Odyssey

The Odyssey (Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, [Odýsseia]; Modern Greek: Οδύσσεια; Latin: Odyssea ) is a Greek epic poem composed of 24 songs, attributed to the Greek poet Homer. It is believed to have been composed in the 8th century B.C. C. in the settlements that Greece had on the west coast of Asia Minor (present-day Asian Turkey). According to other authors, the Odyssey is completed in the 7th century BC. C. from poems that only described parts of the current work. It was originally written in what has been called the Homeric dialect. It narrates the return home, after the Trojan War, of the Greek hero Odysseus (in the Latin way, Ulysses: Ὀδυσσεύς in Greek; Vlixes in Latin). In addition to having been away fighting for ten years, Odysseus takes another ten years to return to the island of Ithaca, of which he was king, during which time his son Telemachus and his wife Penelope have to tolerate suitors in their palace who seek marry her (because they already believed Odysseus dead), at the same time that they consume the family assets.

Odysseus's best weapon is his mētis, or cunning. Thanks to his intelligence — in addition to the help provided by Pallas Athena, daughter of Zeus Cronida — he is able to escape continual trouble through those who have to face by design of the gods. For this, he plans various tricks, either physical —such as disguises— or with bold and deceptive speeches that he uses to achieve his goals.

The poem is, together with the Iliad, one of the first texts of the Greco-Roman epic and therefore of Western literature. The original poem is believed to have been passed down orally for centuries by aedos who recited the poem from memory, consciously or unconsciously altering it. It was transmitted in dialects of Ancient Greece. Already in the IX century B.C. C., with the recent appearance of the alphabet, both the Odyssey and the Iliad could be the first works to be transcribed, although most critics are inclined to date them to the 8th century BCE. C. The oldest known Homeric text is the version of Aristarchus of Samothrace (2nd century BC). The poem is written using a meter called dactylic hexameter. Each line of the original Odyssey was made up of six units or feet, each foot being dactyl or spondeus. The first five feet were dactyls and the last one could be spondeus or trocheo. The different feet are separated by caesuras or pauses.

Structure and argument

The work consists of 24 songs. Like many ancient epic poems, it begins in medias res: it begins in the middle of the story, recounting the preceding events based on recollections or narrations by Odysseus himself. The poem is divided in three parts. In the Telemaquia (cantos from I to IV) the situation of Ithaca is described with the absence of its king, the suffering of Telemachus and Penelope due to the suitors, and how the young man sets out on a journey in search of his father. In the return of Odysseus (songs from V to XII) Odysseus arrives at the court of King Alcinous and narrates all his experiences since he left Troy. Finally, in Odysseus's revenge (cantos from XIII to XXIV), the return to the island is described, the recognition by one of his slaves and his son, and how Odysseus takes revenge on the suitors killing them all. After that, Odysseus is recognized by his wife Penelope and recovers his kingdom. Finally, peace is signed between all the Itacenses.

Song I

Start of the Odyssey written in the Greek Ionian dialect.

Council of the gods. Athena's exhortation to Telemachus. Homer begins the Odyssey by invoking the Muse to tell what happened to Odysseus after destroying Troy. At an assembly of the Greek gods, Athena pleads for the hero's return to her home. Odysseus has been on the island of the nymph Calypso for many years. Athena herself, taking the figure of Mentes, king of the Taphios, advises Telemachus to travel in search of news of his father.

Canto II

Telemachus gathers together the people of Ithaca. Odysseus's palace is invaded by dozens of suitors who, believing that he is dead, seek the hand of his wife: Penelope. Penelope evaded them with a great excuse: she would get married when she finished a garment that she knitted during the day and undrew at night. Thanks to the help of Athena, now appearing in the form of Mentor, the young man convenes an assembly in the agora to expel the arrogant suitors from his home. Finally, Telemachus gets a ship and travels to Pylos in search of news about his father.

Canto III

Telemachus travels to Pylos to find out about his father. The next morning, Telemachus and Athena, still in the form of Mentor, arrive at Pylos. There, invited by Nestor, they participate in a hecatomb for Poseidon. King Nestor tells them of the return of other heroes from Troy and the death of Agamemnon, but has no specific information about Odysseus. He suggests that they go to Sparta to speak with Menelaus, who has just returned from long journeys. Athena asks Nestor for one of her children to accompany Telemachus to Sparta and miraculously disappears. Shocked that a young man is escorted by a goddess, Nestor orders the sacrifice of a cow in her honor and arranges for her son Pisistratus to accompany Telemachus to Sparta.

Canto IV

Telemachus travels to Sparta to find out about his father. He continues the journey to Sparta, where he is received by Menelaus and Helena. Menelaus tells him about his conversation with Proteus, who informed him about the fate of Odysseus, finding himself on an island held by a nymph named Calypso. Meanwhile, the suitors, knowing about the young man's trip, prepare an ambush that they will set up for him when he returns.

Song V

Odysseus arrives at Esqueria of the Phaeacians. In a new assembly of the gods, Zeus makes the decision to send the messenger Hermes to the island of Calypso so that it lets Odysseus go. The nymph promises Odysseus immortality if he stays, but the hero prefers to leave the island.

It takes him four days to build a raft, and he sets out on the fifth day, but is sunk by Poseidon, angry with Odysseus since the Greek blinded his son Polyphemus. Odysseus is helped by the Nereid Leucótea, who gives him a blanket with which he must cover his chest and swim to the island of the Phaeacians.

Canto VI

Charles Gleyre, Odysseus and Nausícaa.

Odysseus and Nausicaa. Athena visits, in a dream, the princess Nausícaa, daughter of Alcínoo, king of Esqueria, and orders her to take over her responsibilities as a woman of marriageable age. Upon awakening, Nausícaa asks her father for a cart with mules to go wash clothes in the river. While she and her slaves rest and others play ball, Odysseus wakes up, sees them and asks the princess for help. Nausícaa, impressed by the way he spoke about her, welcomes the hero and offers him food, tells him to follow her to the king's house and tells him how to ask her mother, her queen, for hospitality. She points out a forest consecrated to Athena, located on the outskirts of the city and where she can rest. Odysseus takes the opportunity to implore the queen to receive him and help him reach his home island.

Canto VII

Odysseus in the palace of Alcinous. Guided there by Athena, Odysseus is received in the palace by Alcinous, king of the Phaeacians, who invites him to the banquet that is going to be held. Odysseus recounts everything that has happened up to that moment, with which the king is impressed and offers him the hand of his daughter, but Odysseus does not accept, so the king changes his offer to help him reach the island of he.

Canto VIII

Odysseus feted by the Phaeacians. A party is held at the palace in honor of the guest, who has yet to show up. After an athletics competition, in which Odysseus amazes the audience with a great discus throw, the banquet begins. The aedo Demódoco enlivens the meal with a song about the Trojan War. When talking about the episode with the horse, Odysseus breaks down in tears. The king commands the aedo to stop singing, and questions the guest about his true identity.

Canto IX

Odysseus recounts his adventures: the Cycones, the lotus eaters, the Cyclopes. Odysseus introduces himself, and begins to tell the story of him since he left Troy.

First they destroyed the city of Ísmaro (where the cicones were), and there he lost many companions.

Later, they came to the land of lotus eaters. There, three companions ate the lotus, and lost the desire to return, so he had to take them by force.

Later, they reached the island of the Cyclops. In a cave they met Polyphemus, son of Poseidon, who ate several of Odysseus's companions.

They were trapped in the cave, as it was closed with a huge stone that prevented them and Polyphemus' cattle from leaving. Odysseus, with his cunning, made Polyphemus drunk with wine, ordered a stick to be sharpened and blinded the Cyclops with it while he slept. Already blind and to make sure that the prisoners did not escape, the Cyclops felt the backs of his cattle as they left the cave to go to graze, but each one of the sailors went belly to belly with a cow and grabbed the fleece. her.

After escaping, Odysseus yells his name at Polyphemus and Polyphemus asks his father, Poseidon, to punish Odysseus.

Song X

The island of Aeolus. The palace of Circe the sorceress. Odysseus continues narrating how they traveled to the island of Aeolus, that he tried to help them travel to Ithaca. Aeolus gave Odysseus a skin bag containing the west winds. When approaching Ithaca, his men decided to see what was in the bag, thus the winds escaped and a storm broke out that made the hope of returning home disappear. After six days of navigation, they reached the island of the Lestrygonians, cannibalistic giants that devoured almost all of Odysseus' companions. Fleeing from there, they reached the island of Circe. The sorceress fell in love with Odysseus and managed to keep him there for a year, but she was never reciprocated and finally let him go, but not before telling him that before returning home she would have to go through the Underworld to ask the late soothsayer Tiresias for advice..

Canto XI

Descent into Hades. After arriving in the country of the Cimmerians and sacrificing several sheep, Odysseus visited the home of Hades to consult with the soothsayer Tiresias, who prophesied a difficult return to Ithaca. All the specters came out to meet him, who wanted to drink the blood of the sacrificed animals. Odysseus gave it first to Tiresias, then to his mother, Anticleia, and several prominent women and some combatants who had died during the Trojan War also drank the blood.

Canto XII

Ulysses and the Mermaids in a picture of Herbert James Draper.

The mermaids. Scylla and Charybdis. Helios Island. Ogygia. Back on the road, Odysseus and his companions managed to escape from the Sirens, whose singing made whoever heard them go crazy. To do this, following Circe's advice, Odysseus ordered his men to cover their ears with wax, except for him, who ordered him to be tied to the mast. They also escaped from the dangerous Charybdis and Scylla. They managed to reach Trinacria (Greek name for Sicily), the island of the Sun. Despite warnings not to touch Helios' cattle, the companions sacrificed several cattle, which provoked the wrath of the god. When going back to sea, Zeus launched a lightning bolt that destroyed and sank the ship, and only Odysseus survived, who arrived on the island of Calypso (where he is at the beginning of the story).

Canto XIII

The Phaeacians send Odysseus off. Arrival in Ithaca. When the hero finishes recounting his journey, his return home is arranged by the king. Accompanied by Phaeacian navigators, Odysseus arrives at Ithaca. Athena disguises him as a homeless man so that he won't be recognized. On the advice of the goddess, Odysseus goes to ask for help from his swineherd: Eumaeus.

Canto XIV

Odysseus in the fold of Eumaeus. Odysseus does not reveal his true identity to Eumaeus, who receives him with food and a blanket. He meets the goddess Athena, and together they prepare revenge against the suitors.

Canto XV

Telemachus returns to Ithaca. Athena advises the young Telemachus to leave Sparta and return to his home. She warns him that the suitors want to set a trap to kill him and tells him to travel at night.

Meanwhile, Eumaeus recounts his life and origins to the beggar, and how he came to be in the service of Odysseus.

Canto XVI

Odysseus tells his son (Telemachus) that he is his father. Thanks to the help of the goddess, Telemachus manages to avoid the trap that the suitors had prepared for him at the entrance to the island. Once on land, he goes on the advice of the goddess to the house of Eumaeo, where he meets the supposed beggar. When Eumaeus goes to Penelope's house to give her the news of the return of her son, Odysseus reveals his identity to Telemachus, assuring him that she is really his father, whom he has not seen for twenty years. After a big hug, they plan revenge, with the help of Zeus and Athena.

Canto XVII

Odysseus begs among the suitors. The next day, Odysseus, again as a beggar, goes to his palace. He is only recognized by his dog Argos, who, already old, dies in front of his master. Asking the suitors for food, Odysseus is humiliated and even beaten by them.

Canto XVIII

The suitors harass Odysseus. A royal beggar appears, named Iro, who used to stop by the palace. Laughing at Odysseus, he challenges him to a fight. The suitors agree that the winner joins them for lunch. They give 2 pieces of bread to Odysseus, who, after taking off his blanket and showing his muscles, easily wins over the beggar. Despite the victory, he has to continue enduring the harassment of the proud suitors.

Canto XIX

The maid Euryclea recognizes Odysseus. Odysseus, hiding his true identity, has a long conversation with Penelope, who orders her maid Euryclea to bathe him. Euryclea, who was the hero's nurse when he was a child, recognizes a scar that Odysseus, in his youth, received from a wild boar when he was hunting on Mount Parnassus. The slave, then, recognizes her master, who makes her keep silent so as not to make her revenge plans fail.

Canto XX

The suitors' last supper. The next day, Odysseus asks for a sign, and Zeus thunders in the middle of the blue sky. This gesture is understood by one of the servants as a sign of victory over the suitors. Odysseus takes the opportunity to see who is faithful to the missing king and, therefore, will have to preserve life. A prophet, a friend of Telemachus, warns the suitors that soon the walls will be stained with their blood. Although some of them believe the prophecy and run away, the vast majority of them laugh at it.

Canto XXI

The archery contest. Penelope appears with a bow that Odysseus left at home on his march to Troy. She promises the suitors that she will marry the one who manages to make the arrow pass through the eyes of twelve lined axes. One after another, the suitors try, but they can't even draw the bow. Odysseus asks to participate in the test, but the suitors deny it. At Telemachus's insistence, he is allowed to try. With great ease, Odysseus draws the bow and manages to pass the arrow through the eyes of the axes, to the astonishment of those present. At the signal from his father, Telemachus arms himself, preparing for the final fight.

Canto XXII

Revenge. Antinous, chief of the suitors, is drinking when Odysseus pierces his throat with an arrow, thus killing him. Faced with the complaints of the others, Odysseus responds with threatening words, and the suitors fear for their lives. The fierce fight begins, with the numerous suitors on one side and Odysseus, his son and his two faithful servants on the other. Melantio, Odysseus' unfaithful goatherd, gets weapons, but thanks to Athena's help, all those who betrayed Odysseus are dying one by one. The female slaves are hanged by the neck in the palace courtyard, while Melantio is cut to pieces for lions to eat. Odysseus orders Eurycleia to make a fire and cleanse the courtyard with sulfur. The slave warns the women who were faithful to the hero, who arrive and embrace her master.

Canto XXIII

Penelope recognizes Odysseus. After killing the suitors who were staying at his house, Odysseus orders those present to wear his best clothes and dance, so that the people do not suspect what happened. With the help of Eurycleia, the hero introduces himself to Penelope. As Odysseus looks different from the one Penelope knew, and she is almost convinced that he is dead, the hero is not recognized by his wife. Odysseus then describes the marriage bed, and how he made it himself from an olive tree. Penelope, convinced, hugs her husband, who narrates her adventures. She finally tells him that she will have yet another journey to make before ending her life in a quiet old age.

Canto XXIV

The pact. The souls of the dead travel to Hades, where they tell what happened to Agamemnon and Achilles, companions of the hero in the Achaean expedition to Troy. Odysseus goes to the house of his father, Laertes, who is working in the garden. The man is aged and saddened by the long absence of his son. To be recognized, Odysseus shows him the scar and remembers the trees that his father gave him in his childhood.

Meanwhile, the relatives of the suitors gather in an assembly, and ask for revenge for the death of their family. Odysseus, his son and his father, who are in his house, accept the challenge, and the fight begins. Laertes shoots a spear that kills Antinous's father. But at that moment the fight ceases. The goddess Athena intervenes, who encourages the Itacenses to reach a pact, so that together they can live in peace for the years to come.

Spanish translations

Cover The Odyssey of Homerby Antonio de Gironella, 1851.

Among the translations into Spanish, mention should be made of Gonzalo Pérez (1550), Antonio de Gironella in verse (1851), Luis Segalá y Estalella (1910), Ángel María Garibay K. (1931), José Manuel Pabón and Suárez de Urbina (1982), José Luis Calvo Martínez (1988) and Carlos García Gual (2004). The only known Spanish version made by a woman is that of the Cuban Laura Mestre Hevia. The Mexican philologist Pedro Tapia Zúñiga made a version in verse in 2013.

Cultural impact of the Odyssey

The repercussion of the Odyssey in Western culture can be seen in the numerous adaptations and versions that its plot has had in prose, verse, theater, cinema, television and comics. In addition, he has bequeathed to the Spanish language the terms odyssey and mentor (and similar terms in other Western languages).

Literature

• The novel Ulysses, of the Irish James Joyce, pays tribute to the ancient Dutch poem with a slight ironic nuance, as it narrates the everyday facts that occur in a single day in the life of its protagonist.
• The autobiographical novel by José Vasconcelos Ulysses Criollowhich focuses on the life of the philosopher during the times of the Mexican Revolution and his participation in it.
• The novel Adam., by Leopoldo Marechal, is a rewriting of the tour of Ulysses, incarnated by an intellectual and poet who unleashes a mythical Buenos Aires filled with universal symbols and allusions.
• In the novel Homer's daughterRobert Graves exposes his view of the composition of the Odyssey as we know it.
• In The lost travelerCesar Mallorquí tells a modern history of the Greek hero.
• Marvel Comics published an adaptation to the graphic comic in the collection Marvel Illustrated.
• In the novel An Odyssey. A father, a son, an epicDaniel Mendelsohn tells of a university course of the Odyssey intermingled with the teacher's father and a cruise through the original places of the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor.

Music

Cinema and television

Picture of the short of Méliès.

The Yugoslav actor Bekim Fehmiu (1936 - 2010) represented the main role in Italian television adaptation led by Franco Rossi (1919-2000).

• L'Île de Calypso: Ulysse et le géant Polyphème (1905): short film directed by George Méliès.
• Odyssey of Homer (L'Odissea, 1911): mediometraje directed by Giuseppe De Liguoro, Francesco Bertolini and Adolfo Padovan (1869 - 1930).
• Ulysses (1954): film directed by Mario Camerini, with Kirk Douglas in the main role. As stated in the credit titles, the exteriors are rolled in the places that were then supposed to be those for those named in the Odyssey.
• Odissea: musical magazine for television produced by the RAI and issued on April 18, 1964. It is an adaptation in verse with ripples similar to those of the astracanada. You can see, among other things, the Kessler Twins making sirens and the Olympus gods as if they were tertulians or hosts of a TV show, as well as sweeping in advance the size of the Polifemo Cyclops by the comb instead of by the axe. The magazine is the last of the eight parodies that constituted the series Library di Studio One.
• The Odyssey or The Adventures of Ulysses (Odissea or Le avventure di Ulisse, 1968): TV miniserie produced by RAI and Dino De Laurentiis, and directed by Franco Rossi. From it a condensed film was mounted. The work gives a theatrical treatment to the internal sequences.
• The Odyssey (1976): television series of the theatre company Els Joglars.
• Ulysses 31: anime franc-Japanese of 1981, free adaptation Odyssey' that places history in the XXXI century.
• The odyssey: animated film of the year 1987 by Australian producer Burbank Films Australia.
• L'Odissea: TV musical broadcast by Canale 5 on 13 and 20 December 1991. Followed the approach of the RAI series Library di Studio One, it consisted of parodies of songs adapted to the story that was narrated and had Sylva Koscina incarnating Atenea.
• The Odyssey (1997): mini-series for television directed by Andrei Konchalovsky and Armand Assante on the role of Odysseus.
• O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000): film of the Coen brothers recreating the Odyssey in the Great American Depression.

Theatre

• The Odyssey. Els Joglars. The company led by Albert Boadella made its particular version of the classic that it occupies, from which it had made for television in 1976. It was premiered on 14 September 1979 in the Auditorium of Palma de Mallorca, and was represented until 30 March 1980.