Olive oil
Olive oil is a vegetable oil used primarily for cooking. It is obtained from the fruit of the olive tree (Olea europaea), called olive or olive. Almost a third of the pulp of the olive is oil. For this reason, since ancient times it has been easily extracted with a simple pressure exerted by a mill. In Spain, the facilities where the oil is obtained are called the mill. It has also been used for cosmetic, medicinal, religious uses and for oil lamps.
The olive or olive is not usually eaten raw due to its bitter taste (mainly due to the presence of phenolic compounds). This flavor is greatly reduced by applying various mashing processes. However, 90% of world olive production is used to produce oil.
Historically and culturally it has been a product closely linked to the Mediterranean area. Today only 3% of world production is made outside the Mediterranean area. Spain produces almost half of the world's olive oil, followed by Italy and Greece. These three countries account for three quarters of world production.
The oil is extracted from ripe olives between six and eight months old, when they contain their maximum amount of oil, which usually occurs at the end of autumn. The olives are subjected to a first pressure in order to extract their juice. The quality of the oil depends to a large extent on subsequent processing. For this reason, growers watch these steps very carefully. The quality of olive oil is judged by its organoleptic properties and by its free fatty acid content. There are regulations in the European Union on oil classifications into six categories, based on the concentration of fatty acids.
Olive cultivation and its scientific study (called olive growing) can be distinguished from olive oil extraction and its study (called elaiotechnics, from the Greek elaion, which means oil). More generally, oil technology is the science that studies the extraction of vegetable oils of any origin, such as olive oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, palm oil, etc.
Today, olive oil is sold packaged in bottles (glass or plastic), as well as in drums protected from light.
History of olive oil
Vegetable oils have been used regularly throughout history. It has been used in gastronomy, although it has also been given other uses such as religious, cosmetics and as lighting fuel for oil lamps in daily life and in temples.
The origin of olive oil production can be found in antiquity in the Fertile Crescent (which runs from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the Nile). In the 4000 B.C. C. a cross between an African variety of olive tree and an oriental one was made to give a species with large fruits to extract its oil. Oil mills have been found in excavations in the area. It is suspected that the first plantations were made in the vast area from Syria to Canaan (from 5000 BC. to the early 3000 BC). It is believed that this use of olives may have originated with agriculture. However, uses of the olive tree are known from the Upper Paleolithic (12,000 BC).
In Egypt, around 2000 B.C. C., olive oil began to be used for cosmetic purposes. The Egyptians already pointed to Isis as the goddess who taught men the cultivation of the olive tree. The Egyptians themselves began to market olive oil importing it from Crete. Inside the burial chambers, vessels and amphoras with olive oil are represented. This oil would be a common product in the Mediterranean, along with bread and wine.
Olive oil production reached the Greeks in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. C., through the Mycenaean conquest of Crete (where the production of oil and its ritual use are documented since the ancient Minoan period). In the later Hellenic civilization of this area, olive oil always played an important role. At the time of Greek colonial expansion, around the 7th century B.C. C. the Greeks brought oil production to Italy.
The Phoenicians, the great trading people of Mediterranean antiquity, brought olive cultivation to the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, present-day Andalusia, around the 11th century to. C. This land would soon become one of the main production areas for liquid gold. It was the Phoenicians who also introduced olive production in the Maghreb and Sardinia.
The coasts of Tripolitania, the Betica province and the French Mediterranean were the three great centers of oil production during the centuries of the Empire. In Roman Hispania, the province of Bética (southwest of the Iberian Peninsula) achieved great prosperity, partly due to olive oil exports. A sample of Hispania's trade with Rome is Mount Testaccio. The Testaccio, or mount of potsherds, is an artificial hill measuring 250 × 150 m (meters) at its base and more than 50 m high, made up of the millions of remains of olearian (olive oil) amphoras, thrown in it for almost three hundred years, from the time of Augustus, until the middle of the 3rd century, where 80% correspond to Baetic amphoras. The popular tradition of the Italian capital, which collects stories from the hill as testimony to the glory of Rome preserves the legend that it would be the place where the amphorae containing the tribute from all the provinces were thrown into the imperial city. In the enormity of that mountain, the inhabitants of the city saw a symbol of the power of ancient Rome and the economic prosperity of its great empire. However, popular tradition errs in its identification: the Testaccio is made up mostly of amphoras from a single province, Baetica and, to a lesser extent, from Tripolitania, according to the vessel model (Dressel) found in said Roman site.
In ancient times, as today, the center of Andalusian production was located in the Guadalquivir valley, although then the greatest weight fell somewhat further west than today, since the predominance is in the provinces of Jaén and Cordova.
Olive harvesting
The olives must be harvested from the olive groves in late autumn or early winter. The moment in which the olives have their maximum level of fatty acids in the olive pulp is chosen. Olive harvesting is an agricultural task with great importance in production costs and a marked influence on the quality of the oil obtained. The harvest season directly influences the composition of the oils and their sensory characteristics. These variations in the polyphenol content affect the sensory characteristics of the oils. As the fruit ripens, the aromas fade and the flavors soften. The color also undergoes changes depending on the harvest season of the olive, at first the green oils predominate, of different shades depending on the variety, turning towards yellow-gold as the harvest season progresses as a consequence of the gradual decrease of the chlorophyll-carotene ratio. In very cold areas, it is recommended to pick the fruit before the first frosts appear, which cause a loss of attributes in the oil obtained. If, on the contrary, the harvest is delayed with respect to the appropriate season, the natural fall of the fruit appears, promoted by the winds and directly related to the variety. Once the fruit in the ground undergoes a series of alterations that deteriorate the quality of the oils obtained, essentially the acidity increases as the time it remains in the ground passes. It is essential to collect, transport and process "separately" the fruits that have fallen to the ground and those that are attached to the olive tree, or those that fly, since small amounts of fruits from the ground can significantly alter those collected from the olive tree, if they are mixed for processing. The collection systems are: milking, shaking, vibration and soil collection.
- The ordeño. It is often used in the collection of table olives and, to a lesser extent, for the obtaining of a high quality olive oil. The olive barely suffers damage and the process is done by hand or with little mechanization. The fruit should not be too mature because, if so, it would have fallen to the ground and the milking could not be performed.
- The vareo. There is a variable length rod or pan (up to 4 m). The branches of the olive tree are beaten (varean) and the olive tree is falling on canvas or on the ground. This causes the loss of branches and leaves of the tree, which causes the following year not to produce so many olives (a phenomenon called veceria). However it is a method extended by its great productivity.
- La vibration. Today it is performed mechanically with self-propelled vibrators, which are vibrating clamps attached to the tractor, or with motorized hand vibrators. Anciently the braceros shook the branches manually to detach the olive. There is a vibrating machine that consists of a self-propelled vibrator with something similar to an umbrella to collect the olive.
- La soil collection. Whether it is the melting of the olive by ripening, vareo or vibration, a mechanism is needed to collect it later. This is usually done with blankets or canvases, or through a collector mechanism that incorporates something similar to an umbrella. To collect the olive from the ground it is necessary to have flattened and fenced the soil around the olive tree to facilitate the task (this is known as “doing soils”). The most rudimentary method to collect the olive from the ground is to do it manually one by one, which is very tedious. You can also sweep the olive, vacuum it with a specially designed vacuum cleaner or blow the olives to tune them.
The use of herbicides at the base of olive trees tends to be abandoned because it leaves residues in the oils.
Elaboration and obtaining of the oil
The harvested olives are transferred to a facility called an oil mill (from the Arabic al-mas'sara which means 'extract', 'squeeze'). Olive oil is obtained in this facility. The oil mill consists of three basic areas: the reception area, the production area and the cellar. The oil mill that belongs to a businessman or a commercial company is called the industrial oil mill.
_(26051151543).jpg)
The olives are cleaned and sieved, removing residues such as leaves, stems, earth or small stones. The troje is the space divided by partitions where the olives are kept in the mill waiting to be crushed.
Ideally, the olives should be processed within 24 hours of collection to prevent their quality from worsening. If it is not done in this way, the fruit may become atrojado, which is the main reason for the increased acidity of the oil. Atrojado is the characteristic flavor of the oil obtained from olives that have been piled and fermented. Such and as the process is structured, sometimes it is obligatory to remove part of the harvest, although usually the fruit that is in the worst condition after harvesting and that cannot produce a product of a special quality will be kept on hold.
Grinding
With it, the cell walls of the olive plant tissues are broken, releasing the oil they contain. The pressing process also produces a non-oily product known since Roman times as amurca.
Formerly, stone mills (cobblestones) were used, sometimes with a conical shape, and driven by animal action; later hydraulic power was used and then steam or explosion engines. Today it is done with machines that work with electricity. The toothed disc mill can also be used, but it is slow and not very productive. Before industrialization it was common for the grinding wheels (rocks for grinding) to be found at the base of a rectangular tower in the facilities of the hacienda. The tower had inside a mechanism to move the teeth, moved by human or animal action.
The most common today for grinding has become the hammer mill, which is a metal machine that crushes the olives using hammer-shaped blades. However, today some producers are using stone mills operating at low revs in order to obtain the tearing that occurred in the old cobblestones. The dislaceration is a crushing and slipping of the olive that favors the escape of the oil from the fruit without breaking it so drastically.
Smoothie
After grinding, a separation takes place between solids and liquids of the paste obtained. In the past it was made with hydraulic presses with cylinders made of esparto grass baskets, among which was the previously ground olive paste. basket». In the past, the liquid obtained from pressing underwent a settling process to separate the oil from the alpechín. Today those who keep pressing separate the oil from the alpechín by decantation or also resort to modern centrifugation.
From the second half of the 20th century, pressing began to be replaced by machines called decanters, horizontal axis centrifuges or horizontal mixers that perform a centrifugation process. In any case, Before pressing or centrifuging, the pasta must be subjected to a filter process known as sieving in order to remove all the solid components that can be removed to prevent them from fermenting during the subsequent process.
The blenders are made up of several stainless steel bodies with a hot water heating system that is contained in a layer that surrounds them. The ideal is to work between 25 and 30 °C. Extraction that never exceeds 27 °C is known as cold extraction.
If the mixing time is too long, there is a decrease in polyphenols, K225 and the stability of the product, increasing the intensity of the color and producing abnormal odors due to excessive contact time between the oil and the vegetable water. In continuous two-phase systems, since they do not contain water in the mix, the time can be increased to achieve the desired homogenization.
Sometimes the so-called difficult or emulsified pastes appear, purple in color and gelatinous that make it difficult to extract the oil. Historically, attempts have been made to avoid crushing the fruit or controlling the temperature, but today it is advisable to avoid it by decreasing the grinding rate or adding adjuvants such as natural microtalc or enzymatic formulations.
Within centrifugation there are two systems: the continuous two-phase system and the continuous three-phase system. The continuous system refers to the fact that the introduction of the mass obtained in the grinding and the separation of the solid from the liquid are started continuously.
Three-phase continuous system: there are two outlets for liquids and another for solids. For each one, the densest phase (oil), the less dense phase (orujo) and an intermediate phase (alpechín) come out separately. For this process, the addition of water takes place between 30 and 35 °C.
Continuous two-phase system: there are two outlets, one for the oil and the other for the vegetable water and the pomace, which are mixed.
Storage
The storage of the product takes place in the warehouse or warehouse. The material from which the trujales (deposits) are made must be inert. The most used is stainless steel. Inside them the oil must be protected from light and air.
The cellar must have heating and insulating ceilings to maintain it between 15 and 18 °C, a temperature that favors the maturation of the oil without actually causing oxidation. It is also positive that it has little light.
It must be easily cleanable and objects from the mill must not be stored in it, because this can cause strange odors that can harm the quality of the oil.
Classification of olive oils
The different qualities of olives, the different methods of harvesting, transport and more or less careful processing give rise to different qualities of olive oils. The European and United States ones are listed below. In the rest of the article we will always talk about European qualities.
One of the bodies in charge of regulating olive oil is the International Olive Oil Council.
Classification of olive oils in Europe
The European Union legislation (Regulation (EC) 1234/2007) only allows retail marketing of the following categories of olive oil:
- Extra virgin olive oil. This type of oil is of highest quality, it is obtained directly from olives in good condition only by mechanical procedures, with an unblemished taste and smell free of defects, not being able to exceed their degree of acidity 0.8°expressed in percentage of free oleic acid. The median defects must be equal to 0 and the median fruiting greater than 0. To shorten, the acronym "AOVE" is used, sometimes lexicalized as "aove".
- Virgin olive oil. This oil follows the same quality parameters as extra olive oil, in terms of the methods of obtaining. The difference is that it cannot overcome 2° of acidity. The median defects have to be less than 3.5 and the median fruiting greater than 0. In other words, defects must be practically imperceptible to the consumer.
- Olive oil. Contains exclusively refined olive oils and virgin olive oils: It is a mixture of refined olive oil, which is obtained from the refinement of defective oils, which have not reached the above quality parameters and of virgin or extra virgin olive oil. As we will observe, he has lost the word “virgin”. This is because other chemical or thermal processes of cleaning aromas, flavors and colors are used in the process of processing refined oil. The degree of acidity of this olive oil cannot be higher than 1.
- Olive oil. This type of oil is the result of the mixture of refined olive oil, coming from the refined oil of raw olive oil that is the one obtained, by physical or chemical means, of the orujos resulting from the grinding of olive, and of virgin or extra virgin olive oil. The final graduation obtained in oleic acid will not exceed 1.
Another non-commercial type of oil is virgin lampante olive oil. It is very defective virgin oil and therefore cannot be consumed directly like the other virgins. Its name comes from the use it was given in the past as fuel for lamps or oil lamps. Today it is the one used for refining, the process from which refined olive oil is obtained, which cannot be marketed as it is due to its lack of flavor and color, but which, mixed with virgin or extra virgin (10%-20%), it becomes marketable, being called generically “olive oil”, as we have already mentioned. Like the virgin and the extra, both come only from olives, but of low quality, due mostly to the olives from the ground, frost, chopped, etc. But after some thermal, physical and chemical processes in the refinery and a subsequent mixing with virgins, it can be marketed, so this type of resulting oil (dry olive oil) is not considered by many to be authentic olive juice since it is It has been subjected to various processes other than those of the oil mill. For this reason, only virgin oils can be considered olive juice.
USDA Commercial Grades
Because the United States is not a member of the IOOC, commercial degrees have other legal categories; It is for this reason that the denominations of the bottles of oil that come from this country such as extra virgin ('extra virgin') do not have an equivalent legal denomination.
The U.S. The Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the body in charge of listing the grades of olive oil produced and marketed in its territory. These degrees were established in 1948, and are based on acidity, the absence of defects, smell and flavor:
- U.S. Grade A or U.S. Fancy: contains free fatty acids of no more than 1.4 %, and is free of defects.
- U.S. Grade B or U.S. Choice: contains free fatty acids of no more than 2.5 %, and has a "reasonable quantity of defects".
- U.S. Grade C or U.S. Standard: contains free fatty acids of no more than 3.0 %, and has "some defects".
- U.S. Grade D or U.S. Substandard: contains free fatty acids of more than 3.0 %, and has "defects that meet the requirements of the ‘U.S. Grade C’».
Nutritional properties of olive oil
At room temperature the lipids can be solid, which is called «specific fats» (or simply fats), if at room temperature the lipids appear as liquids they are called «oils». Olive oil is liquid at room temperature. Olive oil has some characteristic properties of all vegetable oils, as well as other particular ones of the olive. One of the main properties derives from its high oleic acid content (reaching an average of 75%). The properties will depend to a large extent on the variety of olive used, the way in which the oil was processed and the stored procedures.
The acidity of an olive oil is determined by its content of free fatty acids (that is, they are not part of any lipid compound) and is expressed by grams of oleic acid per 100 g (grams) of oil. These grades are not related to the intensity of flavor, but are a guideline for classifying olive oils.
A virgin olive oil that is defective due to its smell and flavor, as well as having an acidity greater than 2%, is known as lampante olive oil. This name refers to the use that was made of it until a few years ago, since it was used for lighting with lamps or skylights. Once refined and almost devoid of flavour, smell and colour, it is mixed with aromatic and fruity virgin olive oils (this operation is called heading) and is thus suitable for consumption, and is known as refined olive oil.
Extra virgin olive oil is very beneficial for health, it is recommended for all ages. Some of the advantages of its consumption are:
- It contains vitamin E: which prevents the oxidation of bad cholesterol LDL, which would result in the appearance of atheroma plates or arteriosclerotics, which prevent correct blood flow through the arterial system. Because of its content in vitamin E and the antioxidant effect of this on the cell membrane, olive oil is especially recommended for childhood and age.
- Polifenols: they have antioxidant action, prevents cell aging and also the formation of cancer cells.
- Monounsaturated fats: help reduce LDL-cholesterol levels or bad cholesterol.
- In diabetic people, it helps lower the levels of glucose, so they would need less insulin.
- Extra virgin olive oil infiltrates very little in the food, since the chemical variations produced in the fritura are small and slow. In addition, a crust is made in the food that does not allow its constituents to escape. That's why it's the best olive oil to make fries.
- It helps hardening the bones, which benefits adults a lot.
- Avoids overabundance of cholesterol and helps assimilation of fats, as it favors the hepatic synthesis of bile salts.
- It reduces the acid of the esophageal mucosa, slows down and regulates the emptied stomach to the duodenum, and decreases gastric acidity, thus reducing the risk of gastric ulcers.
- The amount of fatty acids fully meets nutritional requirements.
Fats (lipids) are essential for sustaining life. Its functions of energy contribution to metabolism are also complemented by other biological functions of great importance, such as: facilitators of the transport and absorption of some vitamins (called liposolubles), precursor of some hormones. The presence of fat favors flavors, making some foods more appetizing. Olive oil has been called one of the pillars of the so-called Mediterranean diet, due to the intensive use made of it. The diets of sedentary people in industrialized countries contain between 30% and 45% fat, athletes should reduce their content in a range between 25%-35% and saturated fatty acids below 10% The body does not tolerate higher percentages well. Lipid deficiencies reduce the percentage to below 1% in a prolonged diet over many months. Olive oil, due to its vegetable origin, does not have sterols in the form of cholesterol.
Olive oil, both virgin and extra, is rich in vitamins A, D, E and K. It favors the absorption of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and zinc; It is effective in the digestive process, avoiding gastric acidity and facilitating intestinal transit. It improves blood pressure control. Helps control blood glucose level (see glycemia). The high amount of polyphenols (a natural antioxidant) in olive oil helps and prevents degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, and acts against aging. Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, increasing HDL or good cholesterol.
In infant feeding, the exclusive use of olive oil in meals (in salads, stews and fried foods) is associated with less weight gain during childhood, in addition to being related to a more favorable adipose tissue cellularity for the future of the individual.
Jeanne Calment, one of the people with the longest confirmed longevity in the world (122 years), said that her favorite foods were olive oil, port wine and chocolate.
Composition of olive oils
The oil yield of the olive is very high, depending on the variety, the percentage can oscillate between 25 and 30% of oil in each olive. Olives have a bitter glycoside, oleuropein, which has antioxidant activity, which must be eliminated by proper treatment. In the case of olive oil, this compound is naturally eliminated during pressing in the mill. Of the chemical components that the oil possesses are mostly fatty acids, such as oleic acid (almost 75%), the next being palmitic acid, linoleic acid. Olive oil has a moderate amount of Vitamin E (mainly α-Tocopherol) and, despite having a low amount of γ-Tocopherol, olive oil is stable. Minor components of the oil are not removed because they rarely refined: squalenes, sterols, triterpenoid alcohols, chlorophyll, carotenoids. It also has certain phenolic compounds such as 4-hydroxyphenol acetic acid, which gives it a certain antioxidant character.
However, it can be summarized that there are three large groups of substances in olive oil, namely:
- Saponific Fraction: includes 98-99 % in total weight. It is formed by triglycerides, free fatty acids and phospholipids. It is made up of 75.5 per cent of oleic acid (C18:1), 11.5 per cent of palmite acid (C16:0) and 7.5 per cent of linoleic acid (C18:2), as well as other fatty acids in trace concentration, such as caffeic, margárico, stearic, etc.
- Unfair Fraction: constitutes 1.5 % of the total weight. It includes hydrocarbons such as hexenal, responsible for the herbaceous taste of a fruity aroma oil, alcohols, sterols and tocopherols.
- Other minor components:
- Polifenols: related to the taste of oil. Along with monounsaturated fatty acids, they are responsible for the effects of it on health, as they confer extra virgin olive oil antioxidant properties, acting against aging. Its mechanism of action against certain types of cancer is also currently under consideration.
- Chlorophilic and carotenoid pigments: related to the color that oil may possess.
- Volatile compounds: responsible for the aroma of oil.
Olive oil tasting
The organoleptic characteristics of the oil are the subject of a sensory analysis generally known as tasting.
Extra virgin olive oil, virgin olive oil and lampante olive oil are classified according to their organoleptic properties. To do this, they must achieve minimum scores on the tasting panels. The activity of these panels is regulated by Commission Regulation (EC) No. 640/2008.
Colour
The color matches the type of olive and the type of oil used. It should go from greenish yellow to straw yellow. The appearance must be clear and shiny, except in unfiltered oils, which may be cloudy. For the consumer, color can be important to distinguish the oils, but it is not for the taster, who, to avoid judging based on appearance, sometimes uses opaque or colored containers for tasting.
Taste
Regarding the taste, there are a number of attributes that the tasting panels consider positive, and others negative.
The positive attributes that we can find are: fruity (with hints of healthy fruit), clean (free of defects), fresh, fruity (reminiscent of certain fruits), bitter (a slight bitterness is characteristic of some varieties of olives), healthy (reminiscent of the healthy fruit, without alterations), sweet, almond (reminiscent of sweet or bitter almonds), pine nut and vegetable (reminiscent of grass, leaves and other vegetables).
The negative attributes would be: intense bitterness, intense itching (some olives offer a slight itch, but if it is intense it comes from alterations), hojarasca (dry leaves), winey, sour or vinegary, acid, basket, ropes or esparto grass, overheated, frozen olives, mold or humidity, metallic, wood or firewood, lees or atrojado (from oil), worms, rotten and rancid.
The positive attributes must keep a certain balance between themselves since if, for example, spiciness predominated a lot, it would not be considered positively either. Non-virgin olive oil, as it is mostly refined olive oil, is not subjected to panel tastings since it does not have any organoleptic properties even minimally comparable to any virgin or extra virgin olive oil. The little taste or smell that a non-virgin olive oil has comes from the small amount of virgin or extra virgin olive oil that was added to it.
Scent
The positive aromas that can be found in olive oil are: ripe olives, olives, avocado, basil, artichoke, bitter almond, almond, chamomile, asparagus, strawberries, berries, nuts, grass, fig, fennel, ripe apple, apple, orange, walnut, olive, pear, pepper, pine nut, tomato plant, banana, grapefruit, broom, rosemary, tomato and thyme.
Negative aromas would be: sour, vinegary, winey, rancid, rotten (sludge), atrojado, moldy or damp, capacho and metallic.
Olive oil according to the olive variety
There is a wide variety of olives. In Spain alone, 262 varieties have been recorded. Thus, they have been divided into four categories according to their importance and diffusion. There are 24 main ones and they are the ones that occupy a greater area or dominate, at least in one region. There are also 24 secondary ones and they do not come to dominate any region but they serve as the basis for plantations regularly. Then, the widespread varieties, there are 50, and the local ones appear in individual trees that are found sporadically in the area of one or several regions.
Of the 24 main ones, only 5 are commonly used as table olives or for dressing. Of the remaining 19, the picual, cornicabra, hojiblanca, lechín de Sevilla, morisca, empeltre, arbequina and the blanqueta. Each variety of olive is characterized by different nuances in the flavor of its oil and by the different level of productivity it offers.
Although Spain is the world's leading producer of olive oil, it is a product that exists in other countries, especially in the Mediterranean, and there are varieties of olives in other regions as well. The main Italian varieties are frantoio, moraiolo, leccino and coratina. The main Greek ones are kornoeiki and kalamata. The main Portuguese are the Galician and the Negrinha. And the main French varieties are Angadau and Picholine.
Varieties from Spain
- Picual
Other names are marteño, lopereña and nevadiño. It is originally from Martos (Jaén). It is widely cultivated in the province of Jaén, although it is also frequent in those of Córdoba and Granada. It is highly appreciated for its early entry into production, its high productivity, for having a high fat content, as well as its high stability index and its oleic acid content. It represents more than 50% of Spanish production, and 20% of the world It gives an exceptional oil with green tones, with a predominance of slightly bitter and fruity flavors and is very resistant to frost. It is the least common variety, that is, the one that maintains a constant production average throughout its productive life.
- Manzanilla cacereña
Also known as cacereña, redondilla. Cultivated in the provinces of Cáceres, Badajoz, Salamanca, Ávila and Madrid. Variety for oil and one of the best table varieties both green and black. Deep green oil, bitter spicy and very fruity with aromas of apple, grass, ripe banana, etc. With high content of oleic acid.
- Hojiblanca
Also called casta de Lucena and lucentino. Mainly cultivated in the provinces of Seville, Córdoba and Málaga. A high-quality oil is extracted from it, although the yield of its fruits is low. It generally gives oils with golden tones and mild flavor.
- Lechín de Sevilla
Other names are ecijano and zorzaleño. It is located in the provinces of Seville, Badajoz, Cádiz, Huelva and Málaga. Its oil content is medium, but of good quality.
- Morisca
It is basically located in Badajoz. Also called basta, macho and verdial. It is a variety that is very resistant to drought. It has the particularity of being used both for obtaining oil, due to its high fat yield, and for table olives.
- Arbequina
It owes its name to the town of Arbeca, although it is also called white., Ciurana de Tarragona and Riudecañas regions). This variety is used to make the oils with designation of origin Garrigues and Siurana. It was planted by the troops of King James I when he returned from the conquest of the Balearic Islands. Its cultivation has spread to Andalusian and Castilian-La Mancha provinces due to its early entry into production, high productivity, good fat yield and excellent quality, although its yield is low. This olive gives rise to highly aromatic oils, green in color at the beginning of harvest, and almond, nothing bitter or spicy with characteristic olfactory notes.
- Empeltre
It is usually cultivated in the provinces of Zaragoza, Teruel and the Balearic Islands. Appreciated for its productivity and the excellent quality of its oil. It gives rise to yellow and sweet oils, with a characteristic aroma reminiscent of banana and apple.
- Cornicabra
Other names are cornacha, cornizuelo, corniche and ornal. Typical of the areas of Ciudad Real and Toledo, it is a common variety throughout the west of Castilla-La Mancha and its border areas with Extremadura. It can also be found in Madrid. It gives oils with a strong flavor and very aromatic. It is prized for its high fat yield, for the quality of its oil and for its great stability.
- Blanket
Of good quality, it is typical of the provinces of Valencia and Alicante. Since the 90s it has been used a lot in the Spanish Levante.
- Royal
From the region of Cazorla (Jaén). Red in color, its main organoleptic characteristic is that the oil it offers has a fresh fruity and sweet aroma. Its flavor is mild and not aggressive on the palate. On the nose it presents an intense ripe fruity with nuances of ripe figs. It is an oil of the highest quality. In addition, this variety is the only 'Royal' of the world with Denomination of Origin.
- Serrana
It is a variety from Alto Palancia, in the foothills of the Sierra de Espadán, in the interior of the province of Castellón. Its extra virgin oils have been awarded in international and national competitions. Its color is greenish gold, with a great body, and a very fruity flavor.
Other Spanish varieties are the Picudo (also known as Carrasqueña or Aviary), the Verdial from Vélez-Málaga, the Verdial from Badajoz, the Verdial from Huévar, the Sevillian Manzanilla, the Sevillenca, the Morrut, the Changlot Real, the pike and suckling pig from Granada, etc.
Varieties from Italy
- Frantoio
Own from the Tuscany region. Its productivity is high and constant and its entry into production early. The olive oil content is medium and the flavor is fruity and stable over time.
- Moraiolo
It is found in almost all Italian olive-growing areas, but particularly in Tuscany, Umbria, Marche and Abruzzo. Its entry into production is early, it has a high oil content and a fruity flavor.
- Leccino
It is present above all in Tuscany, Abruzzo, Campania and Umbria. It is easy to adapt to different growing areas, with an early production start and high productivity, although with a low fat content.
- Coratina
In the Apulia region. With easy adaptation to different growing regions and a very early entry into production. Its productivity is high and constant and its oil content is high.
Greece Varieties
- Koroneiki
It is the main Greek variety. It enters into production early, with high and constant productivity, as well as a high oil content.
- Kalamata
Also called purple swamp. It occupies between 15 and 20% of the Greek olive grove used for table olives. It is appreciated for dressing in black and with a high pulp-bone ratio. The oil content of the olives is medium but of good quality.
Varieties from Portugal
- Galega
It occupies 80% of the Portuguese olive-growing area. Its entry into production is early and its productivity is high and times over. The fruits have a low fat content. Its oil is quite fruity and it is also appreciated as a table olive.
- Negrinha
Produces good quality oils and has great productivity. Like the Spanish picual, the oils have a slight bitterness.
Varieties from France
- Aglandau
Also known as beruguette, blanquette and plant d'aix. It occupies 95% of the olive-growing area in Haute Provence and the Vaucluse.
- Picholine
It is a rustic variety of entry into medium and early production, as well as high productivity. In France, its oil is considered the best quality in the country.
Uses of olive oil
Food uses
In the first civilizations, the culinary use of olive oil was not its main application, since fats of animal origin were preferred for cooking. For this reason, at first it had a special acceptance in Judaism, where you can not eat pork. Then some cultures began to use it as a condiment and in small quantities, due to its price and out of respect for its sacred dimension. As the nutritional benefits of this food were being verified, the Greeks began to add it to sauces. At first they usually made the "white sauce", described by Arquestrato. Later, the Athenians added eggs and created the "yellow sauce", which is a forerunner of today's mayonnaise. The Etruscans, who became familiar with this oil through trade with the Greeks, added herbs and spices to it.
Then the Romans were the ones who would stand out the most for the culinary use of this oil. They began to develop categories of oils for their gastronomy, although at first they did not use the best quality, but rather the one they extracted from the paste of the third pressing (cibarium oil). Then the taste was refined and acerbo oil appeared (with white olives collected at the end of October), green oil (with ripe olives) and golden oil (with overripe olives). They also differentiated the oils by the number of times the paste was pressed during milling (flos, sequens, etc.). The Roman Apicius wrote extensively about cooking recipes made with olive oil.
Arabs would also use it. Noteworthy are the writings of Ibn-Al-Jatib, born in Loja in 1313, and Al-Arbuli, from Almeria, about cooking in which olive oil was used.
Olive oil is a staple food in some countries in the Mediterranean area. Its use as a culinary ingredient is the majority in different salad dressings (virgin olive oils) as well as in foods preserved by immersion in olive oil: canned fish (canned sardines, tuna, mussels, etc.), vegetables, meats (loins in daggerboard, chorizos, etc.), cheeses. The dressing that mixes olive oil with lemon juice (a kind of vinaigrette) is very common in some areas of the Mediterranean. Oils flavored with herbs are also often used, such as: rosemary, basil, etc. It is also eaten in Andalusia and throughout the Levant, soaking the bread, for example in bread with tomato. Throughout Andalusia and in some Mediterranean regions it is the traditional breakfast.
In raw it is how it preserves all its organoleptic properties intact, because with heating it loses some, due to the evaporation of the elements that fall within the range of polyphenols. Olive oil has a lower rate of loss than other vegetable oils when heated. Olive oil's resistance to degradation by heating is due to its fatty acid composition, as well as its antioxidant and sterols that prevents oxidative polymerization. However, upon repeated heating, the phenolic and antioxidant content decreases appreciably, according to research by some authors.
In Spain, especially in the producing regions, it is always used for frying and as a condiment for everything. In Andalusian gastronomy its use is ubiquitous. If it is not overheated (if it does not smoke), it can be used several times while maintaining its quality and stabilized qualities, that is, intact.
Its food use depends on the type of olive oil, either the variety or the state of maturity of the olive. For example, the herbaceous types, with pungency, bitterness, with volatile compounds and with a greenish color are preferred for seasoning salads.
The recommended culinary uses for virgin olive oil from four of the main olive varieties are as follows:
Recommended uses of oils according to the olive variety
| Variety | Development | Applications | Aromas and flavors | Recommended techniques |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arbequina | Mahoness, alioli, vinegars, vinegar boquerones, marinated salmon, shellfish, gazpachos, sausages, sausages. | Soft marinades, sauces, cold creams, pastry sauces. | Fruit, apple and banana, fluid, sweet. | Crude, bakery. |
| Cornicabra | Frieds, spit, mushrooms, sausages, molluscs, baked potatoes, pizza masses, empanadas, churros, donuts. | Salads, soft fries, bakery masses. | Green fruit, apple, light beak. | Crude, short fried, salted. |
| Picual | Salads, Andalusian fried, fried potatoes, empanadas and bounces, slow stews, raw or cooked food preserves (cheese, horns). | Salads, fried, macerated meats and hunts, preserved vegetables. | Green fruit, kettle, fig, bitter. | Crude, long fries, stews. |
| Hojiblanca | Mahoness, alioli, vinegars, strong fish macerates, hot and cold creams, pastas, sautes, preservas and vegetables. | Soft salads, marinated with blue meats and fish, intense emulsions. | Fresh herb, light beak, almonds. | Crude, you keep. |
However, many brands produce oil by mixing some olive varieties (usually two or three) to give their product a particular flavor and aroma.
Food preservative
The amount of natural antioxidants that olive oil possesses makes it a suitable medium to be used in the conservation and maturation of some foods. Some examples can be found in canned tuna, cheeses (a Spanish example is Manchego cheese, which is called cheese in oil), some pork products such as sausages in what are known as clay pots, etc. Before buying it, it is important to choose a good extra virgin olive oil to make sure that it is the right one for your use. The tone, aroma, flavor, the variety of EVOO, the label, the craftsmanship and the density of the olive oil are some of the factors for choosing a good olive oil and making the right choice when consuming it.
Cosmetics and hygiene
The ancient Egyptians used clay or ashes to try to remove impurities from their skin, however, this remedy washed away part of the skin's protective layer and, sometimes, even the epidermis itself. For this reason, after this process, olive oil was applied as a balm. The oil protects the skin from external factors and promotes cell regeneration by acting as an emollient due to the fatty acids it contains. In particular, oleic acid favors the formation of cell membranes.
Later, olive oil began to be mixed with aromatic herbs and flower essences to create valuable aromatic ointments. Both in Egyptian, Mycenaean and Roman culture, a multitude of archaeological references to products created with olive oil and its benefits have been found. Classical athletes always used olive oil to protect their skin from the sun, heat and falls. Gladiators rubbed their skin with oil to make it more slippery and flexible. Then, the gladiators and athletes removed the sweat mixed with oil with a tool (the strigil) and this was sold at a high price to the public as a poultice and emollient.
In the year 2700 B.C. C., the Greeks were the main producers of perfumed olive oil ointments and exported them to the rest of the Mediterranean. In the Italian Peninsula, the Etruscans first became buyers and then manufacturers of these products.
Medicinal uses
This oil has been present in balms, plasters, ointments, liniments and poultices for burns, hard skin, otitis, wounds, sprains and dislocations. Mixed with herbs, such as myrrh and aloe, or with master formula products, has been used to create compounds for purges, enemas and hemetics. It is also beneficial for the liver and gallbladder, because it is a perfect cholagogue and choleretic. Today it is used as an excipient and active ingredient in many medicines.
Religious uses
In some eastern Mediterranean countries, pouring olive oil on an altar was considered a request for fertility to the gods.
In classical Greece, the olive and the oak were the two most revered trees. In the mythical origin of Athens, the olive tree plays a fundamental role. The myth says that both Athena and Poseidon wanted to have the new city under their protection and for this purpose Zeus, Poseidon's brother, offered a present and Athena another. Athena's was an olive tree and a court on Olympus said that the city corresponded to the goddess for having delivered her best gift. The olive tree also appears in the accounts of the life of Hercules and Theseus.
The Greeks buried their dead with objects that they had loved in their lives, and among those objects were glasses with olive oil (lequitos) decorated with passages from the life of the deceased. In addition, the Greeks used olive oil among many other ointments to make up and preserve the corpse or they placed it in small vessels along with cosmetics and perfumes.
Before the Greeks did, anointing with oil was performed by the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Canaanites.
In Judaism and, due to its influence in the Christian religion, oil has always played a prominent role. The Bible is full of references to oil and things related to it. The lamp in the sanctuary erected by Moses used "pure and refined" olive oil, and olive oil mixed with other products was used to anoint the objects of the sanctuary and anoint the Israelite priests. Jesus was captured by the Romans in the Garden of Olives, there is a parable in the New Testament of girls with oil lamps and the Hebrew word Mashiah (Messiah) and the Greek Christós (Christ) mean &# 34;anointed". The oil is used to perfume and is medicinal ("he poured oil and wine on his wounds and bandaged them",). It is also used for the anointing of the sick. The aromas and essences were dissolved in oil, so an anointing could also have a festive meaning, of entertainment. The oil is used in the consecration.
In the Catholic Church there was a norm that forced oil to be blessed in the parish on Holy Thursday and that it be distributed to all the churches that depended on that parish so that it could be used to illuminate the altar.
In the Greek Orthodox Church, baptism is accompanied by the anointing of the baby with olive oil. In the Catholic Church, virgin olive oil is also used in baptism, confirmation and in the anointing of the sick or extreme unction. They are called holy oils (oil and chrism), blessed according to their own ritual.
Industrial uses
Some amount of olive oil production is devoted to making high-quality soaps. Some of the by-products of olive oil, such as amurca, are used in the field as a natural herbicide or pesticide.
Other uses
In Turkey, a type of wrestling is practiced, called Yağlı güreş, in which the contestants smear each other with olive oil.
Main olive oil producers
Olive oil does not represent a large production compared to other vegetable oils, soybean oil, followed by palm oil, represent the largest world production of vegetable oils. From the European production of olive oil, it can be say that 93% comes from three countries: Spain, Italy and Greece.
Olive oil in Spain
In Spain, the province of Jaén is the world's largest producer of olive oil, as it is the place with the highest concentration of olive trees and olive oil production in the world. This fact is evident under the motto that the city of Jaén receives, “world capital of olive oil”. Since 1983, at the Institución Ferial de Jaén, Expoliva has been held every two years, an International Fair of world reference dedicated to the olive oil sector and related industries, where the prize for Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality is awarded. For localities, the largest producers are Martos, Úbeda, Villacarrillo, Baeza, Villanueva del Arzobispo and Vilches. A special mention deserves the city of Martos, known as the "Cradle of the olive grove", and which earned the nickname of "First producer of olive oil in the world". And the largest number of olive trees per area of land (exceeding the two million plants), corresponds to Beas de Segura.
Currently, in Spain there are more than 1,300 olive oil bottlers, and more than 2,000 different brands, which allows us to observe the impact on the economy of this sector.[citation required ]
With the aim of increasing international recognition of the Spanish designation of origin of olive oil, the Spanish Olive Oil Interprofessional works to promote this liquid gold of Mediterranean gastronomy. This non-profit organization is made up of the entities that represent the different agents in the olive oil sector (olive growers, cooperatives, industrialists, packers and exporters).
Types of olive oil in Spain
Spain is the world's leading producer of olives and, consequently, in obtaining virgin olive oil and its derivatives. During the 2006/2007 campaign, a total of 850,000 tons of virgin olive oil were produced.
In Spain there are 32 Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) for extra virgin olive oil, each of them governed by their own statutes, taking care of the quality of the oils they produce and setting guidelines for cultivation, harvesting, production, bottling and labeling. All of them are committed to the final quality of the product, through rigorous quality controls.
The area with the highest concentration of ancient olive trees in Spain is in the Maestrazgo region (the Maestrat), between Teruel, Tarragona and Castellón de la Plana. An unfortunate fashion of removing them to decorate private gardens motivated a film entitled The olive tree, by Icíar Bollaín, in 2015. Due to their age, they are unproductive olive trees (in 2014 only 2000 liters could be obtained of oil from these olive trees), but their oil is highly valued (it has reached 100 euros per liter). Some 4,800 olive trees of this type have been registered.
Olive oil in Andalusia
The Andalusian is one of the peoples whose culture is most closely linked to olive oil. Andalusia is the main olive oil producing area in the world.
2014 was the best in history for the Andalusian olive sector. Andalusia had a production of more than 1,400,000 tons, equivalent to 82% of the entire national harvest (1,700,000 tons). These data exceeded those of the historic 2011-2012 campaign by some 100,000 tons. Producers in this region are closely linked commercially with Deoleo.
In 2010, the sale of extra virgin olive oil was detected when in fact it was oil of poorer quality, imposing a fine of €22,000 by the Junta de Andalucía.
The Andalusian province with the most olive trees is Jaén, with more than sixty-six million of them, where the Expoliva olive oil exhibition is held every two years.
Appellations of origin and geographical indications
In Spain, to guarantee the quality of Spanish virgin olive oil, all denominations of origin are virgin and extra olive oil (never generic olive oils or olive pomace oil). There are 32 Protected Designations of Origin (PDO): of which, 24 are recognized by the European Union (definitely granted) and the rest are pending.
Olive oil in Greece
Greek olive groves grow in specific areas such as the Peloponnese (where almost 65% of Greek olive oil is produced), as well as the Aegean and Ionian islands and Crete. The best known olive variety is the Koroneiki (koroneiko).
Olive oil in Italy
Italy is the second largest producer of olive oil in the world, after Spain, with an average national production of 464,000 tons and has 41 various protected designations of origin (D.O.P) recognized by the European Union. One of the best known associations is the Associazione Nazionale Città dell'Olio. In Italy, the Frantoio, Leccino Pendolino, and Moraiolo olive varieties are known. Among the I.G.P Tuscan extra virgin olive oils are mentioned: Seggiano, Colline Lucchesi, Colline della Lunigiana, Montalbano, Colline di Firenze, Colline Aretine, Colline Senesi and Monti Pisani.[citation required]
The D.O.P of Italy by region are:
Olive oil in Argentina
Outside the Mediterranean basin, it is the main producer, with 30,000 tons produced per year. The autochthonous variety Arauco stands out, used both to produce oil and to eat it. The optimal region is considered to be the province of Mendoza. The other producing provinces are San Juan, Catamarca, Córdoba and La Rioja. There is also a small production in the province of Río Negro, in the Las Grutas spa.
In 2021, an Argentine olive grower managed to get first place as the best olive oil in the world: Laur, made in Mendoza, province of Argentina.
Olive oil in the world
There are other places that produce and consume olive oil, such as Portugal and France. In Portugal, the olive harvest (called apanha) is celebrated in numerous villages. In the past, its commercialization in different countries of the so-called Portuguese Empire was important. Currently, Portugal has five appellations of origin: Beira Interior, North Alentejo, Tras los Montes, Moura and Ribatejo. In France, the town of Nyons has achieved the Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) due to the oil made with the tanché variety. In America there is some production in Argentina, in Chile (which exports, above all, to Brazil) and in California (where the varieties from the colonization of Mexico are cultivated; the so-called missionary and San Bernardino).
World oil production
Olive oil, like wine, has certain geographical locations in the form of strips parallel to the terrestrial equator, both are marked by special climatic conditions that favor the care and maintenance of the olive tree. Only 3% of world production is carried out outside the Mediterranean area and Spain, Greece, Tunisia and Italy account for more than 70% of world production. The demand for olive oil has been growing by almost 60% since 1990. According to the FAO, the world production of olive oil in tons, classified by country, is as follows (only the 18 countries with the highest production, which represent more than 96% of the total (in Tm) and their respective percentages of the world total):
| Countries | 2000 | % | 2005 | % | 2009 | % | 2014 | % | 2018 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain Spain | 962 400 | 38.2 % | 819 428 | 32.1 % | 1 199 200 | 41.2 % | 1 775 800 | 54.3 % | 1.790.309 |
Greece Greece | 408 375 | 16.2% | 386 385 | 15.1 % | 332 600 | 11.4% | 131 900 | 4.0 % | 327.718 |
Tunisia Tunisia | 115 000 | 4.6% | 210 000 | 8.2 % | 150 000 | 5.2 % | 70 000 | 2.1 % | 278.300 |
Italy Italy | 507 400 | 20.1 % | 671 315 | 26.3 % | 587 700 | 20.2 % | 461 000 | 14.1% | 277.713 |
Morocco Morocco | 40.000 | 1.6 % | 50,000 | 2.0 % | 95.300 | 3.3 % | 120.000 | 3.7 % | 174,400 |
Turkey Turkey | 185 000 | 7.3% | 115 000 | 4.5 % | 143 600 | 4.9% | 190 000 | 5.8 % | 154.326 |
Syria Syria | 165 354 | 6.6% | 123 143 | 4.8% | 168 163 | 5.8 % | 165 000 | 5.0 % | 118.281 |
 Portugal | 25 974 | 1.0 % | 31 817 | 1.2 % | 53 300 | 1.8 % | 91 600 | 2.8% | 109.443 |
Algeria Algeria | 30 488 | 1.2 % | 34 694 | 1.4 % | 56 000 | 1.9 % | 44 000 | 1.3 % | 96.632 |
Egypt Egypt
| 4.300 | 19,000 | 28.800 | ||||||
 Argentina | 10 500 | 0.4 % | 20 000 | 0.8 % | 22 700 | 0.8 % | 30 000 | 0.9 % | 27.500 |
Chile Chile
| 4.050 | 15.800 | 21.900 | ||||||
Jordan Jordan | 27 202 | 1.1 % | 17 458 | 0.7 % | 16 760 | 0.6 % | 30 000 | 0.9 % | 21.233 |
.svg){kind=small} Australia | 500 | 0.02% | 5000 | 0.2 % | 15 000 | 0.5 % | 18 000 | 0.6 % | 20.800 |
Lebanon Lebanon | 5300 | 0.2 % | 6800 | 0.3 % | 19 700 | 0.7 % | 20 500 | 0.6 % | 19.300 |
Libya Libya | 6000 | 0.2 % | 7900 | 0.3 % | 15 000 | 0.5 % | 15 000 | 0.5 % | 17.300 |
Israel Israel
| 7.200 | 16.200 | 16.700 | ||||||
 United States
| 3,000 | 8,000 | 16,000 | ||||||
| TOTAL WORLD | 2 518 629 | 100%. | 2 552 182 | 100%. | 2 911 115 | 100% | 3 270 500 | 100% | |
| Sources: FAO | |||||||||
There are different methods of predicting the harvest in advance in order to make reliable econometric projections: for example, by satellite measurements, time series study, visual estimation or by means of the aerobiological method.
Preservation and care
Virgin olive oil, like all fats, requires that it be preserved in suitable environmental conditions to maintain its organoleptic characteristics over time. Poor conservation will cause the pleasant aromas and flavors to be lost and other undesirable ones may appear that depreciate the product.
For proper preservation of virgin olive oil, it must be protected from light and kept at as constant a temperature as possible, without major fluctuations and neither too high nor too low. It is also important to keep it as isolated from the air as possible, since contact with it causes oxidation that leads to rancidity, and it can acquire flavors or odors from the surrounding atmosphere.
For this reason, the ideal would be to keep the oil in hermetic containers or tanks, in the dark and at a mild temperature.
Packaging
In 2014, the Ministry of Agriculture of Spain banned refillable oil cans in hotels, to prevent them from being refilled with inferior quality oil.