Panthera onca

The jaguar, yaguar or yaguareté  (Panthera onca) is a felid carnivore of the subfamily Panterines and genus Panthera. It is the only one of the four extant species of this genus found in America. It is also the largest cat in America and the third largest in the world, after the tiger (Panthera tigris) and the lion (Panthera leo). Its current distribution extends from the southern tip of the United States continuing through Mexico, Central America, and South America to northern and northeastern Argentina. It inhabits mainly dry and humid tropical areas, but also lives in arid scrub. Its diet is very wide, it can hunt large prey, including cattle, or small animals. Except for a few populations in Arizona (southwest of Tucson), this species has been virtually extirpated in the United States since the early 1900s.

It is closely related to and closely resembles the leopard (Panthera pardus) in physical appearance, but is generally larger, more robust in build, and its behavior and habitat are more in keeping with the of the tiger (Panthera tigris). Although it prefers dense, moist forests, it can accommodate itself to a wide variety of wooded or open terrain. It is closely associated with the presence of water and stands out, along with the tiger, for being a cat that likes to swim.

He is fundamentally solitary. He hunts by ambushing, being opportunistic when choosing prey. It is a key species for the stabilization of the ecosystems in which it lives; Being a top predator, it regulates the populations of the species it captures. Adults have an exceptionally powerful bite, even compared to other large cats, allowing them to pierce the shells of armored reptiles such as turtles and use an unusual method of killing: directly attack the head of the prey between the ears to deliver a lethal bite that crosses the skull with its fangs reaching the brain.

Panthera onca is listed on the IUCN Red List as "Near Threatened" and its numbers are in decline. Factors threatening it include loss and fragmentation of its habitat. Despite the fact that international trade in specimens of this species or its parts is prohibited, this felid is frequently killed by humans, especially in conflicts with ranchers. Although reduced, its geographic distribution remains wide, with 34 subpopulations still existing throughout the continent. Throughout history, this distribution gave it a prominent place in the mythology of many Native American cultures, such as the Mayans and the Aztecs..

Common names and etymology

In its native areas it receives different names in Spanish such as jaguar, yaguar, yaguareté, otorongo, jaguarete, tiger or American tiger. The Mexicas called it ocelotl, although they also used this name for the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), and could refer to it as tlatlauhquiocélotl. In much of Latin America, since the arrival of the Spanish, it is common to call this animal "tiger" although the resemblance to the Asian tiger (Panthera tigris) of which the name comes. In the areas of Spanish-speaking countries that are close to the border with Brazil, the Brazilian name is also used in Portuguese: onça-pintada. As for the American aboriginal languages, in Mayan it is called balam, in Mapuche it is called nawel, in Quechua uturunku or unqa and in Bribri namú.

Yaguar and yaguareté come from Guarani yaguar 'fiera', and eté 'true', and probably came to Spanish by It is a conduit from Portuguese or French, which explains the distortion towards the form with j: jaguar. "true beast"; Indeed, before 1492 the Guarani used the word yaguá to refer to different carnivores or "beasts", but in the presence of the ferocious fighting dogs brought by the Europeans the term Guarani yagua came to mean just 'dog' (currently this Guarani term is applied to any dog), while Panthera onca was the yaguá-eté, that is: the beast or fierce animal par excellence, being the most dangerous of all those that the members of that ethnic group knew and feared the most. From there arose the denomination yaguareté, used especially in the countries of the Guaranític area: Argentina and Paraguay, and in an abbreviated way, yaguar, or by mistake in pronunciation on texts not in Spanish: jaguar with «j».

The first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is a Latin term derived in turn from the Greek word πάνθηρ (leopard, the type species of the genus). It has been said that this word derives from παν- "everything" and θήρ "beast", although it could be a popular etymology or originate from pundarikam (lit. "yellowish animal"), the Sanskrit word for "tiger".

Onca comes from the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla substituted for typographical reasons, although in Spain it is more commonly used for the onza or snow leopard ( Panthera uncia) and in Latin America for the onza or ocelot cat. Derived from Latin lyncis, lynx, which lost the letter "L" when confused with the definite article (Italian lonza, Old French l'once).

Taxonomy

Panthera onca, is the only member of the genus Panthera currently existing in the New World. DNA tests show that this species, the lion (Panthera leo), the tiger (Panthera tigris), the leopard (Panthera pardus), the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), and the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) share a common ancestor, and that this group is between 6 and 10 million old years; the fossil record indicates that the appearance of Panthera occurred between 2 and 3.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies have generally shown that the clouded leopard is the basal species of this group. The position of the remaining species varies among various studies and in practice remains unresolved.

Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded that Panthera onca's closest relative was the leopard. However, DNA evidence is inconclusive and its position relative to other species varies from study to study. Fossils of extinct species of Panthera, such as the European jaguar (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and the American lion (Panthera leo atrox), present characteristics of both lion and Panthera onca. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Panthera onca indicates that the species' lineage dates back to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, therefore it is more modern than the fossil record suggests.

Subspecies

Although numerous subspecies have been recognized Panthera oncaRecent research points to only three.

P. onca hernandesii.

The last taxonomic description of the subspecies of Panthera onca was made by Pocock in 1939. Based on geographic origins and cranial morphology, he recognized eight subspecies, although he did not have enough specimens to evaluate them critically, and expressed doubts about the status of some of them. However, Pocock's subspecies is still commonly used in general descriptions of this felid.

Seymour lists eight recognized subspecies:

1. P. onca arizonensis † (Goldman, 1932)South Arizona to Sonora, Mexico.
2. P. onca centralis (Mearns, 1901)Panama and North Colombia.
3. P. onca goldmani (Mearns, 1901)Yucatan Peninsula to Belize and Guatemala.
4. P. onca hernandesii (J. E. Gray, 1857)Central and West Mexico.
5. P. onca onca (Lineo, 1758): between the basins of the river Orinoco and the Amazon.
6. P. onca paraguensis (Hollister, 1914)South Brazil to the Central Pampa of Argentina, including Paraguay and part of Uruguay.
7. P. onca peruviana (from Blainville, 1843), tropical forest of Tumbes (costa) Peru and Ecuador.
8. P. onca veraecruscis (Nelson and Goldman, 1933)Central Texas southeast of Mexico.

Nine subspecies are recognized in the work Mammal Species of the World and in the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), the eight cited and also P. onca palustris (Ameghino, 1888).

Panthera onca has two extinct subspecies: Panthera onca augusta and Panthera onca mesembrina, both from the Pleistocene, inhabiting America from the Patagonia (including Chile) to the United States, these two subspecies are joined by Panthera onca arizonensis, which was eradicated in modern times.

Subsequent evaluations suggest that only three subspecies should be recognized: P. onca onca, P. onca hernandesii and P. onca paraguensis, and recent studies have also failed to find evidence for clearly defined subspecies, and no longer recognize them. Larson (1997) studied morphological variation in Panthera onca and showed that there is north-south clinal variation, but also that the differentiation within the presumed subspecies is greater than that between them, and therefore does not support a subspecies division. A genetic study by Eizirik et al. in 2001 confirmed the absence of a clear geographic subspecies structure, although they found that large geographic barriers, such as the Amazon River, limited gene exchange between different populations. A detailed study carried out later also showed gene flow. between subspecies and relatively low heterogeneity.

Biology and behavior

Cráneo of a specimen of southern yaguareté (Panthera onca palustris).

Description

Its head is robust and its extremely powerful jaws. Its size tends to increase the more to the south they are located.

Panthera onca is the largest felid in the Americas. It is a robust and muscular animal that presents significant variations in size, with a weight that normally ranges between 56 and 96 kilograms, although there are records larger males weigh up to 160 kg (approximately like a tigress or lioness), and smaller ones can weigh as low as 36 kg. Females are typically 10-20% smaller than males. The length of this cat varies between 162 and 183 cm and the tail can add about 75 cm more. Its height at the shoulders or withers is about 67-76 cm. Its head is bulky with a prominent jaw; Their eye color varies from golden yellow to greenish yellow, and their ears are relatively small and rounded.

Variations in their size have been observed in different regions and habitats, showing an increase in size the further south they are located. A study carried out in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, on the Mexican Pacific coast, showed that in that area they weighed only between 30-50 kg, approximately the weight of the puma, while a study in the Brazilian region The Pantanal showed an average weight of 100 kg, often with weights of 135 kg or more in old males. Forest-dwelling individuals are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas (the Pantanal is an open wetland basin), possibly due to fewer large herbivorous prey in forested areas.

The short and robust structure of its limbs makes it very adept at climbing, crawling and swimming. The head is robust and the jaw extremely powerful; it has been suggested that it has the most powerful bite of all felids and the second most powerful of all mammals (after the spotted hyena); this power is an adaptation that allows it to even pierce turtle shells. tiger.

Melanism is the result of a dominant allele and a relatively common phenomenon in this species.

An adult can drag a 360-kilogram bull 8 meters between its jaws and crush the hardest bones, or drag a 34-kg sea turtle more than 90 m deep in a forest It can hunt wild animals weighing up to 300 kg inside dense jungle, and its short, stocky physique is an adaptation to its prey and environment.

The base of its fur is usually a pale yellow to reddish-brown color. The skin is covered in rose-shaped spots for camouflage in its jungle habitat. The spots can vary in the skin of the same animal and between different specimens: the rosettes can include one or more spots and the shape of the spots varies. Those on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail, where they can be joined to form a band. The ventral region, the neck and the outer surface of the legs and the lower flanks are white.

Excess pigmentation known as melanism occurs relatively frequently in the species. The melanistic condition is less common than spotting (occurring in approximately 6% of the population) and is the result of a dominant allele. Specimens with melanism appear entirely black, although the spots can be seen on closer inspection. Specimens with melanism are informally known as "black panthers", but they do not constitute a distinct species, or even a subspecies. As in other large cats, albino individuals rarely appear, called "white panthers".

Although physically very similar to the leopard (Panthera pardus), Panthera onca is more robust and heavier and can be distinguished by its spots: the rosettes on the skin of the latter are larger, fewer in number, usually darker, and have thicker lines and small spots in the center, which the leopard does not have. It also has a more rounded head and shorter, stockier legs than the leopard.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Mother about to roast a baby around her neck.

Females reach sexual maturity at approximately 12 to 24 months of age and males at 24 to 36 months of age. In the wild it is believed that they mate throughout the year, although the number of births increases during the rainy season, when prey is most abundant. Research with captive males supports the hypothesis that they mate throughout the year, with no seasonal variations in semen characteristics and ejaculatory quality; reduced breeding success has also been observed in captivity. The female's heat lasts 6–17 days out of a full 37-day cycle; females indicate that they are fertile with urinary scent markings and increased vocalization. During courtship both sexes cover a larger territory than usual.

The pairs separate after intercourse and the females take care of the pups. The gestation period lasts between 93 and 105 days; females usually give birth to 2 pups, although the number can range between 1 and 4. The mother does not tolerate the presence of males after the birth of the pups, due to the risk of infant cannibalism; this behavior is also seen in the tiger.

Cups are born blind and helpless and are completely dependent on their mother; They begin to see after two weeks. The cubs are weaned at the age of 3 months, but remain in the burrow where they were born until 5 or 6 months, at which time they begin to come out to accompany the mother when she goes hunting. They remain in the company of the mother. mother for 1-2 years before abandoning her to establish her own territory. Young males are initially nomadic, fighting with older individuals until they manage to gain territory. Its typical longevity in the wild is estimated to be about 11-12 years; in captivity it can live up to 25 years, with a female even having been recorded as reaching 32 years, which places it among the longest-lived felids.

Behavior

Like most cats, it is a solitary animal (except for mother-cubs). Adults generally only meet for courtship and mating (although anecdotal cases of socialization have been reported) and often establish and defend a large territory. In the case of females, these territories, which measure between 25 and 40 km², can overlap, but the animals usually avoid each other. Those of males cover about twice the area, with an extent that varies according to prey and space availability, and do not overlap. They use vocalizations, scratching in trees, urine, and feces to mark their territory.

Like other members of the genus Panthera, and unlike other felids, Panthera onca is capable of roaring, thanks to its elongated and specially adapted larynx and its union to hyoid bone. Male roars loudest, usually to warn or dissuade potential competitors for territory and females; Intense roaring competitions between individuals have been observed in the wild. Their roaring often resembles a repetitive cough; they may also vocalize meows and grunts. Fighting between males over females occurs, but is rare, and a tendency to avoid fighting has been observed in the wild; when it does occur it is usually territorial conflicts: a male's territory may encompass that of two or three females, and will not tolerate intrusions from other adult males.

It is often described as a nocturnal animal, but more specifically it is crepuscular (its most active at sunrise and sunset). Both sexes hunt, but males roam more than females, consistent with their larger range. It has relatively large eyes, positioned to provide binocular vision and remarkable vision in the dark, thanks to a reflective membrane (tapetum lucidum) that concentrates light in the focal field of the retina; their sense of smell is very well developed and they can detect the scent of their prey at great distances. It can hunt by day if prey is available, and it is a relatively energetic cat, spending up to 50-60% of its time active. Its elusive nature and the inaccessibility of much of its usual habitat make it a very difficult animal. difficult to observe, and even more difficult to study.

Hunting and diet

It has an exceptionally powerful bite, even in relation to other large fertilisers, which allows you to pierce the coats of armoured reptiles.

Jaguares eating a cayman at the Encontro das Águas State Park in Mato Grosso, Brazil.

Like other cats, it is a strict carnivore, that is, it feeds exclusively on meat. It is a solitary and opportunistic hunter, and its diet includes more than 80 different species. It prefers large prey, such as mainly diurnal mammals, such as capybaras, tapirs, peccaries and occasionally deer, but it also hunts alligators and even adult anacondas, although it includes among its prey practically all the small species it can capture, such as frogs, agoutis, large birds, fish, porcupines or turtles; a study carried out in the Cockscomb Nature Reserve in Belize revealed that the specimens that lived in the area had a diet composed mainly of armadillos and pacas. In some areas, such as Brazil and Venezuela, in Livestock are also raised in their natural habitat, so some individuals may specialize in capturing domestic animals.

Although it uses the technique of delivering a deep bite to the neck to cause suffocation in its prey, typical of the Panthera genus, it prefers a method of killing unique among felids (especially capybaras): bites directly into the temporal bones of the skull between the ears of prey with its fangs, piercing them until it reaches the brain. This technique could be the result of an adaptation to crack open the shells of turtles: after the Late Pleistocene extinctions, armored reptiles such as tortoises would have become the jaguar's abundant prey base. Once it breaks the shell, it simply reaches inside and extracts the meat. The skull bite is used with mammals in particular; with reptiles such as alligators, it can jump onto the prey's back and immobilize it by snapping its cervical vertebrae. With prey such as dogs, a claw strike to crush their skulls may be enough.

This grievous hunting usually has ambushs.

It is a hunter more given to setting ambushes than to the pursuit. He moves stealthily along forest paths, listening and stalking his prey before jumping on it or setting up an ambush. He attacks from cover with a quick jump, usually from a blind spot of the target; the ambush abilities of this species are considered almost unmatched in the animal world by both indigenous people and field researchers, and are likely a product of its role as a top predator in a variety of environments. The ambush can include jumping into the water to chase the prey, since it is capable of carrying a good size swimming; its strength is such that it can carry carcasses as large as a steer to the top of a tree that overhangs the water level.

After killing the prey, it drags it into the undergrowth or to a hidden place. It eats the neck and breast first, instead of the midsection, followed by the heart and lungs, and then the trellis. species) on 1.4 kilograms of food per day. For captive animals between 50 and 60 kg, more than two kilograms of meat per day is recommended. In the wild, consumption is naturally more erratic; Wild cats expend considerable energy to capture and kill prey and can consume up to 25 kg of meat at one time, and then go through periods of starvation. Unlike other species in the genus Panthera, there are no records of systematic attacks on humans and there are hardly any documented cases of jaguars attacking humans. Most of the few cases of attacks on people show that the attacking animal is either old, with damaged teeth, or injured. Captive individuals may sometimes lash out at zoo employees if frightened.

Ecology

Distribution and habitat

Jaguar can live in a wide variety of forested or open habitats, and is closely associated with the presence of water.

Panthera onca.

Panthera onca has been recorded in the fossil record for 2 million years, and it has been an American felid since it crossed the Beringian bridge during the Pleistocene; the immediate ancestor of modern animals is Panthera onca augusta, which was larger than those extant today; fossil evidence shows Panthera onca specimens up to 190 kg, much higher than the current average for this animal.

In the 18th century and almost mid-century XIX, its area of distribution extended from the present southern United States to the present southern Argentina (the southern limit was approximately between the Negro River and perhaps very sporadically the still southernmost Chubut in what is now northern Argentine Patagonia); however, in all that immense latitudinal extension it did not inhabit the cold zones; especially it has not been found in cold areas of high mountains. The jaguar survived in northern Argentine Patagonia and the Strait of Magellan, Chile, until the end of the century XIX and was extirpated from the south-central region of Chile during the XVII century.

Currently its distribution is highly fragmented due to competition with man, who has caused and continues to cause extensive biomes shaped by the degree of human influence in which wildlife is becoming extinct. The current range (ca. 2015) of Panthera onca extends from the southern tip of the state of Arizona in the southwestern United States, through Central America, to northern Argentina, including most of the Brazilian Amazon. The countries in which wild specimens of this species still survive are: Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, United States, Guatemala, French Guiana, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela. It has now been extirpated in El Salvador and Uruguay. It is found in many nature reserves throughout its range, but only 34.8% of its current range is under some form of protection. In Argentina since the end of the century XX is almost exterminated, some specimens surviving in the yungas of Salta, in El Impenetrable in Chaco and Formosa and perhaps in the few remnants of areas of the Paraná jungle in the province of Misiones; In 2015, a reintroduction plan for this cat began in the extensive wetlands and "bañados" known as Esteros del Iberá in the province of Corrientes, in which wild specimens would not be transferred from other parts (since they are scarce in other parts) but rather that in a first stage, specimens from zoos (such as the La Plata Zoo) would be transferred so that they acclimatized in wild areas to reproduce in Iberá. In August 2022, the birth of jaguar pups in the wild was reported in the Iberá, the result of these reintroduction efforts.

Inclusion of the United States in its range is based on occasional observations in the Southwest, particularly in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. In the early 1900s, it could be seen as far north as the Grand Canyon and as far west as Southern California. In 2004, environmental officials in Arizona photographed and documented Panthera onca in the southern part of the state and in February 2009 a specimen of about 54 kg was captured, which was fitted with a radio tracking collar and released southwest of Tucson; this take occurred further north than previously thought, indicating a sign that there may be a permanent breeding population south of Arizona. It was later confirmed that the animal was the same male (known as "Macho B") that had been photographed in 2004 and was then the oldest known specimen in the wild (approximately 15 years). In March 2009, "Macho B" B", the only specimen observed in the United States for more than a decade, was recaptured and euthanized after discovering it had kidney failure. A male was photographed on November 19, 2011 in Cochise County, U.S. of Arizona, well north of the international border, confirming a previous sighting from a helicopter.

Environmental organizations believe that completion of the US-Mexico border wall, as currently proposed, will reduce the viability of any populations currently in the United States by decreasing gene flow with Mexican populations and preventing any expansion to the north of the species.

The habitat of P. onca includes the humid forests of Central and South America, open and seasonally flooded humid areas, and dry grasslands. Among these habitats, it prefers dense forest; this felid has lost ground more quickly in drier regions, such as the Argentine pampas or the arid prairies of Mexico and the southwestern United States; its distribution is considered to have declined by about 55% in the last century. It can live in tropical, subtropical, and dry deciduous forests. It is closely related to water and often prefers to live next to rivers, swamps and dense jungles with lots of vegetation that allow it to harass its prey. Specimens have been found at altitudes up to 3,800 m.

Ecological paper

The adult jaguar is a top predator, therefore it is at the top of the food chain and has no predators in the wild. It is also considered a keystone species as a focal predator, taking into account that these felids maintain the structural integrity of forest systems by controlling the population levels of their prey, such as herbivorous and granivorous mammals.. However, it is difficult to accurately determine the effect that species like this have on ecosystems, since it is necessary to compare data from regions where the species is absent and its current habitats, while controlling for the effects of the activity human. It is accepted that the population of their medium-sized prey species increases when there are no top predators, and it is assumed that this has cascading negative effects on their environment. However, some field studies conducted in places where big cats are Absent species have shown that the variations could be natural and that the population increases of their prey could not be significant, so the hypothesis of Panthera onca as a key species is not supported by the entire scientific community.

It also has an effect on other predators. Panthera onca and the puma, the second largest cat in the Americas, are often sympatric (related species sharing overlapping territories) and have often been studied together. Where sympatry occurs, the puma is smaller than normal and smaller than local Panthera onca phenotypes. P. onca tends to capture the largest prey, and the puma smaller pieces, which results in a smaller size of the latter. However, this situation can be advantageous for the puma, since its prey range is larger. Widespread, and its ability to take smaller prey, could give it an advantage in human-altered environments; the puma now has a significantly wider distribution.

Conservation

Population status

Populations of this large cat are currently in decline. The animal is listed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which means that it could be threatened with extinction in a near future. The loss of part of its range, including its virtual elimination from its historical areas in the north, as well as the increasing fragmentation of its remaining areas, has contributed to its current status. During the 1960s there was an especially significant decline, with more than 15,000 skins of this species taken from the Brazilian Amazon each year; thanks to the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), there was a drastic decline in the fur trade. A detailed study carried out under the auspices of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) revealed that it has lost 37% of its historical range and an additional 17% is unknown; however, the most recent study of its global population situation indicates a 55% reduction in its distribution in the last century, and of 34 subpopulations, 33 are considered to be in some category of threat. A more favorable aspect was that the probability of long-term survival was considered high in 70% of the current distribution, especially in the Amazon basin and the adjacent regions of the Gran Chaco and the Pantanal.

Threats

Among its main threats are the deforestation of its habitat and ecosystem, a growing competition for food with humans, poaching, hurricanes in the northern part of its distribution, and clashes with ranchers., which are often killed in areas where they hunt cattle because, when it adapts to prey, it has been proven that it hunts bovine cattle as an important part of its diet; however, while deforestation to create grazing areas is a problem for the species, its population may have increased following the introduction of cattle to South America as felids took advantage of this new prey source. This tendency to hunt cattle has led ranch owners to hire full-time specialized hunters.

Jaguar hunting scene with dogs – MHNT

Panthera onca is a species included in Appendix I of CITES, therefore any form of international trade in this species or its parts is prohibited. Hunting is prohibited in Argentina, Belize, Colombia, the United States, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Venezuela. Their hunting is restricted as "problem animals" in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru, while sport hunting is still allowed in Bolivia. The species lacks legal protection in Ecuador and Guyana.

Current conservation efforts often focus on reducing potential conflicts with ranchers, reducing their hunting and that of their prey, and promoting activities compatible with maintaining their habitat, such as ecotourism.. The Jaguar Friendly label was recently developed, which certifies productive units that contribute to the conservation of habitats and key corridors of the species, while contributing to the improvement of the livelihoods of the human populations that share its territory. It is generally defined as an "umbrella species", that is, a species with a sufficiently wide distribution and habitat needs that if it is protected, many other species with a smaller distribution will also be protected. Umbrella species serve as "mobile links" in their environment, in the case of this species through predation. Thus, conservation organizations focus on providing a viable and connected habitat for this cat, with the idea that other species will also benefit.

Given the inaccessibility of much of the species' range (particularly the central Amazon) it is difficult to estimate their numbers. The most recent studies estimate a potential global population of 64,000 individuals, with about 89% concentrated in the Amazon. For this reason, researchers tend to focus on specific bioregions, so there are few studies on the entire species. In 1991, it was estimated that between 600 and 1,000 specimens lived in Belize, and in the Kaa Iya National Park in Bolivia there were between 3 and 4 specimens per 100 km². In a study in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, they estimated a population of about 500 individuals and the population of the largest reserves in the Maya Region (southeast of Mexico and northwest of Guatemala and Belize) was estimated at 2,000 individuals; however, only those of Mexico and Guatemala were large enough to maintain populations of more than of 400 individuals. Works carried out using camera traps and GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 detected a density of only 6 or 7 specimens per 100 km² in the critical Pantanal region, compared to the 10 or 11 recorded with traditional methods, suggesting that more widespread sampling methods could inflate the true number of individuals of the species.

In the past, their conservation was sometimes done through the protection of areas where the local population was either stable or increasing; these zones, called “Jaguar Conservation Units”, were large areas populated by about 50 individuals. However, some researchers recently determined that, in order to ensure that the gene pool is shared enough to sustain the species, it was important that the populations of this species be interconnected. To this end, new projects have been started to connect these protection zones for the species.

The main problems of jaguar conservation have their origin in human activities that generate an enormous direct and indirect impact on their populations. Among the most important threats to its conservation are the loss and fragmentation of habitat. The jaguar is a large species with a wide distribution, which requires large extensions to maintain viable populations. In this sense, protected natural areas are essential for their conservation. However, few protected areas have adequate surface area to maintain a viable jaguar population in the long term, so corridors or other forms of management of the adjacent landscape are essential. Therefore, efforts to protect the jaguar require the consolidation of existing protected natural areas, the creation of new reserves, and the conservation of jaguars in the large unprotected areas where the species is still found., which represents one of the critical factors within its conservation schemes. In Latin America, as in Mexico, the predation of domestic animals, especially bovines, caused by wild cats, results in lethal control actions by farmers and breeders. This control is carried out even within protected areas, even in the absence of cases of predation in the area.

Actions for conservation in Mexico

The jaguar is considered, due to its ecological and social relevance, as a priority species for conservation in Mexico according to environmental regulations. The General Law of Wildlife establishes that priority species for conservation are those determined by the authority and that deserve special attention due to their characteristics, such as being key, emblematic, charismatic species and those that are feasible for recovery. In addition, the jaguar is included in the Mexican standard for endangered species (NOM.059 ECOL 2001) and its hunting has been prohibited in the Official Gazette of the Federation since 1987. In recent years, much progress has been made in terms of jaguar conservation. jaguar in Mexico. A population increase was recently estimated between 2008 and 2018, thanks in part to the coordinated efforts of individuals and organizations under the umbrella of the Alliance for the Conservation of the Jaguar in Mexico.

Cultural references

In pre-Columbian culture

Warrior ocelotl or Jaguar warrior.

Dance traditional tecuan theatre of the states of Morelos, Puebla, Guerrero, Mexico and Oaxaca.

This species has been worshiped by much of the indigenous cultures of Mexico, Central and South America. Cats in general were considered magical creatures by many cultures throughout the world throughout history. Panthera onca, in addition to being the largest feline in the Americas, stands out for its strength, stealthy gait, great hunting ability and remarkable speed, which is why it is considered to have supernatural abilities and forms an important part in the rituals of the shamans, in addition to being associated with different gods and religious beliefs of many indigenous ethnic groups.

Fourteenth day on the Mexican calendar.

In pre-Columbian Mexico, jaguar warriors (Aztec professional warriors belonging to the lower classes) wore jaguar skins on their backs as a badge in battle. This felid symbolized the fourteenth day of each month in the Mexica calendar. For the Aztecs it was the animal associated with the deity Tezcatlipoca. In the archaeological site of Teotihuacán there is a Palace of the Jaguars, named for the representations of these felids inside. There are also representations of the species in other sites, such as Teotenango, Chalcatzingo, Dainzú, Oxtotitlán, Cacaxtla, Xochitécatl, La Sale, Malinalco and Teopantecuanitlan. In the state of Chiapas, the symbolism of this animal has endured to this day and is manifested in the art and rituals of the Chiapas native peoples.

Pre-Columbian figure of gold representing a jaguar. South Pacific Costa Rica. Museo del Oro Precolombino, San José de Costa Rica.

Kazakh statuette.

In Mesoamerica, it played an important role in the Olmec religion, evidenced by numerous representations of this animal in sculptures and statuettes, some of which can be seen beings made up of half man and half cat. For The Mayan civilization were the intermediaries between the living and the dead, companions in the spiritual world and protectors of the royal palaces. The Mayan word for this animal is b'alam, which was also incorporated into the names of various Mayan kings. In the Mayan city of Chichén Itzá there are the "Temples of the Jaguar", a "platform of eagles and jaguars" and the "throne of Kukulcán" in the shape of this cat. Other Mayan cities with representations of Panthera onca are Yaxchilán, Ek Balam and Toniná. In the parish of San Miguel Arcángel, in the city of Ixmiquilpan in the state of Hidalgo, there are various representations of this felid and other pre-Hispanic motifs.

Ceramic vessel showing a man transforming himself into sharp, Cupisnique. Larco Museum, Lima.

In South America, this great pantherine also held an important place in the different ancestral worldviews. In the period known as the Early or Formative Horizon, cultures in the central Andes of Peru such as Chavín de Huántar represented the jaguar on stelae, mortars, and stone nail heads. From the same time, on the north coast of Peru, the Cupinisque culture represented the jaguar on ceramic vessels. Both in Chavín and Cupisnique, cultures where their ritual specialists used entheogenic substances such as the San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi) and the willka (Anadenanthera colubrina), the jaguar it is associated with shamanic practices. Later in the Moche culture, also in northern Peru, this species was represented as a symbol of power in many of its ceramics. Already in the Middle Horizon, in the Tiwanaku culture, not only the representation of the jaguar in snuff tablets, but also two cases made from jaguar leather to contain the utensils required for inhaling cebil, the local name for Anadenanthera colubrina.

In Colombia there is various evidence that this animal was highly important to pre-Columbian cultures such as those that inhabited the region of San Agustín (Huila). Many of the monoliths left by the culture that existed in the Colombian massif have figures in where the images of men are intertwined with those of animals. In his book The river, explorations and discoveries in the Amazon jungle, the Canadian author Wade Davis considers that this should be interpreted as a spiritual transformation derived from the ritual use of coca or yagé. For the anthropologist Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff, the figure of P. onca was interpreted by pre-Columbian cultures as an envoy to the world as proof of the will and integrity of human beings. This feline was the channel of cosmic energy and the future of the existence of civilization depended on its direction with respect to humanity. The shaman was facing a copy of P. onca in the trance of him; if the shaman won the contest, he could direct the energy of the universe towards good, if the feline prevailed, it was transformed into a monster that devoured everything, "the image of our darkest being". myth of the Yaguareté-Abá, a sorcerer who transforms into a jaguar by rolling over the animal's skin; it is a belief also shared with peoples of the Gran Chaco. The Mapuche people also attributed mystical powers to the jaguar, although today it is already extinct in Chile; the 2015 short film Nahuel, a Mapuche legend rescues this legend.

In contemporary culture

I object represented in a huaco moche. Larco Museum.

This species is often used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal in Guyana, on whose coat of arms it appears; it also appears on the flag of the department of Amazonas (Colombia), on the coat of arms of Montería Colombia, on the coat of arms of the department of Córdoba Colombia, and on the coat of arms of the Mexican state of Guerrero appears a jaguar warrior.

The legislatures of the Argentine provinces of Salta, Chaco, Misiones, Jujuy and Formosa declared the jaguar a "provincial natural monument", which entails both its incorporation as a representative element as well as its absolute protection. In general, regulations of this nature are sanctioned when the preservation of the animal in question is in danger. Previously, on August 15, 2001, Congress declared Panthera onca a "national natural monument".

It is widely used as a trademark, most notably on British luxury cars. His name has been adopted by sports teams such as the Jaguares de Córdoba soccer club, the Jacksonville Jaguars, of the NFL, the Southern Jaguars, of the American NCAA, the Mexican soccer team of the Jaguares de Chiapas, it also appears on the shield of the Argentine rugby team and is the name of the professional rugby team from that country that competes in Super Rugby. This feline also gave its name to the Grammy Award-winning rock band Jaguares, and its name appears in various sections related to technology such as the Atari Jaguar game console, the experimental Jaguar rocket or the SEPECAT Jaguar or Grumman fighter planes. XF10F Jaguar.

In 2016, the new 500-peso bill was launched in Argentina, including the image of a jaguar on the obverse. This bill was the first, along with the 200-peso bill with the image of the right whale, in a series called Animals Autochthonous aimed at highlighting local biodiversity in that country. The 1000 Mexican pesos banknote of the G series, issued in 2020 by the Bank of Mexico, shows a jaguar on the reverse, as part of the representation of the humid jungle ecosystem.

The saying "otorongo does not eat otorongo" is used in some places in Latin America to maintain that corruption is hidden between interested parties.

Additional bibliography

• Cervantes, Pablo; Ortega Cuenca, Arturo; Suzan, Gerardo (1991). The jaguar (3rd edition). CONAFE. ISBN 9682922917.
• Crawshaw, P. G.; Quigley, H. B. (2002). "Hábitos alimentarios del jaguar y el puma en el Pantanal, Brasil, con implicaciones para su gestión y conservación". The Jaguar In The New Millennium. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 223-236. ISBN 9681666178.
• Feinstein, Stephen (2008). The Jaguar: Help Save This Endangered Species! (in English). Berkeley Heights, NJ: MyReportLinks.com Books/Enslow Pub. ISBN 1598450654.
• Hoogesteijn, Rafael; Mondolfi, Edgardo (1992). The jaguar: American tiger. Armitano. ISBN 9802161020.
• Rueda-Zozaya, P., et al. (2016). «Genetic variability and structure of jaguar (Panthera onca) in Mexican zoos». Genetics 144 (1): 59-69. PMID 26790662. doi:10.1007/s10709-015-9878-6.
• Sunquist, Melvin E.; Sunquist, Fiona (2002). Wild cats of the world (in English). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226779998.