Parapsychology

The first parapsychological researches used so-called Zener cards, in experiments designed to try to test the possibility of telepathic communication.

Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example relating to near-death experiences, synchronization, apparitional experiences, among others. It is considered a pseudoscience and is rejected by the vast majority of the scientific community.

Parapsychological research almost never appears in mainstream scientific journals. Most articles on parapsychology are published in a small number of specialized journals. Parapsychology has been criticized for continuing research despite failing to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomenon after more than a century of research.

Origin and etymology

The word "parapsychology" was first coined by the German psychologist Max Dessoir in June 1889 in an article published in the German magazine Sphinx:

If by analogy with terms such as para-gnesis, para-gogo, para-grafo, paralogism, parachusia, paralogism, paranoia, paragon, etc. we point with the prefix for to something that goes beyond the ordinary, or goes, so to say, next to the normal, we can call (acaso) "parapsychics" to those phenomena that arise from the normal development of mental life, and therefore Parapsychology to science concerning them. The term is not beautiful or elegant, but in my understanding it has the advantage of briefly characterizing a border area until now unnominated, between normal and pathological usual states. And in reality such neologismos have only the limited value of their practical utility.

SphinxNumber 7, p. 42

The term comes from the Greek para: 'next to', psycho: 'mind' and logy: 'study').

This term replaced "psychic research" and "metapsychology" that had been used for decades to name the investigation of paranormal phenomena.

History

James Braid, developer of hypnosis.

In 1882, William Barrett and Jules Romanes founded the Society for Psychical Research in London for the purpose of investigating "a large number of phenomena designated by terms such as hypnotic, psychical and spiritualistic". contemporary association was the London Dialectical Society.

Years later, Franz Anton Mesmer claimed to have discovered animal magnetism or mesmerism, giving it wide publicity in 1775. With this technique he intended to exercise a therapeutic influence on his patients for the purpose of healing, using an ethereal medium called «pass magnetic”, which was nothing but the prelude to what we would later call hypnosis, studied and further developed in 1842 by the neurosurgeon James Braid, who would publish the following year Neurypnology: or the rationale of nervous sleep, where he described it as a "nervous dream." James Braid, however, considered the hypothesis that the magnetic pass was an ethereal fluid to be incorrect.^{[citation needed]}

At the end of the 19th century, spiritualism received the most attention from the general society and fashion magazines.

In 1919 the Institute Metapsychique Internationale was founded in Paris, in whose activities Pierre Janet, Charles Richet and Theodore Flournoy participated, and which included among others automatism, telepathic hypnosis and mediumship. After World War II, the first chair of parapsychology was created at the University of Utrecht, under the tutelage of Tenhaeff. In Eastern Europe and present-day Russia, research focused on hypnosis and telepathy, mainly by the physiologist Leonid Leonidovich Vasiliev (1891-1966), who tried to demonstrate that hypnosis was produced by the irradiation of "waves". cerebral", without obtaining results. During Stalinism these investigations were ridiculed and repressed.

Richet periodic division

Charles Robert Richet made this division.

In 1922, Charles Robert Richet (1850-1935) published Traité de métapsychique, where he divided the history of paranormal phenomena into four stages:

Mythical period

It would extend from antiquity to Mesmer and his animal magnetism (in 1778). According to Richet, antiquity has more historical than scientific importance, since there is no reason, only religious books.

[...] It belongs to historians, rather than to scientists, to seek in old religions and ancient popular traditions all that has been said about the supernatural, the hidden, the magical, the incomprehensible. This journey through sacred books, cabals, magics, presents little scientific interest. [...]

Richet - III. History - mythical period

The Fox sisters.

Magnetic period

From Mesmer and his animal magnetism (in 1778) ―preceding hypnosis― to the Fox sisters in 1847.

With Mesmer, everything changes: Mesmer was the initiator of animal magnetism, which, without being confused with metapsychism, however, is very close. [...]

Richet - III. History - Magnetic period

In 1639, a century before Anton Mesmer, a book entitled The sympathetic powder of Edricius Mohynus of Eburo was published in Europe, which explained how the Wounds could supposedly be healed without contact with them, at a distance and through the "directive faculty and virtue" that the virtue of "sympathetic dust" could bring in a bloody towel or napkin. According to the book, the central concept would be to inject the "good will" or "positive wish" on the wound. According to the author, the "sympathetic power" would depend on the stars as imitators of the influences exerted on them. However, Francis Barrett attributed it, in his work "The Magician, a complete system of occult philosophy", to intelligence for its power to direct the ideas that are engendered by "charity" or the "desire of goodwill".

The Dominican friar Uldericus Balk wrote in 1611 in Frankfurt am Main The lamp of life, where he stated that there was a "magnetic cure" for various diseases such as dropsy, gout or jaundice, in a new advance to Mesmer's theses.

In 1775, Mesmer announced through experiments and healings a new miraculous healing technique that would be based on the «magnetic pass», an ethereal fluid that communicated the minds and that would make it possible to exert an influence on biological beings, which he called « animal magnetism" that would later lead to mesmerism. The term "animal magnetism" was used to differentiate itself from "planetary magnetism," "cosmic magnetism," and "mineral magnetism." The subsequent help of Puységur (1751-1825) would be essential for the development of current hypnosis through his work Rapport des cures opérées à Bayonne par le magnetisme animal, adressé à M. l'abbé de Poulouzat, conseiller clerc au Parlement de Bordeaux (1784).

Spiritual Period

From the Fox sisters 1847 to Crookes (1847-1872). Richet considered mesmerism, after all, to be a "dubious therapy that made no progress." For him the Fox sisters (1847) would have announced the arrival of spiritualism as we know it today, and with it new practices and forms of study that would have resulted in a radical evolution in the history of parapsychology.

In 1847, an event, insignificant in appearance, came, but in reality of considerable importance, which introduced us into the world of unforeseen facts and doctrines as unforeseen as facts.

Richet - III. History - Spiritist period

The exact time of the birth of modern spiritualism is unknown, but it approximates the middle of the XIX century with the creation of the work, called in its entirety, Spiritist codification by the French pedagogue Allan Kardec between 1857 and 1868. The books that make up the collection are Le livre des esprits, Le livre des médiums, L'Évangile selon le spiritisme, Le ciel et l'enfer y La genese, and they are a compilation of questions asked by Kardec and the answers supposedly given by the spirits with whom he communicated. This work also lays the foundations of spiritist doctrine. Kardec was influenced by the Fox sisters (1814-1893), by Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) and the Ouija board of the time.

The Fox sisters: Kate (1837-1892), Margaret (1833-1893) and Leah (1814-1890), are often considered the founders of the spiritualist movement or spiritualism. In any case, they were the main promoters of the movement created by Kardec and the successive investigations into poltergeist phenomena throughout the world. In 1848 the sisters toured the United States and abroad displaying their skills. The enthusiasm aroused was such that the chemist William Crookes wrote after a séance in London in 1871:

I witnessed the blows of all conceivable forms, until there was no escape from the conviction that the events were not produced by mechanical deception or [artilugios] means.

Crookes, London in 1871

In 1888, however, the sisters publicly confessed that the noises had been caused intentionally by clicking the joints of their toes or dangling an apple from a string and causing it to hit the floor. way, so that no one was able to locate the source of origin of it.

Scientific Period

From Crookes (1847-1872) to the present. Richet considered that a stage of "scientific" doctrine began as from Crookes' research as opposed to the religious and mystical ones that had been carried out up to then, affirming that it was endowed with the desired precision as in chemistry, physics and physiology.

[...] From 1869 to 1872, he published the memories, notable for the accuracy of the language and the severity of the experimentation, which contrasted with the usual style of the Spiritist publications. It was the advent of the scientific period of Spiritism. [...]

Richet - III. History - scientific period

Initiation of rational investigations

Although paranormal events had been happening since the beginning of history, it was not until 1937 when the first advances in parapsychological research were made, by the English psychic Harry Price. Borley Rectory, in England, was the trigger. Since 1863 phenomena of various kinds were reported, sometimes of great violence; the spectrum of phenomena encompassed absolutely all the phenomenological modalities described in parapsychology. Harry Price prepared, with the help of 38 volunteer observers inside the house, a detailed record of all the paranormal events that occurred, to later express his conclusions in The Most Haunted House in England: Ten Years & # 39; Investigation of Borley Rectory (The most haunted house in England: ten years of investigation into Borley Rectory) in 1940.

The Rectory of Borley viewed from the garden. Considered one of the most "enchanted" houses in history.

Possible explanations

Some types of paranormal phenomena already have a valid and reasonable scientific answer.

Visual phenomena may be due to simple hallucinations, to the resonance of low-frequency sounds in the vitreous humor of the eye, or to altered states of consciousness, such as sleepiness.^{[citation needed]}

Edgar Mauer, in his book Of spots before the eyes (1952), argues that many visual phenomena have a physical explanation within the eye itself. Certain cells of the vitreous humor would cast shadows on the retina. Additionally, visual flashes can originate from simple mechanical stimulations (come in contact with the eye) that produce the sending of electrical signals to the brain that are interpreted as light; this would be the origin of the phosphenes.

The sound phenomena captured (called psychophony) can be due to interactions between electrical equipment and certain aberrations in magnetic fields, in the same way the movement of objects cannot be due to a temporary loss of gravity in a specific area of space.

Unconscious use of psychedelic or entheogenic drugs is another possibility, as is undiagnosed or untreated schizophrenia.

According to numerous studies, there is psychosis induced by stimulants, among which amphetamines, cocaine and, to a lesser extent, caffeine stand out. This can be a cause of certain paranormal phenomena. Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, and catatonia, among others.

Hypothesis

Parallel universes and space-time

It shows every universe as one of the strips, and each frame as a little time, there we see the frames being parallel with each other showing the various possibilities coexisting parallel. Each strip would correspond to a universe. Although the graph illustrates only two universes, in theory there would be as many universes as possibilities of change.

In Einstein's field equations of general relativity, a proportional relationship is defined between matter and the curvature of space-time around it.

Gμ μ .. =8π π Gc4Tμ μ .. {displaystyle G_{mu nu }={8pi G over c^{4}T_{mu nu }}}}

This leads to different resolutions, exact or inaccurate. Some of such exact resolutions include the possibility that black holes are a gateway to parallel universes. Parallel universes would be part of a multiplexed whole; each possibility in the succession of a certain event, infinite combinations of possibilities, would correspond to one of the dimensional planes, each one parallel to the adjacent plane that would naturally continue its course.

The interconnection of the current plane with any of these planes, through some currently unknown mechanism, would allow changes of a physical nature in the environment.^{[citation required]}

Aberrations of geomagnetic fields

Earth's magnetic fields are produced naturally, believed to be by the continuous movement of molten iron in the Earth's core. This terrestrial field has a flux intensity of the order of 500 mG. This peculiarity, together with various facts, such as the increase in seismic activity along fault zones, electrical activity during storms, and the characteristics of certain conductive minerals in certain areas, probably lead to an increase in the intensity of the flow. geomagnetic. Certain people with brain damage or hypersensitivity of their temporal lobes may be more susceptible to experiencing paranormal events. Statistically, there is a correlation between the phenomena of increased geomagnetic activity with experiences with deceased relatives. The structure of human constructions and the geology of the place undoubtedly affect certain casuistry.

This theory has been corroborated without much success outside the scientific world, generally relating it to the presence of water, using pseudoscientific techniques, such as dowsing. There is currently no evidence on the alteration of the movement of dowsing pendulums produced by the existence or not of certain electromagnetic fields.^{[citation needed]}

Here are orbs during rain. The particles involved are the own drops of water, and flash, the element that mediates in the phenomenon.

The study Consistent magnetic-field induced dynamical changes in rabbit brain activity detected by recurrence quantification analysis (2002), revealed the ratio of changes in magnetic flux intensity to 2.5 Gauss, and changes in brain activity in various rabbits, directly mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate and brain α(2)-adrenoreceptors. This was tested using a non-linear method of analysis.

Telepathy and low frequency electromagnetic waves

According to Hoyt L. Edge and J. Finley Hurley, during the Soviet era many scientists claimed that psi phenomena, especially those of telepathy, had a physical basis. Ferdinando Cazzamali in the 1920s, through a series of studies carried out, claimed that telepathy phenomena occurred through some type of electromagnetic radiation. Since telepathic communication persisted after placing barriers such as Faraday cages, which theoretically should block any type of electromagnetic flow between the sender and the receiver, most parapsychologists rejected this theory. Persinger, M. Kogan, and other scientists argued that a type of very low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic radiation, between 3 and 300 Hz, might have the ability to penetrate these obstacles.

Orbs and light reflection

Parapsychological theory defines the existence of orbs, a visual phenomenon, as the evident manifestation of certain entities in the flow of space-time. Science has shown that they are mainly due to an optical effect generated by the reflection of light from photographic and video devices on particles of various kinds. These particles are generally dust, snow, water droplets and other particles suspended and moving through the air.

The existence of this phenomenon is produced by three fundamental factors: The short distance between the electronic device, the intense light coming from the flash and the small size of the particle. The short distance causes the incidence of light on the particle to be greater, its small size prevents the device from focusing it correctly, so that a "magnifying glass effect" is generated that greatly increases the size of the particle. The shape of the orb is generally circular, although this will depend on the shape of the particle itself, so there are variabilities.

Research

Parapsychology is a pseudoscience; This is so because when the scientific tests do not give the expected result, they are ignored, only using the favorable ones, even though they cannot be endorsed or reproduced. Outside of this, he does not use the scientific method, although he does occasionally use experimental methodologies. In essence, and discarding the large percentage of fraud that parapsychology itself assumes about the supposed facts it studies, it focuses on the possible existence of extrasensory perception and telepathy. The analysis of near-death experiences or telekinesis could also be included in the field of parapsychology. The existence of any of these phenomena has not been proven.

The psi element

The psi is an entity created to try to understand the supposed mechanics of parapsychological phenomena, which would include extrasensory perception, telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis, poltergeists, near-death experiences, mediumship, out-of-body experiences or miraculous healing.

See also: List of psychic powers.

Presence in educational institutions

There are some research programs and even some chairs in parapsychology, like the one at the University of Edinburgh, and other programs at universities like Duke University.^{[citation needed]}

In 1953 at the University of Utrecht (Netherlands) he created a chair of parapsychology. In 1960, at the University of Leningrad (present-day Saint Petersburg) an institute for the study of psychic effects began to function. In the United States, at the University of Virginia, a chair of parapsychology is founded. In 1976, Ramos Perera, president of the Spanish Parapsychology Society, became the first professor of Parapsychology at the Autonomous University of Madrid.

The Parapsychological Association is the professional association of parapsychologists in the United States. Probably the greatest endorsement received in its history occurred in 1969, when the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) recognized it as a full member. This is one of the arguments that supporters of parapsychology usually add to affirm the seriousness of their discipline.

In the vast majority of countries the study of parapsychology is not part of the studies regulated by their respective governments. In any case, and outside of regulated education, there are certain institutions that provide training in parapsychology.

Criticism and controversies

It is not a scientific discipline

The pseudoscience condition of parapsychology is based on the fact that the use of the scientific method is necessary in its entirety, and the mere use of «experimental methodologies» is not synonymous with it or sufficient to grant scientific status to a discipline. Thus, the investigation of parapsychology does not fit within the standard theoretical models accepted neither by the natural sciences nor in psychology, within the social sciences. It is also necessary that the discipline in question, based on the true and/or complete use of the scientific method, produces some theory (verifiable and therefore demonstrable by the scientific method) that can be related to the currently accepted body of scientific knowledge, that is that is, that it can 'engage' with the rest of the knowledge. To date, parapsychology has not produced any theory of this type, so in its current state it is considered a pseudoscientific discipline. Additionally, the existence of any paranormal phenomenon has not been proven under controlled laboratory conditions either. Methodological flaws would provide the best explanation for the apparent experimental successes, rather than the anomalous explanations offered by many parapsychologists.

However, systems such as hypnosis, years ago considered as part of the paranormal, parapsychological and anti-scientific, today is accepted by science.^{[citation required]}

Criticism

In the US, the James Randi Educational Foundation of the illusionist and skeptic James Randi has existed since 1996, dedicated to exposing the falsehoods surrounding supposed paranormal phenomena. The foundation has been offering the sum of one million US dollars to whoever manages, under controlled laboratory conditions (and supervised by the foundation), to demonstrate a single paranormal phenomenon such as those mentioned above. So far no one has been able to make a satisfactory demonstration. Already in 1964 James Randi, as a private individual, had offered the sum of US$1,000 for the same purpose, he has later increased that amount to US$10,000.

The requirements to claim this prize are not trivial; pre-candidates must pass a preliminary test (which is less important than the formal test) to filter supposedly promising candidates from mere charlatans. However, to date no one has managed to pass the Foundation's preliminary tests.