Photographic camera

A SLR camera manufactured by the Russian brand Zenit.

Bellow chamber, for glass negatives, with light tripod for travel.

A photo camera or photo camera is a device used to capture images or photographs. It is an old mechanism for projecting images, in which an entire room performed the same operations inside a current camera, with the difference that at that time there was no possibility of saving the image unless it was traced manually. Current cameras are combined with sensitive elements (films or sensors) to the visible spectrum or to other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and their main use is to capture the image that is in the visual field.

Cameras consist of a closed camera obscura, with an opening at one end to let light in, and a flat imaging or viewing surface to capture light at the other end. Most cameras have an objective made of lenses, located in front of the camera's aperture to control incoming light and to focus the image, or part of the image. The diameter of this opening (known as the aperture) is usually changed by a stopper, although some lenses have a fixed aperture.

While the aperture and scene brightness control the amount of light that enters per unit time, in the camera during the photographic process, the shutter controls the length of time that light hits the recording surface. For example, in low light situations, the shutter speed will be slower (longer open time) to allow the film to receive the necessary amount of light to ensure proper exposure.

History

The first camera was made of wood and manufactured by Charles and Jacques Vincent Louis Chevalier in Paris. However, although it is considered "officially" While this was the birth of photography, the invention of the camera obscura predates it. But it wasn't until the invention of photography that images could be permanently fixed; meanwhile the images had to be drawn manually.

The original camera obscura was a room whose only source of light was a very small hole in one of the walls. The light that entered it through that hole projected an image of the outside onto the opposite wall; the image was inverted and blurry. Leonardo Da Vinci defined a camera obscura. He said that if a blank sheet of paper is placed vertically in a dark room, the observer will see outside objects projected onto it, with their shapes and colors. "It will look like they are painted on the paper," he wrote. Later it was discovered that the light caused a blackening. British scientists Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry Davy began their experiments in obtaining photographic images. These photos were not permanent as after exposure to light the entire surface of the paper would blacken.

Zeiss Ikon Box Gotr, 1951.

The first camera that was small enough to be considered portable was designed by Johann Zahn in 1685. Early still cameras were essentially similar to Zahn's model, though usually with improved focus. Before each exposure a sensitized plate was inserted. Louis Daguerre's popular daguerreotype, released in 1839, used silver-plated copper plates, sensitized with iodine vapors; while in the calotype procedure invented by William Fox Talbot the negative images were formed on a paper support.

The invention of the wet-collodion wet-plate process by Frederick Scott Archer in 1850 greatly reduced exposure time, but always required the photographer to prepare the plates by hand, in the darkroom of photographic studios, or in portable field laboratories, in outdoor travel photography.

In the 19th century many types of cameras were designed. For example, cameras capable of obtaining stereoscopic photographs; whose stereoscopic pairs finally had to be viewed with an appropriate viewer, in order to visualize their three-dimensional or relief effect. A typical stereoscopic camera had two objectives, to simultaneously obtain two very similar, but not the same, images from two very close points of view. Actually, it was inspired by human binocular vision.

Differently other cameras were some studio cameras from the time when business card portraiture was popular (between the 1860s and 1880s). These cameras could have four or more objectives, to obtain several portraits in the same glass negative. In this way the printing (by contact) was faster, since the portraits made were obtained on a single sheet of paper; that only had to be cut and mounted on different individual cards.

Types of cameras

There are a multitude of cameras, and the possible classification criteria are also innumerable, taking into account the complexity and specialization that technology has reached in this field.

Compact cameras

Compact 35 mm Kodak camera.

Without a doubt, compact cameras are the most widespread worldwide, they are very easy to use and require minimal photographic knowledge and practice. The main features are:

• Reduced cost
• Direct optical viewer
• Non-exchangeable objective

APS cameras

Although these cameras had a short life, and are currently not used, it is interesting to consider that they were the result of the first unification between the analog and digital systems, since the image was recorded on film, being able to add to the same digital information. APS cameras (Advanced Photo System) are the result of an agreement adopted by various world manufacturers (among others Canon, Agfa, Polaroid, Kodak, Fuji and Nikon) to simplify the operation of cameras for inexperienced users and also introduce substantial improvements over the common 35mm compact cameras.

Advanced Compact Camera

A Canon Bridge Camera.

An advanced compact camera, also called a bridge camera, is a camera with features geared toward the advanced hobbyist, allowing more control over the camera. image acquisition (manual modes, Raw format control —on some models—), with a versatile and long-range non-interchangeable lens and (usually) an electronic viewfinder.

SLR reflex cameras

Cut a Minolta SLR camera.

A reflex camera SLR (Single Lens Reflex) is a photographic camera in which the image that the photographer sees through the viewfinder is exactly the same that will be captured. This is achieved by reflecting the image (hence the name) on a mirror or system of mirrors called pentaprism and which was launched by the Asahi company, with its Pentax model. Like compact cameras, they can be traditional film or digital (DSLR) cameras.

These are usually the cameras preferred by amateur and professional photographers, since they allow almost absolute control over each of their elements and parameters and have a multitude of interchangeable accessories for different purposes. In general, they have the following characteristics:

• Visor réflex or pentaprisma, which allows you to see exactly what is seen through the target.
• Interchangeable objectives.
• Photometer or built-in perimeter.
• Connection Zapata for external flash.
• Control (ring) manual approach.
• Very fast shutters.

Mirrorless cameras

A camera without a Fujifilm mirror.

A mirrorless camera, also called mirror-less in English, or EVIL (Electronic Viewer Interchangeable Lens), is an interchangeable lens camera, but, unlike Like a traditional SLR, mirrorless cameras, as their name suggests, lack a mirror as an internal element. This means that instead of an optical viewfinder they carry a digital one.[1]

Digital cameras

A digital camera is an electronic device used to capture and store photographs electronically instead of using photographic film like conventional cameras.

Other less common types

• TLR camera (Twin Lens Reflex): it is a twin-objected (one above another) reflex camera that tries to solve the main problem of the visor réflex, the one that cannot be seen the image during the shooting (since the mirror that drives it down to let the light pass to the photographic film or the image sensor). To do this, it sets two objectives: one to take the photo and one to drive the image to the viewer. Because of this configuration, they suffer from the parallax error and lateral investment of the image in the viewfinder, so you have to get used to using them above all to perform photographs of moving objects. They are disused cameras and very few have interchangeable objectives. In addition, two goals should be purchased for each focal distance.

• Camera of study or bank: Those that are mounted on optical and rail banks to allow all kinds of decents, basing the front and rear panels; which gives absolute control over the shape of the image, its perspective and the distribution of the depth of the field.

• Miniature camera: These are the smaller series chambers. They usually have absolutely particular, special formats and their use is mainly to act as spy cameras. These cameras are usually absolutely automatic without any control other than the trigger. Although there are cameras of this type with photographic film (special 16mm wide films), most of these cameras are currently digital cameras as they offer greater possibilities of miniaturization.

• Panoramic camera: providing a superior viewing angle without deformations.
• Air camera: satellite cameras, photogametry and cartography.
• Underwater Camera: specifically designed to work under the water in depth.
• Stereoscopic camera: they try to reproduce the functioning of the two human eyes (two simultaneous photos from two separate points 63mm with which you can then reproduce the stereo vision with a special viewer).
• Stenopeic camera: it is a camera without lens, consisting of a stake in the light with a small hole where the light enters and a photosensitive material.
• Camera "Pocket" or 110: It is a camera designed for fans that has a fixed focus of 25mm and a roll of 16 mm. It provides frames of 12, 18 or 20 size 13X17, which occupy 110 films.
• Portable techniques and "press" type: Use movies in roll. Its structure consists of a panel that mounts a target that has a central shutter and a diaphragm, as well as grips that connect flash telemeters and interchangeable glimpses.

Basic components of a camera

Photosensitive element

Every camera needs a light-sensitive element that somehow records the image coming from the lens. This support will normally be one of the following:

• A photographic film, which is a support composed mainly of a gelatin emulsion and crystals of silver haluros (usually chloride, iodine or silver bromide) that are decomposed by receiving a certain dose of electromagnetic radiation, low wavelength, forming a barely visible metallic silver germ. This is the most common support in chemical photography.

• Self-revealable photographic paper, which does not cease to be a positive photo variant used for photo with instant camera.

• An electronic image sensor, which is a chip made up of millions of light-sensitive components (phototransistor) and some mechanism to perceive the different color components (other wavelengths of light). This is the support used in digital cameras in digital photography.

Viewer

The viewfinder is the optical system that allows framing the visual field that the photograph is intended to cover. In other words, the viewfinder is the window, screen or frame incorporated into the camera or attached to it that the photographer uses to preview, exactly or approximately, the subject/environment relationship covered by the lens.

The viewfinder is one of the most important parts of any camera, as it is the photographer's way of framing and composing each photograph.

1. Frame viewer: It consists simply in an orifice with the same proportions as the format of the film. Some have two holes to use them aligned. Today they only ride cheap cameras to use and throw. A variant is the frame sports viewer, which, as an accessory, carry some half-format réflex cameras.
2. Optical viewers or direct: They are basically formed by a biconcava lens and a biconvexa that produce a virtual and not inverted image; some carry a bright line on their margins to delimit the frame area. There are two variants: Newton's, today in disuse, and Galileo's, based on an inverted telescope, in the latter, the image appears smaller than in reality and its lenses occupy less space than Newton's. This type of viewer is used by most compact cameras and small pocket 110. As a disadvantage it presents the so-called parallax error, which is that the area observed by the viewer only coincides with the one captured by the camera when the subject is close to infinity; as we approach the subject, the two areas cease to coincide. Some cameras solve this by mounting a mobile viewer on a graduated screw that inclines the observed area as we approach the subject and others simply by marking on the viewer two different coverage areas, to use one or the other depending on the distance we find the subject.
3. Visor réflex SLR or of pentaprisma: It is the characteristic of the 35 mm reflex chambers. o SLR (Singles Lens Reflex), although it is also mounted by some in medium format. The image captured by the lens rebounds in the inner mirror and forms on a matt screen where it is collected by the pentaprisma; within it three cross rebounds are produced that straighten the image both vertically and laterally. It is the most accurate model since it lacks parallax error, does not have any kind of image investment and the observed scene is exactly the same one that will appear in the film, as both pass through the same objective and travel the same distance to the screen and to the movie. The only glue is that when shooting it is not possible to see the subject by lifting the mirror.
4. Visor type réflex TLR: It is the most used in the TLR-type film cameras (Twin Lens Reflex) or twin-objects reflect. The top objective serves to frame and the bottom to form the image on the film. By focusing we act simultaneously on the two objectives. The image that forms the top objective is reflected in a mirror located at 45o and climbs up to a slide glass screen located at the top, inside a hood. Although the scene does not appear vertically inverted, the image observed is to speculate and appears inverted laterally, so it takes some practice to frame an object in motion. Like optical visers, short distances cause parallax error. As an advantage he presents the possibility of continuing to observe the subject during the exhibition and as an economic disadvantage, if the machine admits the change of objectives, to have to buy them to pairs.
5. Screen viewer: It is the most primitive, it consists simply of a large strip of crystal that collects the image formed by the objective. It is used in large studio cameras for film in leaves. It is very useful for advertising photography as it allows to draw on the screen itself, cut masks and perform countless tricks, although this is losing ground with the arrival of digital image treatment. The most advanced models (Sinar) have a multitude of accessories and also support digital backups. The image appears inverted vertically and has no parallax error.
6. Electronic viewer: (o) EVF English, English electronic viewfinder) is a viewer in which the image captured by the target is projected on a miniature screen. The image on this screen is used to help the camera frame the scene to be photographed. It's the kind of viewer that uses the cameras without a mirror, or the bridge.

Focus

A lens equipped with a focus mechanism offers two important advantages: the ability to focus at shorter distances than a fixed focus lens, and the ability to focus only on certain planes of a scene to make them stand out from the rest and avoid confusion. The most rudimentary cameras do not have a focus system and their objective usually comes pre-focused at the hyperfocal distance. On slightly more "sophisticated" models, the focus ring may only be divided into symbols denoting landscapes, group shots, and close-ups. In the highest quality cameras, the lens has a double distance scale graduated in meters and feet; in this way, often times the subject can be focused without using the viewfinder. As an aid to focus, many cameras incorporate separately, or in the viewfinder, one of the following focusing systems:

1. Telemeter approach: The eye perceives two images: from one of a mobile semi mirror connected to the focus ring of the target and the other of an optical viewer with which, by the eye, a double image is observed. The focus is accurate when, when turning the target, the two images match. This mechanism, coupled with an optical viewer, is mounted by the good 35 mm non-reflex cameras; like, the legendary Leicas. Its precision, and clarity is excellent.
2. Object image telemeter: It is mostly used in all the réflex cameras, it is located in the central part of the screen. It consists of two prisms in the form of a cylindrical wedge located in the center of the focus screen. When an object is slightly defocused, the lines that cross the line of union of the two wedges appear broken and displaced (see left image). In focusing, the lines of the object are approaching until the figure is recomposed.
3. Micro prism ring: Appears independent or surrounding the circle of the starting image prisms. It consists of an area of tiny prisms in the form of a pyramid that has been seen from its upper vertex. When an object is focused, the points that make up your image appear sharply; by blurring them, each point breaks down into another four resulting in a broken and blurred image. Although it is the most used system because it is rather precise and economical, it has the problem that the micro prism ring and above all the circle of the picture departing come to be dark when the rays of light divergen from the target out of a certain range of distance, as is the case of the use of large lenses or macrophotography. In these cases, whenever the camera allows the change of screens, it is usually changed by a simple matt field screen.
4. Field screen matt: It consists simply of a strip of glass on which the image formed by the objective is observed; sometimes they carry a small magnifying glass. This is the most used system in medium and large format. In the SLR cameras it usually appears as standard system incorporating in its center the two previous systems. In professional quality SLRs, there are usually half a dozen interchangeable screens with grids, Fresnel lenses, micrometers, etc. In the left figure you can see the operation of a focus screen based on a Fresnel lens.

Autofocus system

Currently most compact and SLR cameras simplify the task of focusing with one of the following autofocus systems:

1. COMPARATION OF CONTRACTS: It is the most used system; its operation is similar to that of telemeter. A photosensitive panel collects two images, one from the viewer and one from a mobile mirror coupled to the focus motor. The goal begins to focus from infinity and stops the engine when the contrast of lights and shadows coincides with the two images. Today the photosensitive panel allows to focus with a level of light lower than the one that needs the human eye. This system usually fails to focus low-contrast themes (pairs and smooth objects), with rhythmic and repetitive motifs (shells, processed objects), or with little lighting.

1. INFRARROJO: This system emits an infrared beam beam that bounces the object and is collected by a mirror similar to the previous one that stops the approach when it detects a maximum intensity signal. The system works well with or without light and does not confuse with uncontrasted or rhythmic motives, although if we photograph through a glass it can confuse this with the main theme. It is frequently used coupled to a flash, as a support element to the previous system.
2. ULTRASONS: It is very similar to that of infrared, but it uses inaudible signals of 1/1000 seconds.

Its operation is comparable to that of a radar. A stopwatch compares the time difference between the departure and arrival signal bounced off the object and thus calculates the distance. You can also miss shooting through glass, branches, and barbed wire. The improvement of all these autofocus systems suffers an extraordinary advance every year.

Diaphragm

Different openings of the diaphragm.

The diaphragm and maties is the method that regulates the aperture of an optical system. It is usually a disk or system of fins arranged in a camera lens in such a way that it restricts the passage of light, usually in an adjustable way. The progressive aperture variations of the diaphragm are specified by the f-number, which is the ratio of the focal length to the effective aperture diameter.

Shutter

The shutter is the device that controls the time during which light reaches the sensitive element (film or image sensor). It normally consists of a curtain located on the body of the camera, just in front of this photosensitive element and obviously behind the lens; the blind opens and closes for the time configured in the camera to allow light to pass through the photosensitive element.

Dial of the shutter in a Fujica STX-1.

Other common elements

• Exposure: The expometer or photometer is a device that gives the measure of the exposure that the photosensitive element will have with the set opening and shutting speed configuration. Although today the vast majority of the cameras carry a built-in perimeter, the manual exposimeters are a very useful accessory, especially in difficult lighting situations.

• flash flash incorporated: The flash flash is a device that acts as an artificial light source to illuminate scenes synchronized with the camera shot. It is used mostly when the existing light is not enough to take the snapshot with a given exposure, although it also has other uses. The flash flash is a source of intense and hard light, which usually covers little space and is transportable. Usually flashes incorporated in the cameras are balanced lights at 5500 K, as well as the light of a sunny day. Today the vast majority of the cameras come with a flash flash and, many cameras, have standard shoe connection flash flash external.

Common camera controls

Depending on the type, brand and model of camera, it will have more or less controls to allow the photographer to configure the camera to their liking. The cameras that are usually the most versatile in this sense are SLR reflex cameras, although all the controls mentioned below are found in any semi-professional or professional camera. In digital and compact cameras some of these controls may be automatic or electronic.

Focus Ring

The focusing ring is a control that allows you to vary the actual distance between the lens and the sensor, and thus focus the lens of the lens to clearly perceive the subject of the photograph. Compact cameras usually lack this control, either because they are lenses focused infinity (so that practically any object from a certain distance will look sharp), or because they have an automatic autofocus system.

In cameras that have the possibility of manual focus, this control is located on the lens (not on the camera body) and will normally present a scale in meters. By gently adjusting this control you can check how the perceived image in the viewfinder will be in or out of focus.

Some lenses have some kind of focus assist mechanism, the most common being the split Fresnel lens, consisting of a small circle that can be seen through the viewfinder in which, when the image is not perfectly focused, the inverted image inside the circle will be perceived and when the object that is displayed inside the circle is in focus it will already be perfectly aligned with the rest of the viewfinder image. This mechanism greatly facilitates focusing as it allows you to aim at the subject you want to see sharp and, gently playing with the focus ring, bring it to the position where the lenses align and the image is complete (not inverted in the center circle).

On lenses that allow both manual (MF) and automatic (AF) focus, it is important not to attempt to manually force the focus ring when it is in the auto (AF) position as this may damage the focus. target mechanism. This is why when these lenses are stored they should be put in the manual focus (MF) position to avoid possible mistakes.

Operation mode selector

Most digital cameras and some traditional cameras have a roulette wheel that selects the camera's operating mode. Each camera can have a different set of modes, although there will surely be some of the following:

• Reproduction mode: to view, review or delete the photographs taken (only in digital cameras).
• Automatic mode (auto): all parameters will be automatically chosen by the camera.
• Scheduled mode (P): the camera chooses the opening parameters and exposure time; the photographer can choose the other parameters that allow the camera (e.g. white balance, flash mode, ISO sensitivity, etc.)
• Opening priority mode (Av): the photographer chooses a parameter for the opening and the camera selects the most appropriate exposure time value to correctly expose the photograph according to the measurement of the inbuilt expometer in the camera.
• Exposure priority (TV): the photographer chooses a parameter for the exposure time and the camera selects the most appropriate opening value to correctly expose the photograph according to the measurement of the built-in expometer in the camera.
• Manual mode (M): The photographer chooses all parameters manually.
• Other preset modes: preset modes in the camera for landscape photography, portraits, panoramic photos, video, etc.

Diaphragm ring

This control allows you to choose the aperture of the lens diaphragm and, consequently, to regulate the maximum passage of light towards the shutter and the photographic film or image sensor. With this, what is mainly achieved is, apart from facilitating the achievement of some photographic effects, letting more or less light pass into the camera to balance the exposure of the photographs. Note that the passage of light can also be adjusted with the speed wheel (see below) and that it is equivalent (in order to balance the exposure of the photo) to introduce light by opening the diaphragm or giving more exposure time with the speed wheel.

In practical terms they are distinguished:

• Diaphragms open: those below f4 (see f or opening), the disc of the diaphragm is more open and lets more light into the interior. In addition, a lower depth of field and sharpness (by letting the light spread more) is achieved by significantly helping to make selective approach.

• Diaphragms closed: those above f4, the diaphragm disc is more closed and lets less light pass. In addition, this achieves greater depth of field and sharpness in the resulting photograph.

Speed roulette

This control allows the photographer to choose the shutter speed or what is the same, the exposure time of the photosensitive element (photographic film or image sensor). With this, what is mainly achieved is, apart from facilitating the achievement of some photographic effects, letting more or less light pass into the camera to balance the exposure of the photographs. As already mentioned in the previous point, this same effect can also be achieved with the diaphragm ring.

In practical terms they are distinguished:

• Fast speeds: over 1/60 seconds; the shutter remains open very little time letting less light pass to the photosensitive element. They manage to freeze the movement and highlight the dynamism of moving objects.

• Slow speeds: less than 1/60 seconds; the shutter stays open longer letting more light pass. With these images are moved, displaced, giving greater sense of displacement.

Ring of Sensitivities

This control allows the photographer to adjust on the camera the sensitivity of the photographic film mounted in the camera (traditional camera case) or the image sensor (digital camera case). The sensitivity in this context indicates the intensity of light necessary for the photosensitive element to perceive the image.

• In traditional cameras this factor depends directly on the emulsion of the photographic film. Some cameras have an automatic mechanism of metal contacts located on the drum where the photo reel is loaded for read the DX code which is also printed with metallic contacts on most modern reels in a way similar to that of a bar code. In these cameras it is no longer necessary to indicate the sensitivity of the film because the camera detects it automatically when loading the reel.

• In digital cameras this factor can be configured to make the image sensor more or less sensitive.

There are several scales of photographic sensitivity, the most common being the ISO scale, formerly called ASA. In general, with lower sensitivities a greater image sharpness is achieved, although it is necessary that a greater amount of light enters the objective; on the other hand, with high sensitivities it is easier for the photographer to take pictures in less light, although the sharpness of the image will probably suffer to some degree.

White balance

Pure white light is unusual in our environment: sunlight has a certain golden hue to it, and light from a tungsten filament bulb tends to have a more yellow hue.

When you photograph objects in light other than pure white, they take on a certain shade of the color of the light falling on them (this is called cast). Many times the photographer takes advantage of precisely these dominants to give certain effects to the photographs, but on other occasions it is preferable to correct this color imbalance; this is what is known as white balance.

White balance is about telling the camera what kind of dominant light there is so it can correct it. There are different methods to do this:

• In many digital cameras it is possible to target a white object with the camera so that it understands that that is what we want it to be considered white and that from that value the correct corrections are made.
• Most of the digital cameras have, in any case, a series of prefixed values for different standard light types with different color temperatures.
• Finally, it is possible to place a color temperature correcter photo filter to correct the dominant one for that color.

Zoom Ring

Cameras that have varifocal length lenses (zoom lens) must have some mechanism (electronic or manual) so that the photographer can adjust the focal length between the range of values admitted by said lens.

By acting on this control you get:

• Open or close the frame.
• Expand or reduce the angle of vision.
• Removing or approaching framed objects.

Utilities

Tripod

A tripod is a three-part device that allows the stabilization of a camera on its top. It is used to be able to avoid the movement of the hand when taking a photo.

Gimbal stabilizer

It is a motorized platform controlled by sensors, which allows us to have our camera stabilized, so that regardless of the movement made by the carrier, it is always stable.

Filters and Filter Adapter

Photographic filters are optical filters that are attached to the front of the lens via a threaded adapter to produce different effects on the light entering the lens.

External flash

It is the one that is not attached to the camera.

Lens protector

The lens protector is a small lens located in the diaphragm glass

Leash

The camera support strap, although it does not seem to be important in the set of accessories for a camera due to its simplicity or its price, is an important element for every photographer since it is ultimately the safety belt. security of the camera.

The strap must be worn on the camera at all times and attached in some way to the body or arm of the photographer; In this way, it is avoided that due to any trip the camera falls directly to the ground when it slips from the hand.

Also, another reason to wrap your arm strap around your arm when taking a picture is so there's no loose cord that can get in front of your lens and ruin your photo.

Sunshade for diffused light

This is a plastic umbrella- or flower-petal-shaped accessory that attaches to the end of the lens to eliminate stray or stray light that detracts from image contrast.

Each lens, depending on its focal length, must have a specific lens hood since this is still an element that is in front of the lens and if the lens's viewing angle is large enough it can cover the lens hood with what is produced in the photograph an effect of vignetting.

There are also retractable rubber lens hoods that can be used on various lenses since, in the event of vignetting, they can retract in on themselves. Plus, as an added bonus, these rubber lens hoods help protect your lens from drops or bumps.

Target-cleaning team

Air dog.

The optical lenses of objectives and viewfinder, as well as the folding mirror of SLR cameras are elements that are very sensitive to fingerprints, vibrations, pressure, etc. Therefore, contact with them should be avoided at all costs. However, if cleaning is essential, there are some brushes, air pears, chamois cloths and liquids specifically designed for these items.

Cleaning should be limited to blowing with a blower to remove particles on these surfaces and then lightly brushing with a camel's hair.

In the case of objective lenses, it can also be wiped with a cloth or special paper soaked in lens-cleaning liquid to remove fingerprints and other grease stains. In this case, cleaning should be done with very little pressure and from the center out of the lens (not circularly).

In any case, as indicated before, the objectives must be protected at all times with plastic covers when not in use and with protective filters at all times.

Covers or transport bags

Cheap but essential equipment to properly preserve and protect the optical elements and the camera itself.

It is important that it be padded to absorb possible blows and with straps that allow it to be carried on the shoulder. Weight and volume are also important and will depend on the equipment that the photographer needs to carry at any given time. The care of this is essential for the quality of the photos to continue.

Adapters for microscopes and telescopes

The combination of microscopes/telescopes with cameras is not lost on anyone that it can be attractive in order to achieve magnifications or distances beyond the reach of any photographic objective (see astrophotography).

For this, there are adapters on the market that allow the camera lens to be attached to telescopes and microscopes.

To do this you usually need:

• A Ring T, which is a very simple little accessory that has on one side a mount similar to that of the lens of the camera, and on the other side a standard thread, which allows to screw it as if it were a telephoto to the camera.

• The adapter for camera itself, which is a tube that allows us to attach the camera to the telescope/microscope.

With this type of element attached to the camera, it is important to correctly adjust the aperture of the diaphragm and the focal length (zoom) to avoid that unpleasant vignetting effect given by also covering the photo. part of the accessory in the photo.

Cable releases and remote releases

A cable release is a small device that can be attached to the body of some cameras and allows the camera's shutter release button to be extended with a cable, so that it can be activated by part of the photographer at a certain distance from the camera. Normally the purpose of this type of device is not to move the photographer too far from the camera, but to avoid the vibrations that occur in the camera when the shutter is activated in long exposures.

On the other hand, remote shutter releases are devices with an analog function but more sophisticated that normally allow shooting with a wireless remote control.

Intervalometers

An intervalometer is a device (usually electronic) that, connected to a compatible camera, allows bursts of shots to be taken at configurable time intervals. This is especially useful in photography of wild animals in their environment, nature photography, etc.