on the border with Oaxaca and Guerrero. Temperatures in these regions range from 16°C to 22°C. Rainfall is relatively scarcer than in the rest of the state. In Oriental (Llanos de San Juan), rainfall on average does not exceed 500 mm per year, while in Ciudad Serdán it is around 400 mm.

Average climate parameters of Puebla
Month	Ene.	Feb.	Mar.	Open up.	May.	Jun.	Jul.	Ago.	Sep.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.	Annual
Average temperature (°C)	23.0	23.8	25.9	27.1	27.9	26.4	25.3	25.2	24.8	24.6	24.4	23.5	25.2
Temp. medium (°C)	4.6	5.9	8.1	10.2	11.7	12.4	11.4	11.4	11.3	9.6	7.3	5.3	9.1
Total precipitation (mm)	9.4	7.5	11.5	23.4	87.9	197.0	164.7	155.7	192.1	73.9	12.3	4.6	940
Precipitation days (≥ 1 mm)	1.2	1.7	2.4	5.8	13.1	17.6	16.9	17.4	17.7	9.2	2.4	1.3	106.7
Source:

Flora and fauna

• Flora: maguey, fruit trees (ciruelo, chabacano, chirimoya, durazno, guayaba, higo, lime, lemon, apple, orange, walnut, pear, tejocote perion), grapes and xoconostle.

• Domestic Fauna: cattle, sheep, goat, pig, ass, horseback riding, poultry, dogs and cats.

• Wild Fauna: squirrels, armadillos, cacomiztle, rabbit, coyote, hare, bat, ounce, mice homemade and field, mouse, badger, tlacuache, tuza, fox, fox, zorrillo, lettuce, lizard, viper of cascabel, cenzontle and zopilote.

Flora and fauna of Puebla
Nutria	Viper of cascabel	Coyote	Black fox	Cacomixtle
Cat montés	Armadillo	Cenzontle	Tlacuache	Ajolote
Nopal	Oyamel	Cempasúchil	Yuca	Agave

It is estimated that the state has some 900 endemic species. Most of these can be found in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán biosphere reserve and in Zapotitlán Salinas. "Crops such as mesquite, garambullo, neem and quiotilla, as well as some types of cacti and the biznaga are original species with great value, which means an area of opportunity for their production and commercialization.& #34; Of all these species, some vegetables stand out for their various medicinal and nutritional properties, among them are:

• Mezquite (Prosopis laevigata). Useful for fermented food and beverages. It has antibacterial action against Sthaphylococcus aerus and Scherichia coli. Useful also to treat some eye diseases.
• Garambullo (Myirtillocactus geometrizans). It has a high fiber content, auxiliary in the treatment of diabetes and kidney diseases, and its pigment can be used as a dye.
• Neem (Azadirachta indicates). Useful for oils and dietary supplements, rich in carbohydrates and about 10 varieties of amino acids, calcium and other minerals. It also serves as antiseptic, antifebrile, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and fungicidal.
• Chiotilla (Scontria chiotilla). Rich in vitamins A, B, Ba, minerals and proteins. It also has antioxidant properties.

Demographics

Puebla is the fifth most populous state in Mexico. It is inhabited by 5,779,829 people and approximately a fifth of them are in the municipality of Puebla, where the state capital is located, and approximately a third of the state's inhabitants are in the Puebla Metropolitan Area. In contrast, there are regions with a low population density, especially in the regions of La Mixteca and the Tehuacán Valley. The urban population represents 71.8% and the rural one 28.2%.

At the beginning of the XX century, the state of Puebla was home to 7% of the population of Mexico, around 1 million 300 thousand inhabitants. With that figure, Puebla was the fourth most populous entity in the country. Although the population of the state has increased to more than 5 million at the beginning of the XXI century, Pueblanos living in the state represent 5.2% of the Mexican national population. Most of the population is concentrated in Puebla de Zaragoza, capital of the state. In 1900, the capital of Puebla had a population of more than 93,000 inhabitants. In the following 55 years, the population of Angelópolis would multiply by 10, reaching more than 1,400,000 inhabitants in 2005. The city of Tehuacán, second in importance due to its population in the state, began the XX century with a population of 7,139 inhabitants, in 2005 it had a population of 260,923 inhabitants. The regions with the highest population density in the state are Angelópolis, with densities greater than 2000 inhabitants/km²; and the Sierra Norte, with minimum densities of 50 inhab/km². The average of the entity is 169 people per km².

In 2005, the state ranked sixth among the states of the Mexican Republic in terms of emigration, with 91,897 emigrants. Transnational emigration represented 1.4% of the original population of the state, and the main destination is the United States. The areas that expel transnational migrants are the Mixteca and Tehuacán and the Sierra Negra. In contrast, the entity received more than 96,000 immigrants from other parts of the country and from abroad; The state is home to mainly Spanish, Italian, Lebanese, American, German, French, Guatemalan, Korean, and Salvadoran communities.

Most populated municipalities

Some of its most important cities are Puebla de Zaragoza, Tehuacán, San Martín Texmelucan, Teziutlán, Tecamachalco, Zacatlán, Huauchinango, Libres, Atlixco, Cholula, Xicotepec de Juárez, Tepeaca and Cuetzalan. Its economy is based mainly on manufacturing and the transformation industry. To the north of the state is the Necaxa dam, which has supplied electrical energy to the center of Mexico City since 1903. The old name of the state capital is the city of Puebla de los Ángeles, named after a legend that says that some angels drew the streets of the city in a dream, hence they are symmetrically well outlined. Starting in 1862, the City was renamed Puebla de Zaragoza, in honor of its defender General Ignacio Zaragoza by a presidential decree of Benito Juárez.

Main Towns

The following is a list of the main localities in the State of Puebla, as reported in the 2010 census.

Urban population and rural population

According to the II Population Count (2005), the state has 6,348 localities that house a total population of 5,779,829 people. Of the total number of towns in the entity, only 266 have a population of more than 2,500 inhabitants. In Mexico, urban localities are all populations with more than 2,500 inhabitants, according to the definition adopted by INEGI, which implies that the vast majority of census localities in the state are rural. Altogether, 6,082 rural localities (including municipal capitals such as La Magdalena Tlatlauquitepec, with fewer than 400 inhabitants) are home to 1,582,425 inhabitants (29.39% of the population, higher than the national 23.5%). Most of the urban population of Puebla is concentrated in cities with more than 15,000 inhabitants. Only Angelopolis concentrates 27.6% of the population. Tehuacán, the second most populous municipality in the entity, barely represents 4.84% of the population. The only municipalities with populations of more than one hundred thousand inhabitants are Puebla, Tehuacán, San Martín Texmelucan, Atlixco and San Pedro Cholula.

Indigenous peoples

Pooloca woman

Municipalities of the state with a predominantly mestizo population, such as Puebla de Zaragoza, Tehuacán and Atlixco, concentrate a significant number of first-generation indigenous migrants or natives.

The largest area of indigenous population in the state is the municipality of Puebla, which is home to members of all the indigenous peoples of the state and others from all over the country. In 2002, it was estimated that more than 69,000 people (6.8% of the population of the capital municipality) were indigenous.

Another important nucleus of indigenous population is Tehuacán: also in 2002, the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI) calculated that 48,264 indigenous people (21% of the population) lived in the second most populous municipality in the state.

Based on the 2000 census, the CDI estimated that the indigenous population of the state of Puebla was 957,650 people, 18.9% of the state's population. This index is one of the highest in Mexico.

The indigenous regions of Puebla are among the poorest in the state and in the country. Several municipalities with a majority indigenous population in the Sierra Negra and Sierra Norte—Zoquitlán, Coyomeapan, Huehuetla, and Camocuautla—are among the hundred with the worst levels of human development.

• In the state there are two large indigenous regions: the Sierra Norte de Puebla and the Sierra Negra. In the first Nahuas, Totonacos and Ottomans, which constitute important populations in Cuetzalan del Progreso, Pahuatlán, Huehuetla and Teziutlán.

• The Sierra Negra is one of the main population in the state of Puebla. In several municipalities in the region, such as Eloxochitlán and San Sebastián Tlacotepec, the indigenous popolocas, Nahuas and Mazatecos constitute the majority of the population. The indigenous region of the Sierra Negra is strongly linked to the city of Tehuacán, where indigenous people are 21% of the population.

• Other indigenous municipalities are isolated in the southwest and central state. These are populations such as San Jerónimo Xayacatlán or Quimixtlán, in the south and east of the state and with important Mixteca and Nahua populations respectively.

Public languages

Language map: North (otomi, totonaco, nahuatl), Center (náhuatl), South (popoloca, mixed, nahuatl)

Spanish is the official language and is known by almost the entire population.

About 15% of the population over the age of five in the state speak an indigenous language. In 1810 it was estimated that 74.3% of the poblanos spoke some indigenous language; almost a hundred years later, the 1900 census gave 34% as a result.

Nahuatl

Nahuatl speakers make up the largest indigenous language community in the state. They represent more than 70% of the population that speaks indigenous languages in the state and are concentrated in the Sierra Norte and Sierra Negra regions.

Totonac

The second linguistic group by the number of speakers is made up of the users of the Totonac language. They represent about 18% of the people of Puebla over the age of five who speak an indigenous language.

Others

• Further back are the speakers of mazateco and popoloca, with more than 14 and 13 thousand speakers respectively. The popolocas share with the Mazateco speakers the territorial area of the Tehuacán valley, with the difference that this is the historical territory of the first linguistic community.

• Otomi speakers (more than 7,000) are concentrated in municipalities bordering Hidalgo.

• Mixtec speakers are located in the center and south of the state, and they add more than 6 thousand (1.2%).

• The Cypriot, is a variant of the véneta (North Italian language) spoken mainly in the Chipilo community of Javier Mina (where the variant is named), in the state of Puebla. Mexico's véneta language, over time, was suffering influences from Mexican Spanish, due to its contact with other communities near the south of Puebla City. However, although the Cypriot is very close to other dialects of the véneto, it was a unique case in Mexico that is compared to the talian of southern Brazil. The number of Cypriot speakers is not known for certain, there are estimates that place the number of vereto-parlantes in about 5000 in the population community of Chipilo, most of which are bilingual with Spanish, the figures in other states of the country are unknown.

Politics and government

The state of Puebla was founded with the promulgation of the Constitution of 1824 as one of the 19 states of the First Mexican Federal Republic. It is free and sovereign, because it has the capacity to formulate its own laws and choose its rulers. At the same time, it has a representation in the Congress of the Union. The exercise of political power in the state is divided into three entities: the Judiciary, the Legislative and the Executive. Each one of them has its own powers and are autonomous from each other.

Executive Branch

Protocol room of the Government of the State of Puebla, in the population capital.

The Executive Power is occupied by the Governor of the State of Puebla. The governor is elected by means of universal suffrage of all Mexican citizens who reside in the territory of the state of Puebla and are registered in the Federal Electoral Register. To hold the position of governor, it is necessary to be a citizen of Puebla in full enjoyment of civil rights and over 30 years of age, not be a minister of religious cults or hold positions in the federal, state or municipal administration, and in case of being an official, to separate from his position ninety days before the day the elections are held. The term of office of a state governor is six years, starting on February 1 of the year following that in which the election is verified. choice. A governor cannot be reelected, according to federal law. The governor of Puebla for the period 2011-2017 is Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas.

Legislative Branch

The Legislative Power is incarnated by the Congress of the State of Puebla. This has the power to promulgate the specific laws in force in the state of Puebla, reform the existing ones or repeal those that are considered obsolete. The Puebla congress is made up of 41 deputies who are elected to hold office for three years. Of these deputies, 26 are elected by direct vote in the local electoral districts into which the state is divided and the rest are appointed by proportional representation. According to state law, no party can have more than 26 deputies. They can only Puebla citizens who know how to read and write, and who are not ministers of religion or part of the armed forces, public, state, or municipal administration, may be elected to the Congress of the State of Puebla. In the case of the military and public power officials (except for the governor), they can participate as candidates as long as they definitively separate from their positions.

The most recent state legislative elections in the state were held on November 11, 2007, and all districts were won by the PRI, except one, where the PAN won. Currently, the Puebla congress has an absolute majority of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, with 23 deputies, of which 21 were elected as representatives of electoral districts and 2 by the principle of proportional representation.^[update]

Judicial Branch

Museo Casa de alfeñique, in the city of Puebla.

The exercise of the Judicial Power is deposited in the Superior Court of Justice of the State of Puebla (TSJEP), the Justice Administration Board of the State of Puebla, the municipal courts, the civil courts, the peace courts, the supernumerary and the indigenous courts. Among the attributions of these entities in charge of the administration of justice in the state is that of deciding on criminal, civil and family controversies within the scope of competence indicated by Puebla and federal laws. The TSEJP is a collegiate body made up of magistrates. The magistrates are immovable, and can only be removed by the State Congress. With the purpose of decentralizing the administration of justice in the state, the Puebla territory is organized into 22 judicial districts. In addition, the creation of six indigenous courts has been established in the areas with the highest concentration of indigenous population in Puebla territory. These indigenous courts serve as mediators between the indigenous customary law systems and the positive legal framework that governs the entity and the Mexican Republic.

The exercise of the public powers of the state has jurisdiction only in the territory of Puebla. By being part of the Pact of the Union, no provision of the Puebla authorities can be in controversy with federal legislation or exceed the powers indicated in the legal framework of state administrations in the Mexican Republic.

The Civil Code of the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla

The Civil Code for the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla was promulgated and published in the Official Gazette of the State of Puebla on April 30, 1985 and entered into force on June 1, 1985.

The Code project was made up of the graduates: Benjamín del Callejo Bandala, León Dumit Espinal, Sergio R. Flores Olliver, Gustavo Hernandéz Sarmiento, Antonio Martínez Álvarez and Álvaro Zambrano Vázquez; and was chaired by José M. Cajica Camacho.

In the Statement of Reasons, the need for a new Code is explained; since although the previous Code of 1901 contained precepts that satisfied the requirements of justice, at the same time it contained obsolete provisions that were totally contrary to justice. Therefore, two principles arise in the legislative technique, which were to preserve the elements of justice of the first Code and innovation with the creation of the New Code.

Lic. Cajica affirmed that the application of the principles, both conservative and innovative, produced a traditional system (mainly the conservative one).

The sources of the New Code were: the legislative ones, since a consultation of the Codes of each federative entity was carried out and the doctrinal sources, since works of Mexican civil law were consulted.

Regarding the structure of the Code, it consists of a general part, six books which are divided into chapters and these in turn are divided into sections. Articles in total 3550.

The general part of the Code speaks to the law itself and its application. Regarding the six books; The First Book talks about people, the Second Book mentions what is related to the family, the Third Book is in relation to assets, the Fourth Book deals with obligations, the Fifth Book deals with the different types of contracts that exist and the Book Six talks about the succession.

A novelty about this Code is that it introduces a chapter on Personality Rights, which refers to the protection of coexistence, moral heritage and the protection of intrapersonal relationships. Which is included in the First Book.

The third Book contains a chapter on the property and condominium regime and a chapter that talks about the rights of use and habitation, referring to the usufruct.

Territorial division

Puebla is subdivided into 217 municipalities, which place it in second position among the Mexican federal entities according to the number of these territorial subdivisions, only behind the state of Oaxaca. Each municipality is governed by a city council, made up of the municipal president and the municipal council. Municipal presidents are elected every three years by citizens residing in the municipality and who are registered in the Electoral Register. The council of each municipality is made up of a certain number of councilors and trustees also elected for a period of three years from a set of lists of candidates registered by the political parties before the State Electoral Institute.

Citizenship and political-electoral participation

According to the Constitution of the State of Puebla, all people who were born in the territory of the entity are from Puebla. The children of a mother or father from Puebla by birth who originate from outside the territory of the state may request approval from the State Congress to be recognized as Puebla. An individual can be considered a citizen when they have reached 18 years of age, the age indicated by the majority. of age in the Mexican territory. Only those who are Mexican citizens and who have resided in the entity for more than five years are citizens of Puebla. The rights of Puebla citizens are the same as those established in the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, among them the right of free association within the framework of the law and the right to participate in the discussion of matters of public interest.

To carry out the elections for popular offices, the Electoral Institute of the State of Puebla (IEE) was created, following the model of the Federal Electoral Institute. The IEE is made up of citizen councilors without political militancy. Political parties wishing to participate in state elections must be registered with the IEE. The elections are organized by the IEE, with the participation of Puebla's citizens and under the supervision of independent organizations that attest to the cleanliness of the elections.

Economy

The volume of the state economy represented 3.4% of the total economy of Mexico in 2004, which placed it in that year as the ninth state economy in the country, behind the Federal District, the State of Mexico, Nuevo León, Jalisco, Baja California, Chihuahua, Veracruz, Guanajuato and Coahuila. The largest sector of the Puebla economy is the manufacturing industry, which includes maquila, especially textile products, concentrated in the central regions of the state and the valley of Tehuacán. However, added to the items of commerce and services of various kinds, tertiary activities represent around 60% of the state's economy. There are also numerous populations with an economy based mainly on agriculture, but due to the adverse conditions that this sector faces in Mexico, many of them have been disjointed and have become a source of unskilled labor or expellers of international migrants., to the extent that they currently depend mainly on remittances from members of transnational communities.

Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Sector

Agricultural activity in the Tecamachalco valley, Puebla

Seeds in the valley of Atlixco, Puebla

Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing represented 6.4% of the Puebla economy in 2004. In that same year, the production of these sectors of the state economy represented 3.77% of the activity in the same branches at the national level, which represented a decrease of almost half a percentage point in a period of five years, since in 1999, Puebla contributed 4.12% of the agricultural, forestry and fishing production of the Mexican Republic.

According to reports from the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (Sagarpa), during the 2005 agricultural year, a total of 908,041.4 hectares were cultivated in the state of Puebla, of which only 739,197.7 Ha were harvested, with a value of 6 thousand 416 million 841 thousand Mexican pesos (MXN). The planted surface represents approximately a quarter of the surface of the state, and includes mainly rainfed land. The main crops were corn, cherry coffee, sugar cane, alfalfa and green tomatoes. Most of the cultivated lands in the 2005 agricultural cycle were dedicated to corn, which represented 60% of the poblana plots in that year. However, half of the total value of agricultural production in the state corresponds to various crops, including flowers, fruits, and other vegetables. Among the most profitable crops for the local economy —comparing the magnitude of the planted area and the relative value in agricultural production— we must point out sugar cane, tomato and alfalfa.

Regarding livestock production, in 2005 the state had around 2 million pigs; more than 759 thousand heads of goats, and more than 743 thousand heads of bovine cattle; there were almost half a million sheep and around 315,000 horses. The largest volume of meat production corresponded to pork, with 83,470 tons, although the highest value of production in this economic sector corresponded to the commercialization of poultry meat. On the other hand, the state also produced cow's milk worth MXN 1,270,920,000, and chicken eggs worth MXN 4,243,964,900.

Industries

The manufacturing industry sector contributes just over a quarter of the entity's gross domestic product. However, the growth of the sector is stagnant, and its volume has remained practically unchanged since 1999, in which years have followed one another with negative and positive growth that ended up being neutralized. In 1999, the value of Puebla's manufacturing production was 13,895,166,000 MXN; five years later MXN 13,919,488,000, in terms homologated with the value of the Mexican peso in 1993. The value of the state's industrial production is concentrated in the field of machinery, metal products and industrial equipment, with more than 42% of the total. Among other notable industries in this field, is the Volkswagen plant in Puebla. Other important manufacturing industries in the state are food and textiles, which contribute 24.7 and 15.4% respectively of the value of the state's industrial production. Puebla's industries are concentrated in the regions with the highest population density, such as the metropolitan area of Puebla and the Tehuacán valley.

Last of the Volkswagen Sedán (vocho) manufactured in the world, from the plant of Volkswagen de Puebla.

Tertiary Activities

Tertiary activities traditionally include those that do not have to do with the production of raw materials or their transformation. Essentially it deals with commerce and services of all kinds —financial, professional, tourist. In the economy of Puebla, the sum of all these branches adds up to around two thirds of the volume of the state economy, especially highlighting the commercial sector, to which most of the state's productive units correspond. In 2003, there were a total of 86,458 commercial establishments in the state, employing 211,149 workers. Commercial activity is especially concentrated in the large urban areas of the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca valley and the Tehuacán region. For the trade of goods, the most important cities of Puebla have distribution centers; In medium-sized cities there are fixed markets, and in areas with lower population densities, the alternative is the tianguis.

Socioeconomic Regions

Just as the state of Puebla is divided into municipalities, these are grouped into socioeconomic regions, according to the characteristics of each one in their economic and social activities and their geographical location, which allows the state government to promote the development and modernization of each.

• I. Sierra Norte
• II. Sierra Nororiental
• III. Serdan Valley
• IV. Angelopolis
• V. Atlixco and Matamoros Valley
• VI. Mixteca
• VII. Tehuácan and Sierra Negra

Transport and communications

Arrival from a plane to the terminal of Puebla International Airport.

In terms of transportation infrastructure, Puebla has 10,242 km of paved or covered highway. It has 60 passenger terminals, where local and foreign transport is generated. There are 505 companies that provide this service for passengers, and more than 6,558 provide it for cargo. Between passenger, tourism and cargo, there are more than 22,039 companies that provide transportation services in the State.

Puebla has 867.5 railway lines currently in operation. Regarding air transport, it has a total of 230,000 m² of runways, taking into account the 68,000 of the Tehuacán National Airport, and 162,000 of the Puebla International Airport.

In the field of Communications, Puebla manages 15 telephone lines for every hundred inhabitants, which means a total of 805,584.

A total of 44 AM and FM radio stations and 30 television stations, most of which are complementary (25), 2 licensed and 3 concessioned.

There are also 423 public post offices and 428 private agencies in the state.

Culture

Sale of village crafts.

Wooden guitars made in the state of Puebla, Mexico.

Cultural Heritage of the State of Puebla

The state of Puebla has legislation to protect the cultural heritage of the people of Puebla. In accordance with the Law of Cultural Promotion of the State of Puebla, cultural heritage is considered historical testimonies and objects of knowledge that continue the historical, social, political, urban, architectural, technological, ideological and economic tradition of the society that has produced them. This type of creations can obtain recognition as Cultural Heritage of the State through a declaration of the state Executive in consultation with the Poblano Council of Culture. Among the works that have been declared Cultural Patrimony of the State of Puebla is the Huey Atlixcáyotl, which obtained this recognition in 1996. Other declarations of Cultural Patrimony are "La Feria del Huipil y del Café" which takes place in Cuetzalan on October 4; the "Huejotzingo Carnival"; The Tradition of the "Matanza" of goats in Tehuacán; The Mitotikuikacalli, in Zacapoaxtla, "The Monumental Offerings of Huaquechula"; the "Offerings of San Gabriel Chilac"; the "La Xochipila" Shrine, in Xicotepec de Juárez and the "Paper Picado de Huixcolotla". We also find the smallest volcano in the world, the "Cuexcomate" Coming from the Nahuatl word "cuexcomatl" which means "clay pot or place to store", with an elevation of 13 meters in diameter at ground level, 8 meters in outer diameter and a base of 23 meters. In Teziutlán the festivity to the "Virgen del Carmen" which takes place from July 7 to 16, the "Fair in Honor of the Virgin of the Assumption" patron saint of the diocese; The traditional "barter" also the festival of Our Lady of Remedies, in San Pedro Cholula (from September 8 to 15). The well-known "Cheese Fair", in Santa María Tonanzintla (August 1). The "Fair del cacao”, in San Francisco Coapan. “Cactus Fair”, in Tlaxcalancingo.

Gastronomy

Mole sale in the state of Puebla, Mexico.

Mole with rice to Mexican

Chiles in nogada

Huaxmole de la Mixteca

Traditional sweets of Puebla

The cuisine of Puebla, a product of the miscegenation that occurred with the Conquest of Mexico by the Spanish, is one of the most representative of the Mexican Republic. Numerous myths are associated with some of the best-known dishes of the regional gastronomy of the state, which is usually identified in Mexico in relation to two dishes that are considered national dishes: mole poblano, chiles en nogada and the mole of hips. About the mole, the legend says that it was created by Sor Andrea de la Asunción, from the convent of Santa Rosa in the city of Puebla. This nun would have created the dish on the occasion of the bishop's visit to her congregation. In the legend, the name of the dish is associated with an expression of admiration from a companion of Andrea de la Asunción when she saw her busily grinding the ingredients, although it is known that the word mole is of Nahuatl and that the mixture of dry or fresh chilies in the preparation of sauces was a common practice in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cuisines. To this base of chiles, one of the basic ingredients of Mesoamerican gastronomy, spices and oils arrived with the Spaniards were added, which gave rise to contemporary moles, whose preparation is by no means exclusive to Puebla, although the best-known mole be precisely the poblano.

Another of the most traditional and endemic dishes of the State of Puebla is, without a doubt, chiles en nogada. The ingredients used to prepare this dish are varied, as well as being characteristic of the region: it consists of filling a poblano chile with beef or pork previously cooked with raisins, almonds, apple and panochera pear (a name that is gives a type of pear in the region); already stuffed, it is weathered in egg to the point of nougat and white flour; bathe in the nogada, which is a sauce made with milk, walnuts, brandy and goat cheese, garnished with pomegranate grains and parsley leaves. Legend associates the creation of this dish with a nun from the convent of Santa Mónica, also in the city of Puebla. The plate would have been made in honor of Agustín de Iturbide, at that time, emperor of Mexico. However, the nogada appears in cookbooks from the 18th century, at least a century before Mexico's independence, and the chile en nogada does not appear in these cookbooks until the middle of the century XIX, thirty years after the abolition of the First Mexican Empire.

Chile in nogada prepared.

Mole hips is a traditional goat meat dish from the Tehuacán region, Puebla, in Mexico. It is considered one of the most important dishes in the region, due to the prolonged upbringing and care in the preparation of the animal -of which all the meat is used- and the celebration of the Festival of the Slaughter that accompanies and begins the slaughter of farm animals for the preparation of food and for the subsequent preservation and curing of meat.

In the preparation of the hip mole, the meat and bone of the hip are used, seasonings based on salt and chili, with a red broth boiled with the meat of the hips and wild beans. The flavor of the dish is characteristic of the meat of the goats that are taken during a journey of a year grazing through the southern regions of the state of Puebla and the north of Oaxaca, feeding the cattle only with the grass of the region and large amounts of salt avoiding at all costs that animals drink water and stay hydrated only by that provided by the consumed vegetables. From the practice of this type of breeding, meat with a strong and characteristic flavor is obtained with which traditional dishes are prepared.

Beyond these two widely known dishes in Mexico and worldwide, Puebla cuisine is very varied and shares with other Mexican cuisines the mixture of indigenous, Spanish and Asian elements, a product of the country's history. Only in the city of Puebla is it possible to find a large number of dishes, from appetizers such as chalupas, cemitas, tortas, tamales of various styles; to international haute cuisine, sweets and drinks as particular as the raisin (which is a drink made from raisin liquor that is accompanied with a piece of cheese and a raisin strung on a toothpick, unique to Angelópolis). Throughout Puebla, the base of the food is corn, beans and chili, and these three elements are combined to produce a large number of dishes, such as enfrijoladas, which are consumed in any town in Puebla. In addition to the capital, Puebla cuisine is diversified in each of its regions, where it incorporates particular characteristics, depending on the resources and ingredients available. For example, the Tehuacán hip mole is prepared in honor of the Festival of the Slaughter, in which the goats from the family herds are sacrificed. In the Mixteca, the gastronomic repertoire incorporates insects such as the cuetlas and the jumiles; cacti like the biznaga and the pitaya; tropical fruits such as the black sapote, and huaxmole is prepared based on huajes. In the center of the state you can find mixiotes, barbecue and pulque, all debtors of the maguey; In addition, there is the great dairy tradition of Chipilo, where the descendants of the Venetians established in the region continue to produce Italian-style cheeses.

Sweets

In the state of Puebla, a wide variety of sweets are produced that stand out for their great color and variety of flavors, most of them created since the viceregal era.

In the convents of Santa Mónica and Santa Rosa, the entire range of sweets that, due to its characteristic flavor and high quality, have become famous in Mexico and the world, such as Santa Clara pancakes, sweet potatoes, poblanos or sweet potatoes from Santa Clara, lemons stuffed with coconut, jamoncillo, peanut pralines, macaroni, crystallized fruits, muéganos, pine nut with burnt milk, etc.

The most famous and characteristic sweet is the poblano sweet potato which, legend has it, originated in the convent of Santa Rosa in the 17th century, since the nuns received large donations of sweet potatoes. It is said that Bishop Manuel Fernández de Santa Cruz y Sahagún would visit the convent, it was then that a young woman named Angelina suggested making a new dish using sweet potatoes.

Folk arts

Aguamaniles in a populace.

A textile craftsman in Cholula de Rivadavia

Artesanías de Puebla, Mexico

The state of Puebla is known for its wide range of culture. The most emblematic is the Talavera from Puebla, a technique in which not only pots and crockery are made, but also tiles and other elements of architectural decoration. Some buildings in the capital of Puebla and other towns (especially in the center of the state) are covered with this type of ceramic, such as the domes of the Cathedral of Puebla, the temple of Sebastián de Aparicio, the kitchen of the convent of Santa Rosa or the House of Dolls. San Salvador Huixcolotla, in the Tepeaca Valley, is the birthplace of papel picado, which is used as a decoration on various Mexican festivities, such as Independence Day or the Day of the Dead. The technique originates from viceroyalty times, although The custom of using paper as an element in rituals has its pre-Hispanic remnants. In the Pahuatlán region, amate paper is manufactured following a pre-Columbian technique that has changed very little over time. This amate paper is used to represent the spirits of the mythology of the Nahuas and Otomi of the Sierra Norte, permeating the motifs on the paper. The amate paper from the Sierra Norte de Puebla is used in the artisan production of Guerrero.

In the Sierra Norte there is also an important production of artisan textiles, especially embroidered shirts for women and the famous quexquémitl used by the Nahua and Otomi women of the region. These garments are woven on a waist loom using the brocade technique with wool threads, almost always black and red. The quexquémitl are a central part of women's clothing in the mountains, and in Cuetzalan they have a festival that revolves around the display of these garments. On the other hand, in the south of the state is the pottery production of the Mixteca Poblana. The pottery of Acatlán de Osorio and Izúcar de Matamoros is characterized by its figures made of clay almost without decoration, although in the first locality the use of palm ropes to decorate pots and other utensils of daily use is characteristic. In the central and southeastern region of the state, carved figures of onyx and marble are produced, among other stones that can be obtained in the Tepeaca and Tecali de Herrera deposits. Basketry is common to almost the entire state, although it is especially important in the Mixteca and the Tehuacán region, where the palm used in its manufacture grows wild.

Likewise, it is worth mentioning that the art par excellence of the towns of Atlixco and Tenango de las Flores (and other smaller ones), is the cultivation and beautification of ornamental plants, and that through the organization of festivals like "La Feria de las Flores" in Huachinango, they manage to promote their products by turning the streets of their region into avenues used by people from all over Mexico. When these great festivities take place, the community is filled with aromas and colors that make a morning walk a trip through the farm fields.

Popular festivities

A Flyer of the Sierra Norte de Puebla

Catholic procession in Cholula de Rivadavia

There are numerous popular festivities throughout the state. As in other parts of Mexico, in Puebla some important civic and religious dates are celebrated throughout the country. The decembrine celebrations of Posadas and Christmas, the New Year's celebration are part of the religious calendar; carnivals, Lent and Holy Week; the Day of the Dead and the celebration of the Virgin of Guadalupe. In Puebla several carnivals are held, such as those of Huejotzingo, El Alto (related to the Carnival of Tlaxcala) and San Jerónimo Xayacatlán; each one with very particular characteristics. In addition to these festivities, each town has its own festivities dedicated to the patrons. Only in the case of the city of Puebla, 83 religious festivities are registered in different neighborhoods of the historic center, which, according to Ernesto Licona, are lived intensely by the people who participate in them. Other festivities Important patron saints in the state are those that take place around the festival of San Francisco de Asís in Cuetzalan City, where the National Coffee and Huipil Fair is held and the dances of Quetzales, Santiagos and the Flying Game are presented.; or those related to San Miguel Arcángel, popular festivals: the last Sunday of September takes place the festival of San Miguel Arcángel, patron saint of the place. "El Huey Atlixcáyotl", which in Nahuatl means "great Atlixquense tradition", is a festival that is held, according to pre-Hispanic tradition, in honor of Quetzalcóatl, to give thanks for the gifts received in the harvest. It is a gathering of towns that celebrate their permanence and recreate their traditions through dance. In addition, with a week in advance there are various events. It takes place in the open-air Netotiloaya auditorium (Plazuela de la Danza). In 1996, the "Atlixcáyotl" was named Cultural Heritage of the State of Puebla, which in Atlixco is adorned with the realization of the Huey Atlixcáyotl, a festival where the eleven cultural regions of the state present traditional dance paintings.

Among the civic festivities that take place in the state is, of course, Mexico's national holiday: Independence Day (September 15-16), which commemorates the anniversary of the start of the war that ended to the Spanish domination of the country. May 5 is another important civic holiday, since Puebla's identity is articulated around the Battle of Puebla, a historical event of main relevance in the official history of Mexico for being the moment in which the Army of the East and the Mexican militiamen they defeated the French invaders in 1862.

Archaeological heritage

In the territory that currently occupies the territory of the state, various peoples inhabited since pre-Columbian times. The testimonies of their presence are part of the cultural heritage of the people of Puebla, and are protected both by local authorities and by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). In Puebla there are several archaeological sites, although only some are open to the public. Among these sites are Yohualichán, a site of the late classic period of the Totonac culture located in the Sierra Norte, near Cuetzalan; near Oriental is Cantona, site of the Mesoamerican Epiclassic; in the center of the state is the Archaeological Zone of Cholula, one of the oldest cities in Mexico; in the south are Tepexi el Viejo and Cuthá, both related to the Mixteca-Popoloca culture. There are several museums that preserve collections of archaeological pieces, including the Amparo Museum and the INAH Puebla Regional Museum, in the city of Puebla, and several community museums such as the Acatlán de Osorio museum, dedicated to Mixtec culture, and the Xiutetelco, which protects Totonac pieces.

Architecture

Temple of San Francisco Acatepec

Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception of Chignahuapan. The piece, fourteen meters high, is the work of José Luis Silva, the same as the Christ of natural size that is seen in the foreground.

The state of Puebla has a rich architectural heritage, ranging from the Great Pyramid of Cholula to the modern skyscrapers currently being built in the state capital. It is precisely Puebla de Zaragoza where one of the largest concentrations of viceregal buildings in the state is located, which earned it the name Relicario de América and the declaration of a World Heritage Site for its historic center in 1987. In In this set of monuments there are numerous religious and civil constructions in the Baroque and Neoclassical styles. Among the most notable is the Cathedral, the Chapel of the Rosary that is located in the Temple of Santo Domingo; the old Town Hall Palace, the House of Dolls, the Temple of the Company, the Carolino Building, the Casa del Alfeñique and numerous Catholic temples.

The time of the Christianization of the indigenous people produced numerous religious constructions in the towns of the province of Puebla. Among these we must point out the convents of Tecali, Tecamachalco, Tepeaca, Texmelucan and Cholula. Some of the convents from Puebla are part of the group of Franciscan monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl that were also declared a World Heritage Site in 1994. These are the convents of Calpan, Huejotzingo and Tochimilco. Another religious construction of relevance is the Church of Santa María Tonantzintla, where the baroque style reflects strong stylistic influences from indigenous iconography, giving rise to a mestizo construction of great color and decorative profusion.^{[citation required]}

Arts

Puebla has a rich artistic activity. The artistic heritage of the people of Puebla comprises a legacy with thousands of years of history, a product of the various peoples that have inhabited the territory of the state since pre-Columbian times. The state is known for the high quality of its viceroyalty art, which has a museum specially designed for the exhibition of viceroyalty artistic pieces. The Poblano Museum of Viceregal Art, established in the Puebla capital, has a collection of artistic pieces that were part of different public and private collections. In the viceregal constructions of Puebla there are works of great quality that are integrated into the architecture of the place, as witnessed by the numerous religious buildings throughout the state. Unfortunately, sacred art in the state of Puebla is subject to looting, to the extent that it is one of the states with the highest artistic losses due to theft of this type of artistic piece.

Contemporary art from Puebla has much less diffusion than the arts of past times. Educational centers play an important role in the training of new creators. There are instances that promote artistic creation, such as the Program to Encourage Creation and Artistic Development of Puebla, financed by the National Council for Culture and the Arts and the Secretary of Culture of the state government. The main problem is that the works of creators from Puebla are not widely distributed outside the state territory, in addition to the fact that production is concentrated in the capital.

Myths and legends

Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl

Long ago, when the Aztecs ruled the Valley of Mexico, other peoples had to obey them and pay tribute, despite their discontent. One day, tired of the oppression, the chief of Tlaxcala decided to fight for the freedom of his people and started a terrible war between the Aztecs and Tlaxcalans.

The beautiful princess Iztaccihuatl, daughter of the cacique of Tlaxcala, had fallen in love with the young Popocatépetl, one of the main warriors of this town. Both professed an immense love for each other, so before going to war, the young man asked the princess's father for her hand if he returned victorious. The chief of Tlaxcala accepted the deal, promising to receive him with the feast of triumph and his bed of love. The brave warrior prepared himself with men and weapons, leaving for war after hearing the promise that the princess would wait for him to marry him when she returned. Shortly after, a rival of Popocatépetl invented that he had died in combat. Upon learning of her, the princess Iztaccíhuatl bitterly mourned the death of her beloved and then died of sadness.

Popocatépetl won all the combats and returned triumphant to his town, but upon arrival, he received the terrible news that the cacique's daughter had died. The wealth and power he had gained were of no use to him if he did not have her love.

Then, to honor her and so that she would remain in the memory of the peoples, Popocatépetl ordered 20,000 slaves to build a great tomb before the Sun, piling up ten hills to form a gigantic mountain.

Disconsoled, he took the corpse of his princess and carried it until he deposited it lying on its top, which took the shape of a sleeping woman. The young man gave him a posthumous kiss, took a smoking torch and knelt on another mountain in front of his beloved, watching over his eternal sleep. The snow covered their bodies and the two slowly and irremediably became volcanoes.

Since then Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl have remained together and silent, who sometimes remembers love and his beloved; then his heart, which guards the fire of eternal passion, trembles and his torch emits a very sad smoke.

For many years and until shortly before the Conquest, the maidens killed by unhappy love affairs were buried on the slopes of Iztaccíhuatl.

As for the cowardly Tlaxcalan who, out of jealousy, lied to Iztaccíhuatl about the death of Popocatépetl, unleashing this tragedy, went to die disoriented very close to his land, he also became a mountain, the Pico de Orizaba, and was covered with snow. They named him Citlaltépetl, or "Hill of the Star" and from far away he watches over the eternal sleep of the two lovers whom he will never, ever be able to separate.

The Chinese from Puebla

In the Iglesia de la Compañía, in Puebla, near the door that connects the presbytery with the sacristy, there is a tombstone embedded in the wall that indicates the place where the mortal remains of Catarina de San Juan were buried. In 1907, there was a street called De las Chinitas, where Mirnha lived.

Old chroniclers say that in the year 1609, a princess named Mirnha was born in the city of Indra Prastha, of the lineage of the Mongols of Eastern India. Fleeing from the Turks, the family reached the coast, where the Portuguese slave traders arrived. Mirnha was almost white in color, with light hair, a broad forehead, lively eyes, a well-defined nose, and a graceful walk. One day, the princess was walking along the beach, in the company of a younger brother, she was taken prisoner and taken to Cochin, to later be sent to Manila, in the Philippine Islands.

The Marquis de Gálvez, then viceroy of Mexico, commissioned the governor of Manila to purchase "slaves of good appearance and grace for the ministry of his palace". He tried to acquire Mirnha; but the merchant had previously been commissioned by Captain Miguel de Sosa and his wife, Mrs. Margarita de Chávez. & # 34; La chinita & # 34;, she was secretly shipped to New Spain in 1620. To be delivered to the couple who received her in Mexico.

In the first third of the XVII century it arrived at the port of Acapulco, on the Nao de China. The oriental slave wore a rare outfit, consisting of a shirt with rich embroidery, a brightly colored skirt with sequins, silk flip-flops and long braids. It was the first time that a woman with oriental features arrived in Acapulco and her clothing aroused the curiosity of those who attended the fair that was held upon the arrival of the Nao. People wondered how that "China", as they immediately called it, had gotten to Mexico; without taking into account her Hindu origin.

Her owners in Puebla baptized the newcomer in the church of Santo Ángel de Analco with the name of Catarina de San Juan. She was raised Christianly and more than a servant, she was seen everywhere as a member of the Sosa family. She married a slave of Chinese origin, Domingo Suárez, with whom she refused to have a married life. With his adoptive parents, he continued to wear his strange clothing, which he mixed with the indigenous, giving birth to the typical China Poblana costume, as people came to call it, until he finally entered the convent of Santa Catalina where he achieved fame as a Saint.

Legendary stories are known around the dress of the Chinese woman from Puebla. Catarina de San Juan always wore costumes similar to those of the current "China Poblana", for which she identified with the Indians of the region and at the same time remembered her oriental costumes. Evoking her courtly attire, the princess copies the tangle made with two pieces of fabric in contrasting tones, to turn it into the European skirt, wide and with peaked hems, embroidered with sequins and beadwork. The huipil, on the Spanish shirt also embroidered. The sash or chincuete in the loose shawl, on the shoulders and arms. The colors green, white and red were later adopted from the National Flag once Mexico achieved its independence in the XIX century. More than oriental, the costume of China Poblana is Mexican mestizo and speaks clearly of the fusion of indigenous and Spanish cultures, which came together in a multitude of works of great beauty.

The traditional attire of the “China Poblana” is essentially made up of a shawl, a Zagalejo blouse, and slippers. The most appropriate shawl is the so-called bolita in dove and coyote colors. The blouse is embroidered with beads in bright colors and has short sleeves. The beaver, that is, the skirt, consists of two sections: the upper one, about 25 cm approximately, made of percale or green silk, of the same shade as the waistband. The lower one is embroidered with sequins and beads in the shape of flowers, birds and multicolored butterflies. The hairstyle of two braids, with a parting in the middle, is finished off with ribbon bows in the same colors as the girdle. He wears earrings or tendrils; on the neck, coral choker. In some cases it is worn with a revelry hat, discreetly adorned with a chamois or straw ribbon chinstrap. The slippers are lined in green or red silk.

Many consider that the legend of “China Poblana” is nothing more than that; legend. But tradition has left the costume, which continues to be worn through the centuries by Mexican women.

Alfeñique's House

A legend tells that in the year 1790 María Ignacia Villegas y Guadiana had conditioned her boyfriend Juan Ignacio Morales to marry him, he had to give her a house of candy.

The love he felt for her led him to order the construction of a beautiful house with rich baroque works of white mortar that decorated its façade, alluding to sweets called alfeñiques (made of sugar paste and almonds).

The building consists of two perfectly angled facades in their distribution of doors and balconies.

Inside it is composed of three floors that divide the architectural bodies of the building, in which the wrought iron balcony stands out with the white color of the props and the canopies blend with the balcony.

Today this beautiful architectural piece is the Casa de Alfeñique Regional Museum, which houses pieces of great relevance, thus contributing to the knowledge of the artistic and cultural development of the city of Puebla, pieces that denote the importance of the city since its inception. foundation, the viceroyalty period and the Independent Mexico.

On the third level, the original environment of some typical rooms of a viceregal house such as the dining room, the kitchen, the main hall and a richly decorated family chapel, which speak of the uses and customs of the people of Puebla for more than 200 years.

Doll House University Museum

The House of Dolls was ordered to be built by the Councilor Don Agustín Ovando Cáceres Ledezma y Villavicencio in the 18th century, on the first street of the merchants, as it was called at that time.

It has three levels, the ground floor is adorned with a continuous balcony distributed along the entire façade, windows with quarry frames and iron grilles; the second level or mezzanine is lower in height than the other two floors, because that was the norm for the baroque style and because it was designed to house the family's servants, it is also covered by simple balconies; the third floor enjoys the same characteristics.

The house is a majestic example of the Puebla baroque, thus its brick façade is decorated with Talavera tiles of different colors that represent human figures, one of the construction theories ensures that the tiles were imported from India, also says that each human figure contains different symbols and meanings in its iconography. At first glance, the syncretism of eastern pre-Hispanic culture and western Spanish culture can be deduced.

The house was originally built as a residential home, however, since it was not inhabited, it had multiple uses, such as: Yarn store, “El famoso 33” store, “Mexico City” stores, it was also the first cinema of the city, “El Lux”, on two occasions it was a hotel, “Hotel Francia” and “Hotel Monterrey”, bowling alley, hairdresser “La imperial”, candy store “Salambo”, “Foto Puebla”, twice guest house, optician “Turati” and the newspaper “La Opinión”.

Currently the property belongs to the Meritorious Autonomous University of Puebla. The BUAP acquired the house on December 11, 1983 to later inaugurate it as the University Museum, on December 10, 1987.

The museum currently houses graphic works that define the very history of the institution, from the founding of the College of the Holy Spirit by the Jesuits, to the present day. The museum searched through its collections of: Scientific devices, viceregal art, biology, medicine, photographs, contemporary art, to show the different stages through which the maximum house of studies from Puebla has passed.

Tourism

Planetarium (blue) and exhibitor centre (white) of Puebla.

Crafts from the streets of Puebla.

View of the city of Puebla from the Fort of Loreto.

The state of Puebla is one of the main tourist destinations in Mexico. The city of Puebla is in the seventh preferred national position as a tourist destination; However, the period of stay is only 1.6 days.

Puebla Cathedral.

In 2005, the state received 1,596,445 visitors, of which more than 935,000 stayed in Puebla de Zaragoza, which is the main tourist destination in the Puebla territory. Other cities in the center of the state such as Cholula de Rivadavia and Atlixco, as well as Tehuacán, occupy secondary places as recipients of visitors. The case of Cuetzalan del Progreso is striking, which was visited in 2005 by a number of tourists that exceeded the number of its inhabitants. Of the total number of tourists who stayed in state hotel establishments in 2005, more than 1 million 400 thousand they were Mexicans, and less than 180 thousand were foreigners; Most of the foreign tourists stayed in establishments located in the capital of Puebla.

In 2006, one of the most outstanding tourist elements of the city was inaugurated for the first time. It is an event that takes place every 5 years. Angelis Custodiant is its name, a great concert that brings together 125 bells distributed in 32 bell towers in the historic center of the city of Puebla, including the bell of the municipal palace. It was conceived to celebrate the 475 years of the founding of the city. This concert was composed by the musician and director from Puebla Bely David Rocha.

Angelis suis Deus mandant de ut custodian te in omnibus vi is tuis

God commanded his angels to guard you in all your ways.

The bells have been instruments of communication, not only for spiritual acts, but also for solemn ones and have functioned to convene the meeting of residents.

The best way to listen to the execution of the Angelis Custodiant is on the rooftops of the center, but not so close to a bell tower. Failing that, people are recommended to walk through the streets of the city to be able to listen to the different participating bell towers. There is also a zoo called africam where you can appreciate the life of various wild species in an open-air habitat.

Magic Towns

In 2002 Cuetzalan was named Magic Town, 9 years later in 2011, Zacatlán de las Manzanas and Pahuatlán obtained the same recognition, thus promoting this type of tourism in the state, Zacatlán and Pahuatlán are the second and third municipalities in the state in being part of the Magic Towns program of SECTUR. In 2012, Chignahuapan, San Andrés Cholula and Tlatlauquitepec were included in the list, followed by Atlixco and Xicotepec. In total, the state of Puebla has 9 Magical Towns, which have helped boost tourism. Since 2018, the Magical Towns Program has been in danger due to the reforms and changes promoted by the President of Mexico, Andrés Manuel López Obrador.

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  Cuetzalan del Progreso

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  Zacatlán of apples

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  Pahuatlán

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  Chignahuapan

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  Cholula

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  Tlatlauquitepec

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  Xicotepec de Juárez

Other sites of interest

Night view of the facade of the Teatro Principal.

Post Office

Other important tourist attractions in the state are:

• Museo Amparo, José Luis Bello y González, former convent of Santa Rosa, Museo de la Revolución, Museo Nacional de los Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, La Concordia y el Patio de Azulejos, Fuertes de Loreto y Guadalupe, Catedral, Biblioteca Palafoxiana, Teatro Principal, Mercado de Artesanías El Parián, Mercado de Sabores, Casa de Alfeñique, Museo y Pinacoteca

• Valley of Encimadas Stones, in Zacatlán.
• Horsetail, Zacapoaxtla.
• Franciscan Convent in Tecamachalco.
• Grutas Karmidas, in Zapotitlán de Méndez.
  

  Mexican Postal Service
• Church of San Francisco and Regional Museum of Cuetzalan, in Cuetzalan.
• San Francisco Church and Colonial Museum in Huejotzingo.
• Convent of San Francisco, Main Square, House of Culture Museum and archaeological area of Cholula, in San Pedro Cholula.
• Church of the Purest Conception, elaboration and sale of spheres, in Chignahuapan.
• Church of Santa Maria Tonantzintla and the Church of San Francisco Acatepec, in the municipality of San Andrés Cholula.
• Franciscan Convent of Calpan
• Los Reyes Metzontla, popoloca alfarera community, in the municipality of Zapotitlán.
• Pahutlán, municipality of the Sierra Norte de Puebla, which in 2012 has been declared the third Magic People of the State.
• Santiago Xalitzintla, the closest community to the Popocatépetl volcano, to which it is venerated and popularly called, Don Gregorio or Don Goyo. During the month of March they carry an offering to their skirts in order to request rain.