Pama-Nungan languages

The Pama-Nungan languages or Pama-N^andUŋan languages are the most widespread language family of Australian Aboriginal languages, the one with the most speakers and the one with the largest number of speakers among the Australian aboriginal languages. None of them has, to date, official status in any country.

Some authors such as R. M. W. Dixon reject that the Pama-Nungan languages constitute a phylogenetically proven family, since Hale and O'Grady's hypothesis is based on lexicostatistical comparisons. Structurally, the Pama-Ñungan languages are very diverse and regular phonetic correspondences that encompass the entire family have not been found. Therefore, it has not been possible to reconstruct proto-pama-ñungo.

History

The family was identified and named by Kenneth Hale in his book on the classification of Australian native languages. Hale noted that while all of Australia's Aboriginal languages appear to be related, a group of languages that had spread across most of the continent seemed to be especially close to each other. The remaining indigenous Australian language families, about a dozen, are concentrated on the north coast of Australia and are sometimes grouped as non-Pama-Nungan languages by exclusion.

The name Pama-Nungan is derived from the names of two language groups at the extremes of Australia: the Pama languages in the northeast and the Nungan languages in the southwest.

Family languages

Pama-Ñung languages (yellow) other macro-pama-ñung languages (green and orange).

Division in families and linguistic areas according to the conservative classification of Dixon (2002), gray areas are the only subgroups for which there is solid evidence that they constitute valid phylogenetic groups. Dixon rejects the idea that Pama-ñungana languages have been properly tested as a linguistic family.

It is estimated that there are hundreds of Pama-Nungan languages, although the exact number is difficult to determine. Most of the Pama-Nungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of a thousand speakers or less. Many are considered endangered and many others have become extinct in recent years.

• South-East
  • Under Murray: Ngarinyeri, Ngayawung†, Yuyu†, Kureinji†, Yitha-Yitha, possibly Peramangk;
  • Yotayotic: Yotayota, Yabula-Yabula
  • Gippsland: Gunai, Dhudhuroa, Pallanganmiddang
  • Kulínico:
    • Kulin: Woiwurrung, Bunurong, Taungurung, Wathaurong, Djadjawurrung, Weba-Wemba, Latji-Latji, Wadi-Wadi, Mathi-Mathi
    • Drual: Bungandidj, Dhauwurd Wurrung
    • Gulidjan
  • Yuin-Kuric
    • Yuin: tharawal languages (Tharawal, Dhurga, Dyirringanj, Thawa), Nyamudy, Ngarigo, Ngunnawal,
    • Yora: Dharug, Darkinjung,
    • Kuri: Worimi-Awabakal, Dunghutti
  • New South Wales Centre
    • Wiradhúricas: Gamilaraay, Wiradhuri, Ngiyambaa
    • Dyangadi: Dyangadi, Nganyaywana
    • Barranbinja
    • Muruwari
  • Durubálico: Turrubal (Turubul), Yagara (Jagara), Jandai (Janday), Nunukul (Nunungal, Moonjan), Gowar (Guwar)
  • Yugambeh-Bundjalung: Yugambeh, Githabul, Wahlubal
  • Gumbayngectorics: Kumbainggar Yaygir
  • Waka-Kabic:
    • Than: Gureng Gureng, Gabi (Kabikabi), Dappil (Tulua?)
    • Miyan: Wuliwuli, Waga (Wakawaka), Barunggam (Muringam)
  • Dyirbálico: Dyirbal, Warrgamay, Wulguru, Nyawaygi
  • Anewan (Nganyaywana)

• North-Eastern
  • Kalkatungico: Kalkatungu, Yalarnga.
  • Mayabico: Mayi-Kutuna, Mayi-Kulan, Ngawun
  • Pama
    • Pama languages of Northern Cape York:
      • Northern:Gudang, Atampaya, Uradhi (Atampaya, Yinwum, Wuthati, Yadhaykanu), Anguthimri (Alngith, Linngithigh, Mpakwithi Nggerikudi, Yupungati, Tjungundji, Mangarla)Luthigh, (Mpalityan), Ngkoth, Aritinngithigh, Adithinngithigh, Awngthim, Mbiywom, Andjingith, Wik (Wik-Me'anha, Wik-Ep, Wik-Keyenganh, Wik Ngathan, Wik-Ngatharr, Wik-Mungkan, Kugu Nganhcara (Muminh, Uwanh, Mu'inh, Ugbanh, Yi'anh, Wik-Iiyanh)Ayabadhu, Pakanha), possibly Ndwa'ngith;
      • Umpila;
    • Umpithamu
    • Lamal: Umbuygamu, Mbariman-Gudhinma, Lama-Lama;
    • South-West Pama Languages
      • Alto Pama suroccidental: Kuuk Thaayorre, Kuuk Yak, Kunjen (Oykangand), Ogh-Undjan (Kawarrangg)
      • Pama de la costaYir Yoront, Koko Bera, Gog Nar;
    • Central Pama: Thaypan, Aghu-Tharnggala, Gogo Mini, Dagalag, Kawarrangg, Oykangand;
    • Norman: Kurtjar, Kuthant, Walangama, Areba, Gunggara;
    • Flinders: Gugadj;
    • Southern Pama: Agwamin Mbabaram († 1972), Mbara;
    • Yalánjicas
      • Guugu Yimithirr
      • Guugu Yalandji
      • Barrow Point († HCFC Wik?)
    • Yidñico: Djabugay, Yidiny
  • Kalaw Lagaw Ya
  • Máricas: Bidyara, Biri, Warrungu, Dharumbal, Bayali?

• Central
  • Arándicas
    • Kaytetye
    • Arrernte:High tenant, Low tenant
  • Thura-Yura: Wirangu, Nauo, Adnyamathanha-Kuyani, Barngarla, Narangga, Kaurna, Nukunu, Ngadjuri
  • Kárnico: Arabana, Wangganguru, Pitta Pitta, Wangka-Yutjurru, Wanggamala, Yandruwandha, Yawarawarga, Mithaka, Diyari, Yarluyandi-Ngamini, Wilson River, Bundhamara
  • Yarli
  • Paakantyi

• Western
  • Ngarna: Yanyuwa, Wagaya †, Yindjilandji †, Bularnu †, Warluwara †
  • Ngumpin-Yapa
    • Narrks: Warlmanpa, Warlpiri
    • Ngumbin: Walmajarri, Djaru, Gurindji Mudburra
  • Warumungu
  • Yolŭu: Dhangu-Djangu, Nhangu, Dhuwal, Ritharngu, Djinang, Djinba,
  • Kanyara-Mantharta
    • Kanyara: Burduna,Dhalanyji
    • Mantharta: Tharrgari, Warriyangka, Thiin†, Jiwarli†
  • Ñúngaras
    • Ngayarda: Martuthunira, Ngarluma-Kariyarra, Yindjibarndi-Kurrama, Panyjima, Jurrururu, Nyamal, Yinhawangka, Ngarla, Nhuwala, Palyku
    • Kartu: Yinggarda, Nyungar, Mangarla
    • Mirning: Mirniny, Ngadjunmaya
    • Wati: Wanman, West Desert, Ngardi?
    • Marrngu: Karajarri, Mangarla, Nyangumarta

• Other
  • Under Burdekin
  • (Proto-Pama-Ñungano)

Linguistic description

Typology

Evans and McConvell classify the typical languages of the Pama-Nung group, such as Warlpiri, as complement-marking and suffix-only languages, lacking gender. Some non-Pama-Ñung languages such as Tangkic languages share this typology, and even some Pama-Ñung languages such as Yanyuwa deviate from it (since it is prefixative, with nucleus marking, and with a complex system of grammatical gender).

Proto-pama-ñung would have been spoken around 5,000 years ago, making it very recent compared to the human settlement of Australia, which would date back more than 60,000 years. The relatively recent expansion of the Pama-Nungan languages and how they displaced other pre-Pama-Nungan language groups remains highly uncertain. One possibility is that these languages spread from group to group along with some material culture and certain rituals. Given the distribution of cognates among different groups, it seems that Proto-Pama-Nung had many typical features of a Sprachbund , suggesting the antiquity of various waves of cultural contact between groups. In particular, R. M. Dixon demonstrated that the family trees found in many families do not seem to be a good model for relationships within the Pama-ñung group..

Phonology

The phonological system of Proto-Pama-Nung, as reconstructed by Barry Alpher (2004), is quite similar to that currently used in most modern Australian languages. The reconstructed vowels are:

	Previous	Poster
Closed	*i *i *	*u *u *u *
Open	*a *a*a

Vowel quantity is phonologically distinctive only in the first syllable (i.e. the stressed syllable). The inventory of consonants reconstructed by the same author is:

	Peripherals		Laminal	Apical
	Bilabial	Velar	Post-alveolar	Alveolar	Retrofleja
Occlusive	♪	♪	*c, *cy	♪	*
Nasal	♪	*	♪	♪	*
Lateral			*λ	♪	*
Gothic				♪	*
Semivocal	♪		♪

Proto-pama-ñung appears to have had only one set of laminals, the two sets of lamino-dentals and lamino-alveopalatals found in modern languages would be the result of recent conditional phonetic innovations. However, there are a small number of words where the alveopalatal stop is found where a dental would be expected, and for these the phoneme /*cʸ/ was reconstructed. There is no convincing evidence that there was an equivalent nasal of the type /*ñʸ/ or an equivalent lateral of the type /*λʸ/.

Grammar

Many Pama--n^anduŋan languages have morphological case, reconstructed case endings for Proto-Pama-n^anduŋ include: nominative accusative *-nha /-n̪a/, dative *-gu, ergative *-nggu /-ŋɡu/, locative *-ngga /-ŋɡa/ and ablative *-ngu /-ŋu/.

Vocabulary

In addition to Hale's (1982) list of words found only in pama-ñung, and in addition to reconstructed pronouns and endings for the proto-language, Evans and McConvell report that while some of the stems are unlikely, O'Grady and Tryon, instead provide "hundreds of clear cognates attested throughout the entire pama-ñung area and absent outside of it."

More languages

In addition to those classified above, there are more Pama-Nungan languages. Some are:

• Wargamay: Australian aboriginal language with suffixes, an agglutant structure and a word-free order. It has three long vowels and short differences in the initial syllable of the word. If there's a long vowel, get the tonic syllable. If it is not so and the word is bisilba is flat and if it is acute trisyl. The scarce material of the Wargamay does not tell us much of syntactic information. Three dialects are differentiated: Wargamay, Halifax Biyayand Hinchinbrook Biyay. Examples of words: wal wan(boy) mi miu(braining) :u:lu (black), and bambaaa (white).

:ba:a: bungi /:inunda bu::guray:a: I couldn't sleep for your snoring

yba yugaray yalugaga: I was born in the water

waaa yaa ininu yabuaamanWhere's your mother?

• Watjarry: is a language with suffixes similar to the Western Desert language. It has three vowels and seventeen consonants and does not differentiate between long and short vowels. The silabic pattern is usually CV or CVC, but words can start with a vowel and there is a strong tendency to have a vowel as a final motto. Morphologically it is not very complex, there are usually no monosylate words. Verbal roots and lexemas are usually bilabas words. Examples of words: katjara (boy) kanti (stone knife), ngurtu (braining) maru (black) and pirinj (white).

Ngatja marIa njinananja: I'm sitting behind

Palu wayi ngangkurna: He did not listen

Nja-ngka?: When?

• Yukulta: typical flexible and derivative language from suffixes. This language has three vowels and distinguishes long and brief. A word in yukulta starts with a consonant and ends with a vowel. Distinguish the following types of words: nominal (name and adjective), pronominal, verbal (verbs and adverbs), crazy words, words of time, particles and intersections. Examples of words: ka kaara (boy) kankarinYa (stone knife), nalta (head), umuwa (black), and kampura/palara (white).

so-ma-ø-nka wuruwu!u-ø miya!u!u-ø: It has a pointed spear

-an-ma-ø-kati miya!wari-ø: I don't have a spear

-aka-țanma țakaka: Who is that man?

• Guugu Yimidhirr: suffocation language with independent pronouns and nominal and complex morphology and word-free order. It is a language of daily use today and especially in Hopevale Mission, and North Queensland. It has three vowels: a, i, u and distinguish between long and short. All monosyllables have long vowels. Many names designate generic names that distinguish very large categories. Examples of words: birri (boy)naaybu (chuckles) garu (braining) munhi (black) and dyinggaa (white).

Gad-ii nambaal-ga: Come for the money

Ngayu gadiil-ga binaal-mul: I don't know (your) name