Prince

The Prince (in the original Italian, Il principe) is a political treatise of the XVI by Italian diplomat and political theorist Nicholas Machiavelli. According to Machiavelli's correspondence, one version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using the Latin title De Principatibus (The Leadership), however the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after his death. This was done with the permission of Pope Clement VII, but long before that, in fact, from the first appearance of the manuscript The Prince, the text already represented a controversial work.

Although it was written as if it were a traditional work in the instruction of princes style, it is generally accepted that it was especially innovative. This is only in part because it was written in the vernacular Italian rather than Latin, a practice that had become increasingly popular since the publication of Dante's Divine Comedy and other works of literature from the early 19th century. Renaissance.

The Prince is sometimes said to be one of the first works of modern philosophy, especially political philosophy, in which actual truth is held to be more important than any abstract ideal. It was also in direct conflict with the dominant Catholic and Scholastic doctrines of the time regarding politics and ethics.

Though relatively short, the treatise is the most remembered of Machiavelli's works and is responsible for putting the word "Machiavellian" into use as a pejorative term. It even contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words "politics" and "political" in Western countries. In terms of subject matter, it overlaps with the much longer Discourses on the First Decade of Livy, which was written a few years later.

Descriptions within The Prince have the general theme of accepting that princely goals, such as glory and survival, may justify the use of immoral means to achieve those ends:

The one who neglects what is done for what must be done, before it affects its ruin than its preservation.

In response to The Prince, King Frederick II of Prussia wrote Antimachiavelli.

Content

Every part of The Prince has been commented on for centuries. The work has a recognizable structure, mostly indicated by the author himself. It can be summarized as follows:

The subject: New principalities (chapters 1 and 2)

The prince begins by describing the subject he will handle. In the first sentence, Machiavelli uses the word "State" (in Italian Stato, which could also mean "state") to neutrally cover "all forms of organization of the supreme political power, whether republican or princely". How the word "State" acquired this modern type of meaning during the Renaissance has been the subject of much scholarly discussion, and this sentence and similar ones in Machiavelli's works are considered particularly important.

Machiavelli said that The prince would be referring to principalities, mentioning that he has written about republics elsewhere (possibly referring to the Discourses on Livy, though this is debated), but he actually mixes up the discussion of republics into this in many places: he does treat republics as a type of principality, and one with a lot of force. More important, and less traditional, he distinguishes new principalities from established hereditary principalities.In chapter 2 he deals with hereditary principalities quickly and says that they are much easier to rule. For such a prince, "unless extraordinary vices cause them to hate him, it is reasonable to expect his subjects to be naturally well disposed towards him."

This categorization of regime types is also "non-Aristotelian" and, apparently, simpler than the traditional one found, for example, in Aristotle's Politics, which divides regimes into those ruled by a single monarch, an oligarchy, or by the people, in a democracy. It also ignores the classical distinctions between good and corrupt forms, for example, between monarchy and tyranny.

Machiavelli divides the subject of new states into two types, "mixed" cases and purely new states.

Mixed Principalities (chapters 3–5)

New principalities are entirely new, or principalities built on top of old ones, meaning they are new parts of a previous state, already owned by that prince.

New conquests added to previous states (chapter 3)

Machiavelli generalizes that there were several virtuous Roman ways to maintain a newly acquired province, using a republic as an example of how new princes might act:

• to install the principle of one in the new acquisition, or to install colonies of its people there, which is better;
• to please the smaller powers of the area without increasing their power;
• to overthrow the mighty;
• not allow a foreign power to gain reputation.

More generally, Machiavelli emphasizes that one must take into account not only current problems but also future ones. One should not "enjoy the benefit of time" but the benefit of one's virtue and prudence, because time can bring both good and evil.

Conquered Kingdoms (chapter 4)

In this chapter, Machiavelli refers to the nature of the conquered kingdoms and how this can be decisive for their conquest and possession; for which he illustrates two concrete examples.

First, 16th century 16th century France, a kingdom ruled by a king and a set of aristocrats of who acted as ministers. According to Machiavelli, these types of kingdoms are easier to conquer, since it is easier to exacerbate the conflict between the king and the members of the Government, inciting a rebellion that can end with the overthrow of the king. However, these types of principalities are more difficult to maintain, since members of the aristocracy may at some point rise up under the figure of their lineage to claim power.

Secondly, the Persian Empire of Darius III, conquered by Alexander the Great, is mentioned. Principalities like this are governed by a king who centralizes power in his person; This condition requires a direct confrontation against the king and his lineage, so that once they are exterminated it is possible to seize his possessions. These principalities are harder to conquer but much easier to hold.

Conquered free states, with their own laws and orders (chapter 5)

Gilbert (1938, p. 34) notes that this chapter is quite atypical of any earlier book for princes. Gilbert supposed that the need to discuss the conquest of the free republics is linked to Machiavelli's project to unite Italy, which contained some free republics. As he also points out, the chapter, in any case, makes it clear that maintaining such a status is very difficult for a prince. Machiavelli gives three options:

• Destroy them, as Rome destroyed Carthage, and also as Machiavelli says that the Romans finally had to do in Greece, even though they had wanted to avoid it.
• Fix your place of residence there (or install colonies, if you are a prince of a republic).
• Allow them to keep their own orders but to install a puppet regime, the worst choice of all according to the author.

All-New States (Chapters 6–9)

Conquests by virtue (chapter 6)

Machiavelli described Moses as a conquering prince, who founded new modes and orders by the force of weapons, who used willingly to kill many of his own people. The Bible describes the reasons behind its success differently.

Princes who rise to power through their own skills and resources (their "virtue") rather than luck tend to have a hard time rising to the top, but once they reach the top, they are very confident in your position. This is because they effectively crush their opponents and earn great respect from everyone else. Because they are stronger and more self-sufficient, they have to make fewer compromises with their allies.

Machiavelli writes that reforming an existing order is one of the most dangerous and difficult things a prince can do. Part of the reason is that people are naturally resistant to change and reform. Those who benefited from the old order will resist change very fiercely. By contrast, those who can benefit from the new order will be less fierce in their support, because the new order is unfamiliar and they are not sure they will keep their promises. Furthermore, it is impossible for the prince to meet everyone's expectations. Inevitably, he will disappoint some of his followers. Therefore, a prince must have the means to force his supporters to continue supporting him even when they begin to have doubts, otherwise he will lose power from him. Only armed prophets, like Moses, achieve lasting change. Machiavelli claims that Moses killed countless numbers of his own people to enforce his will.

Machiavelli was not the first thinker to notice this pattern. Allan Gilbert wrote: "In desiring new laws and at the same time seeing the danger in them, Machiavelli was not himself an innovator", because this idea was traditional and could be found in Aristotle's writings. But Machiavelli went much further than any other author in his emphasis on this goal, and Gilbert associates Machiavelli's emphasis on such drastic goals with the level of corruption found in Italy.

Conquest by fortune, that is, by someone else's virtue (chapter 7)

According to Machiavelli, when a prince comes to power through luck or the blessings of powerful figures within the regime, it is usually easy for him to gain power, but difficult to maintain it afterwards, because his power depends on good will. will of their benefactors. He does not command the allegiance of the armies and officers who hold his authority, and these can be withdrawn from him at his whim. Having risen the easiest way, it is not even certain that such a prince has the skill and strength to stand on his own two feet.

This is not necessarily true in all cases. Machiavelli cites Cesare Borgia as an example of a lucky prince who escaped this pattern. Through shrewd political maneuvering, he managed to secure his power base. Caesar was appointed commander of the papal armies by his father, Pope Alexander VI, but he too relied heavily on mercenary armies loyal to the Orsini brothers and on the support of the French king. Borgia won the loyalty of the followers of the Orsini brothers with better salaries and prestigious government positions. When some of his mercenary captains began to plot against him, he had them imprisoned and executed. When it seemed that the King of France would abandon him, Borgia sought new alliances.

Finally, Machiavelli points out that bringing new benefits to a conquered people will not be enough to cancel the memory of old injuries, an idea Allan Gilbert said can be found in Tacitus and Seneca the Younger.

Of the Civil Principality (chapter 9)

A "civil principality" is one in which a citizen comes to power "not through crime or other intolerable violence," but through the support of his fellow citizens. This, he says, does not require extreme virtues or fortunes, just "lucky cunning."

Machiavelli makes an important distinction between two groups that are present in every city and have very different appetites that drive them: the "nobility" and the "people." The nobles want to oppress and rule the people, while the people want not to be ruled or oppressed. A principality is not the only possible outcome of these appetites, for it can also lead to "freedom" or "license."

A "principality" is put in place by the "nobility" or "people" when they have a chance to seize power, but meet resistance from the other side. They assign a leader who can be popular with the people, while the nobles defend a strong authority that benefits the nobility, and is against the people.

Machiavelli goes on to say that a prince who gains power through the support of nobles has a harder time staying in power than someone chosen by the common people; since the first one is surrounded by people who consider themselves his equals. He has to resort to malevolent measures to satisfy the nobles.

One cannot, with fair treatment, and without hurting others, satisfy the nobles, but can satisfy the people, because their object is more just than that of the nobles, the first want to oppress, while the latter do not want to be oppressed.

Also a prince cannot afford to keep the common people hostile, as they are more numerous while the nobles are smaller in number.

Therefore, the great ones must be made and undone each day. There are two types of great people you could meet:

1. Those who are bound to the prince. With regard to these, it is important to distinguish between two types of large persons, those who are rapists and those who are not. It is the latter who can and must be honored.
2. Those who are not tied to the new prince. Once again, these must be divided into two types: those with a weak spirit (a prince can make use of them if they are of good counsel) and those who must be bound by his own ambition (these must be observed and feared as enemies).

How you win people over depends on the circumstances. Machiavelli advises:

• Don't be afraid of adversity.
• One must avoid ruling through the magistrates, if he wants to be able to “select” an absolute government quickly and safely.
• One must ensure that people need the prince, especially if a moment of need comes.

How to judge the strength of principalities (chapter 10)

The way to judge the strength of a principality is to see if it can defend itself or if it needs to rely on allies. This not only means that cities must be prepared and people must be trained; a prince who is hated is also exposed.

Ecclesiastical principalities (chapter 11)

This type of "principality" refers, for example, explicitly to the Catholic Church, which of course is not traditionally considered a principality. According to Machiavelli, these are relatively easy to maintain, once founded. They do not need to defend themselves militarily, nor to govern their subjects.

Machiavelli discusses the recent history of the Church as if it were a principality that was in competition to conquer Italy against other princes. He points to factionalism as a historical weakness in the Church, and points to the recent example of the Casa de Borja family as a better strategy that almost worked. He then explicitly proposes that the House of Medici are now in a position to attempt the same.

Defense and Militia (chapters 12–14)

Having discussed the various types of principalities, Machiavelli turns to the ways in which a state can attack other territories or defend itself. The two most essential foundations for any state, whether old or new, are sound laws and strong military forces. A self-sufficient prince is one who can meet any enemy on the battlefield. He should be "armed" with his own arms. However, a prince who relies solely on fortifications or the help of others and becomes defensive is not self-sufficient. If he cannot assemble a formidable army, but he must rely on defense, he must fortify his city. A well-fortified city is unlikely to be attacked, and if it is, most armies cannot withstand a prolonged siege. However, during a siege, a virtuous prince will keep the morale of his subjects high while he eliminates all dissenters. Therefore, as long as the city is adequately defended and has enough supplies, a wise prince can withstand any siege.

Machiavelli is strongly opposed to the use of mercenaries, and in this he was innovative, and also had personal experience in Florence. He believes that they are useless to a ruler because they are undisciplined, cowardly, and lacking in loyalty, motivated only by money. Machiavelli attributes the weakness of the Italian city-states to their reliance on mercenary armies.

Machiavelli also warns against using auxiliary forces, troops borrowed from an ally, because if they win, the employer is in his favor and if they lose, he is ruined. Auxiliary forces are more dangerous than mercenary forces because they are united and controlled by capable leaders who can turn against the employer.

A prince's main concern should be war, or its preparation, not books. Through war, a hereditary prince maintains power over him or a private citizen rises to power. Machiavelli advises that a prince should hunt frequently to keep his body in shape and to learn the landscape that surrounds his kingdom. Through this, he can better learn how to protect his territory and advance on others. For his intellectual strength, he is advised to study military greats so that he can imitate his successes and avoid his mistakes. A prince who is diligent in times of peace will be ready in times of adversity. Machiavelli writes: "thus, when fortune turns against him, he will be prepared to resist it."

The qualities of a prince (chapters 14–19)

Each of the following chapters presents a discussion of a particular virtue or vice a prince might have, and is therefore structured in a way that appears as traditional advice for a prince. However, the advice is far from traditional.

A prince's duty on military matters (chapter 14)

Machiavelli believes that a prince's main goal should be to perfect the art of war. He believes that by taking this profession, a ruler will be able to protect the kingdom from him. He claims that "being unarmed makes you despise." He believes that the only way to ensure the loyalty of soldiers is to understand military affairs. The two activities that Machiavelli recommends practicing to prepare for war are physical and mental. Physically, he believes that rulers should learn the landscape of their territories. Mentally, he encouraged the study of past military events. He also warns against idleness.

Reputation of a Prince (Chapter 15)

Because, says Machiavelli, he wants to write something useful for those who understand, he thought it more appropriate "to go directly to the effective truth (verità effettuale ) of the thing than to the imagination". This section is one where Machiavelli's pragmatic ideal can be seen most clearly. The prince should ideally be virtuous, but he should be willing and able to abandon those virtues if necessary. Regarding the behavior of a prince towards his subjects, Machiavelli announces that he will depart from what other writers say and writes:

Men have imagined republics and principalities that never really existed. However, the way men live is so far away from the way they should live that anyone who abandons what it is for what should be persecuting his fall instead of his preservation; for a man who fights for goodness in all his acts will surely ruin, for there are many men who are not good.

Since there are many possible qualities a prince can be said to possess, he shouldn't worry too much about having all the good ones. In addition, a prince can be perceived as merciful, faithful, humane, frank and religious, but the most important thing is that he "appears" have these qualities. A "prince" you cannot really have these qualities because sometimes it is "necessary" act against them. In fact, he must sometimes deliberately choose evil. Although a bad reputation should be avoided, sometimes it is necessary to have one.

Generosity versus parsimony (chapter 16)

If a prince is too generous to his subjects, Machiavelli claims that he will not be appreciated and will only greed for more. Also, being too generous is not economical, because eventually all resources will run out. This results in higher taxes, and will bring pain to the prince. So if he decides to interrupt or limit his generosity, he will be labeled a miser. Thus, Machiavelli summarizes that protecting yourself against people's hatred is more important than building a reputation for generosity. A wise prince should be willing to be more miserable than hated for trying to be too generous.

On the other hand: «of what is not yours or your subjects, one can be a greater donor, as Cyrus the Great, Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great were, because spending what belongs to another person does not take away from you reputation, but adds it to you; just spending yours hurts you."

Cruelty vs. Mercy (chapter 17)

Addressing the question of whether it is better to be loved or feared, Machiavelli writes: “The answer is that one would like to be both; but because it is difficult to combine them, it is much safer to be feared than to be loved if you cannot be both. As Machiavelli asserts, commitments made in peace are not always kept in adversity; however, commitments made in fear are kept out of fear. However, a prince must ensure that he is not feared to the point of hatred, which is quite possible.

This chapter is possibly the best known of the work, and is important because of the reasoning behind Machiavelli's famous idea that it is better to fear than the loved ones, its justification is purely pragmatic; as he points out, "men are less concerned with hurting one who makes himself loved than with one who makes himself feared." Fear is simply a means to an end, and that end is safety for the prince. The fear instilled should never be excessive, as it could be dangerous for the prince. Above all, Machiavelli argues, a prince should not interfere with the property of his subjects, his women, or someone's life without adequate justification.

As for the prince's troops, fear is absolutely necessary to hold a large garrison together, and the prince should not mind the thought of cruelty in that regard. For a prince leading his own army, it is imperative that he observe cruelty because that is the only way he can earn the absolute respect of his soldiers. Machiavelli compares two great military leaders: Hannibal Barca and Scipio the African. Although Hannibal's army was made up of men of various races, they never rebelled because they feared their leader. Machiavelli says that this required the "inhuman cruelty" that he refers to as a virtue. Scipio's men, on the other hand, were notorious for mutiny and dissension, due to Scipio's "excessive mercy," which was nevertheless a source of glory because he lived in a republic.

How princes should keep their word (chapter 18)

Machiavelli notes that a prince is praised for keeping his word. However, he also points out that a prince is also praised for the illusion of being trustworthy in keeping his word. Therefore, a prince should only keep his word when it suits his purposes, but do his best to maintain the illusion that he keeps his word and that he is trustworthy about it. Therefore, a prince should not unnecessarily break his word.

As Machiavelli points out: “He must appear compassionate, true to his word, innocent and devoted. And in fact it should be so. But his disposition must be such that, if he needs to be the opposite, he knows how to do it ». As pointed out in chapter 15, the prince must appear virtuous and he must be virtuous, but he should be able to be otherwise when the time calls for it; that includes being able to lie, although no matter how much he lies, he must always maintain the appearance of being sincere.

Avoid contempt and hatred (chapter 19)

Machiavelli observes that most men are content as long as they are not deprived of their property and women. A prince should command respect through his conduct, for a prince highly respected by his people is unlikely to face infighting. Furthermore, a prince who does not arouse the contempt of the nobles and keeps the people satisfied, Machiavelli asserts, need not fear conspirators. Machiavelli advises monarchs to have internal and external fears. Internal fears exist within his kingdom and are centered on his subjects, Machiavelli warns to be suspicious of everyone when hostile attitudes arise. External fears are from foreign powers.

The Prince's Prudence (Chapters 20–25)

If Dominant Conquests with Fortresses Work (Chapter 20)

Machiavelli mentions that the placement of fortresses in conquered territories, although it sometimes works, often fails. Using fortresses may be a good plan, but Machiavelli says he must "blame anyone who, relying on fortresses, thinks little of being hated by people." He cited Caterina Sforza, who used a fortress to defend herself against her but was ultimately betrayed by her people.

Winning Honors (Chapter 21)

A prince truly gains honor by completing great deeds. King Ferdinand of Spain is cited by Machiavelli as an example of a monarch who gained esteem by showing his skill through great deeds and who, in the name of religion, conquered many territories and kept his subjects occupied so that they had no chance of success. to rebel. Regarding two conflicting states, Machiavelli claims that it is always wiser to choose one side, rather than being neutral. Machiavelli provides the following reasons why:

• If their allies win, it benefits if it has or no more power than they have.
• If you are more powerful, then your allies are under your command; if your allies are stronger, they will always feel a certain obligation with you for your help.
• If your side loses, you still have an ally on the loser.

Machiavelli also points out that it is wise for a prince not to ally with a stronger force unless forced to. In conclusion, the most important virtue is having the wisdom to discern which ventures will come with the greatest reward and then boldly pursue them.

Nobles and personal (chapter 22)

The selection of good servants directly reflects on the intelligence of the prince, so if they are loyal, the prince is considered wise; however, when they are otherwise, the prince is open to adverse criticism. Machiavelli affirms that there are three types of intelligence:

• The guy who understands things for himself, which is excellent to have.
• The guy who understands what others can understand, which is good to have.
• The guy who doesn't understand himself, or through others, who is useless to have.

If the prince doesn't have the first kind of intelligence, he should at least have the second kind. Because, as Machiavelli says, "a prince needs to have the discernment to recognize the good or bad in what another says or does, even if he himself has no insight."

Avoiding Flatterers (Chapter 23)

This chapter shows a low opinion of sycophants; Machiavelli points out that “men are so happily absorbed in their own affairs and indulge in such self-delusion that it is difficult for them not to fall victim to this plague; and some efforts to protect oneself from sycophants run the risk of being scorned." Flatterers were seen as a great danger to a prince, as flattery from him could cause him to avoid wise advice in favor of reckless action, while avoiding all advice, flattery, or rejection. Otherwise it was just as bad: a middle path had to be taken. A prudent prince must have a select group of wise advisers to advise him candidly on matters at all times. All his opinions must be taken into account. Ultimately, the decision must be made by the prince and absolutely carried out. If a prince is given to changing his mind, his reputation will suffer. A prince must have the wisdom to recognize good advice from bad. Machiavelli gives a negative example in the Emperor Maximilian I; Maximiliano, who was secretive, never consulted others, but once he ordered his plans and was met with dissent, he immediately changed them.

Prudence and opportunity

Why the princes of Italy lost their states (chapter 24)

After mentioning for the first time that a new prince can become as respected as a hereditary one, Machiavelli says that princes in Italy who had long-standing power and lost it can't blame bad luck, but instead they should blame their own indolence. One "should never fall into the belief that you can find someone to pick you up." They all showed a weapon flaw (already discussed) and either had a hostile population or didn't know how to secure with the big ones.

Fortune (chapter 25)

As Gilbert (1938) pointed out, it was traditional in the genre of instruction for princes to mention fortune, but "fortune invades the prince, since she does no other work of its kind." Machiavelli argues that fortune is only the judge of half of our actions and that we control the other half with "sweat," prudence, and virtue. Even more unusual, rather than simply suggesting caution as a prudent way of trying to avoid the worst of misfortunes, Machiavelli argues that the greatest princes in history tend to be those who take the most risks and rise to power through his own work, virtue, prudence, and particularly for his ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

Machiavelli even encourages risk-taking as a reaction to risk. In a well-known metaphor he writes:

It is better to be impetuous than cautious, because fortune is a woman and it is necessary, if one wants to hold her, hit her and hit her

Nicolas Machiavelli

He points out that the historian and diplomat Francesco Guicciardini, a friend of Machiavelli, expressed similar ideas about fortune. de Alvarez (1999, pp. 125-30) points out that what Machiavelli really says is that Italians in his time left things not only to fortune, but to "fortune and God." Machiavelli is indicating in this passage, as in others in his works, that Christianity itself was making Italians helpless and lazy with respect to their own politics, as if they would leave dangerous rivers unchecked. Machiavelli likens fortune to a torrential river that cannot be easily controlled during the flood season. However, in calm periods, people can erect dikes and dikes to minimize their impact. Fortune, Machiavelli argues, seems to strike where there is no resistance, as had recently been the case in Italy.

Exhortation to seize Italy and free it from the barbarians (chapter 26)

Pope Leo X at the time the book was written was a member of the Medici family. This chapter appeals directly to the Medici to use what has been summarized to conquer Italy with Italian armies, following the advice in the book. Gilbert (1938, pp. 222–30) showed that including such an exhortation was not unusual in the genre of advice-filled books for princes. But it is unusual for the Medici family's position of papal power to be openly named as something to be used as a personal power base, as a tool of secular politics. In fact, one example is the "recent" and controversial attempts by the Borgia family to use the power of the church in secular politics, often brutally executed. This continues a controversial theme throughout the book. In the chapter, it is mentioned that "the Spanish infantry is very skillful, but not its cavalry, which is scarce and worth little".