Nahual
In Mesoamerican beliefs, a nahual (also called nagual or nawal (from Nahuatl: nahualli 'occult, hidden, disguise') is a kind of sorcerer or supernatural being who has the ability to take animal form. The term refers both to the person who has this ability and to the animal itself that serves as their alter ego or tutelary animal.
The concept is expressed in different native languages, with different meanings and contexts. More commonly, among indigenous groups, the practice or ability of some people to transform into animals, elements of nature or perform acts of witchcraft is called nahualismo.
In Maya, the concept is expressed under the word chulel, which is understood precisely as “spirit”; the word derives from the root chul, which means “divine”.
According to some traditions, it is said that each person, at the moment of birth, already has the spirit of an animal, which is in charge of protecting and guiding them. These spirits usually manifest only as an image that advises in dreams or with a certain affinity to the animal that took the person as its ward. A woman whose nahual was a mockingbird will have a privileged voice for singing, but not everyone has such light contact: it is believed that sorcerers and shamans from central Mesoamerica can create a very close bond with their nahuals, which gives them a series of advantages that they know how to take advantage of, the vision of the hawk, the smell of the wolf or the hearing of the ocelot become tools of these seers and it is even affirmed that some, more prepared, can even acquire the shape of their nahuales (see therianthropy) and use this ability in various ways, not all of them well-intentioned, depending on tradition and popular culture.
Etymology
The word «nahual» comes from the term «nahualli», whose origin is discussed and its polysemic significance, to the point that as early as the 16th century, authors such as Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón or Jacinto de la Serna proposed various possible etymologies for the term. Among the various theories that have been proposed about its origin are:
- As from the verb «Nahualtía», which means “to hide, to hide”, to which Ruiz de Alarcón also translates as “to disguise himself” or “rebound”, that is, to cover himself with a bounce. However, Alfredo López Austin opposes this interpretation.
- With origin in the verb «nahuali / Nahuala», which evokes the idea of “deceiving, dissimulating”. The constructions with this verb are related to cunning and surprise, although the hypothesis has been opposed that in any case they denote the idea of acting or doing things the way of a nagual, which makes it a circular etymology.
- With origin in one of the verbs with the root «nāhua-», related to the action of speech: «nahuati», speak strong; «nahuatia», talk to empire, send; «nahualtia», address someone.
- Angel María Garibay proposed a possible origin in the word "nahui», which designates the number four, referring it to the Castilian word "quatter" or with the idea that the nahual would have a "quadruple personality".
- Daniel Brinton proposed in 1894 that the word nahual was a linguistic loan of the Zapoteco language, having its origin in the root “na-», which in the zapoteco means "knowing, knowing", thus relating it to the idea of a mystical or magical knowledge.
Meaning
Due to the obscurity of the term, its wide diffusion in Mesoamerican cultures and the diversity of information about nagualism, there is no single meaning of the term «nahual», although there are certain coincidences between various worldviews that suggest a common background for the diversity of interpretations.
Nahual as a witch
The most general meaning of nahualism, supported by the earliest interpretations made by the Spanish conquerors, gives the nahual the meaning of the person who through magical or divine arts has the ability to transform his body into that of an animal, object, fire, or a weather phenomenon, such as lightning or a cloud. Already Alonso de Molina in his Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana of 1571, consigned the meaning of "witch", "sorcerer" or "necromancer" for the term "naualli". As defined by Lucille Kaplan:
«Nagual is used in the original sense of the concept of transformative witch, that is, the temporary use of an animal or other way to perform witchcraft or a harmful end.»
Based on Foster's research, modern anthropologists accept the theory that the original meaning of the nahual is that of a transforming sorcerer and it seems corroborated with the ethnological record of the beliefs of contemporary indigenous people from central and southern Mexico, especially, having made the difference between the concept of nahual and tonal.
Although there are records, such as the one contained in the Florentino Codex by Bernardino de Sahagún, that the nahuales could apply their arts to good or evil, the vision of the nahual as a malevolent being seems to be more widespread both in antiquity as in the beliefs of modern indigenous people.
Nahual as tutelary animal or guardian spirit
Nagualism has also been explained as the spiritual connection between a person and their guardian animal, which is conceived as an alter ego of the person whose destinies are inextricably linked to each other. Thus, the ills that afflict one are suffered by the other, either physically or spiritually. Hence the widespread belief and multiple accounts of the deaths suffered by people at the moment their animal-nahual is killed.
The theory has been proposed that this meaning of the term nahual is due to a confusion both in the anthropological literature and in the worldviews of modern indigenous peoples between the beliefs of nahualism and tonalism, being the latter to which it would truly correspond to be, originally, the link between man and his guardian animal.
Nahual as a soul entity
Alfredo López Austin, launched the hypothesis that the nahualli, in addition to meaning the sorcerer or transforming entity, also defined the ability to carry out that transformation, rooted in one of the three psychic entities that The Nahuas recognized within the human body: tonalli, teyolía and ihiyotl, determining the latter as the source where —according to indigenous thought— the power that allowed transformation and could be used to inflict spiritual damage on other people. Such capacity was acquired by inheritance, by determination of the calendrical sign in which one was born or by performing certain rituals.
Other interpretations
Nahualism as a secret society
Daniel Brinton, in the last years of the 19th century, following the ideas of Brasseur de Bourborg, launched the hypothesis that the nahuales as a whole constituted a «powerful secret organization», made up of people from different cultures and languages, "linked by mystical rites, necromantic powers and occult doctrines", whose purpose was to oppose the government and religion of the Spanish conquerors, hence, according to him, they could meet to nahuals leading most of the indigenous revolts of Mexico during the period of the conquest and the colonial era in Mexico and Guatemala. However, Brinton did not dismiss the relations of nahualismo with those of the tutelary animal and people with supposed supernatural powers.
However, this theory has been dismissed by later researchers such as Foster and López Austin, pointing out that Brinton mixed various traditions, religious expressions and folklore, to introduce them all within the category of nahualism and that, furthermore, in his At that time there was still not enough information about the difference between nahualism and tonalism.
History
Brinton, offers as the earliest reference in Spanish of the term "nagual" the use that Antonio de Herrera makes of it in his work Historia general de las Indias Occidentales of the year 1622, which, however, reports on the decade from 1530 in the province of Cerquín in Honduras:
«[...] for many years these superstitions lasted: the devil deceived them, and appeared as a lion, tiger or coyote, because of these animals, of rapiña, there are many in this province: these called them nahuales, which was like saying keepers, or companions; and when the bird died, the Indian also died with him. This was seen many times, and it had for true thing [...] it was like that he who had no nahual could not be rich [...].» (sic)General History of the Ocidental Indies. Decade IV, Book VIII, Chapter IV.
In Mexico and referring to the Aztec context, the oldest reference is found in the work of Bernardino de Sahagún, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, written between 1540 and 1585, where, when listing the different trades of the Aztecs The nahual is equated with the sorcerer but it is attributed both the ability to act to the detriment and benefit of people:
«Naualli itself is called a witch, who at night scares men and sucks children. He who is curious of this craft well understands anything of spells, and to use of them is sharp and cunning; takes advantage and does not harm.
He who is evil and plagued by this office hurts the bodies with the spells, and draws from judgment and drowning; he is enchanting or enchanting. »General history of the things of New Spain. Book X, Chapter IX.
Description
In Mexico, sorcerers who can change shape have been given the name nahuales. However, it is believed that contact with their nahuales is also common among shamans who seek benefit for their community, although they do not use the ability to transform; For these, the nahual is a form of introspection that allows those who practice it to have close contact with the spiritual world, thanks to which they easily find solutions to many of the problems that afflict those who seek their advice.
Since pre-Hispanic times, the gods of the Mayan, Toltec and Mexica cultures, among others, have been attributed the ability to take the form of an animal (nahual) to interact with humans. Each deity used to take one or two forms; for example, Tezcatlipoca's nahual was a jaguar, although he used the form of a coyote interchangeably, and Huitzilopochtli's was a hummingbird. According to Michoacán traditions, nahuals are sometimes transformed into elements of nature, and are sometimes confused with hailmakers, although there are similar references in various cultures that are confusing, and it is likely an amalgamation of other cultures where the shapeshifting is to elements of nature and not animals.
Geography
Shamanism is a spiritual movement with a wide scope, focused on technologically backward cultures,[citation needed] while nagualism is focused on Mexico,[ citation required] and is known above all for the books by Carlos Castaneda[citation required]. At the beginning of the book The art of dreaming , Castaneda clarifies that the matter of the books he writes, that is, the material he handles, is not literally shamanism. The main exponents of the study of shamanism (Vitebsky, Mircea Eliade, Halifax and Wasson) clearly explain that nahualism is a particular phenomenon of Mexico, while shamanism is typical of more rudimentary civilizations. Shamanism is a widely known phenomenon, and its main exponents include Siberian, Paviotso, Bantu and African-American shamans.
Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca
As has been said before, the influence of the gods in the pre-Hispanic world was often exercised in an animal form that put travelers to the test. Most of these stories are related to Tezcatlipoca in the form of a coyote. It has been erroneously linked to Quetzalcóatl, although he is known in his role as a man or ruling king, rather than in an animal form, according to the name "feathered serpent" that identifies him, without implying dealings with humans in that form. The coyote is, in turn and according to Laurette Séjourné, the form that Quetzalcóatl takes on his underground journey.
Mayan mythology
Among the main concepts of the Mayan worldview of the Guatemalan Mayans, is the relationship between nature, human beings and the cosmos, as well as the conception of cyclical time, which was measured through various calendrical systems. Having lived in deep contact with nature, the Mayan peoples have developed a worldview that allows them to conceive the earth as a mother that provides human beings with their satisfiers. There are four B'akab's, cosmic beings placed by the Ajaw -superior being-, selected among the 20 nawales of the ritual calendar to sustain the world alternately. The colors of the chromatic representations of the Mayan cosmic universe are represented as follows: red is reminiscent of sunrise; the black, where it hides; white, where the air comes from, and yellow, where the direction of the air culminates –the autumn region-, and in the center the green and yellow, which represent the Uk'ux Kaj- Uk'ux Ulew (Heart of Heaven - Heart of the Earth). In 2012 a period of 400 years closes: a B'aktun concludes. This date is doubly significant, since it closes a period of thirteen B'aktunes, which adds up to 5,200 years. It marks, then, the end and beginning of a Mayan era.
Mayan Cosmovision of the Native Peoples of Guatemala
According to the Mayan worldview, the day each individual is born brings forces or effects that allow them to carry out their mission, with the protection and intervention of their nahual. The word nahual is used often to talk about the sacred aspect of everything that exists. Not restricted to humans; it is a force inherent to geographical phenomena (caves, mountains), physical phenomena (cold, fire) and to all objects that have an essential function in human life (the house, the roof). The protector or owner of a lagoon, lake or hill, for example, can be represented as a great snake or other beings. In the Mayan worldview, the Cholq'ij calendar is made up of 20 nahuales or signs of the days of the 13 months of the year: B'atz', E, Aj, I'x, Tz'ikin, Ajmaq, No'j, Tijax, Kawoq, Ajpu, Imox, Iq', Aq'ab'al, K'at, Kan, Kame, Kej, Q'anil, Toj, Tz'i' In the quadrant or Mayan cross are identified, at least five nahuals: Ruk'u'x Tz'ukirem, Ruk'u'x Xamalil, Ruk'u'x Alaxb'äl, Ruk'u'x Patän Samäj and Ruk'u'x Ruchuq'a' K'aslemäl - Kaqchikel Mayan language.
The nawal, nahual or rajawal is the force or spirit that accompanies people, animals and every element of nature, according to the Mayan worldview. It can be represented through an animal, a flower, a bird or an element such as the Sun, Earth, water, air, etc. The word nahual is equivalent to Ruwäch q'ij, from the Maya Kaqchikel of Guatemala, which designates the protector or caretaker who accompanies each element of nature.
The nahual in the Maya of Mexico
In southeastern Mexico, mainly in the Yucatán peninsula, they are known as the Uay (which literally translates as 'witch'). They are, according to Mayan beliefs, sorcerers who can transform into animals. One of the best known are the Huay chivo and the Uay Peek.
Toltec mythology
Carlos Castaneda refers to the Toltecs as related to nagualism. However, the historical Toltecs disappeared before the arrival of the Spanish, and the important references by Laurette Séjourné as well as Miguel León-Portilla's books on Toltequity do not speak of the nahual, so it is likely that the relationship between Toltequity and nahualism is non-existent or doubtful. That is, the Toltecs presented by the writers Miguel Ruiz and Carlos Castaneda present an unproven association between the Toltecs and the Nahuales, probably for commercial purposes. Care must be taken between proven facts of Toltec culture and new age claims that are not anthropologically verifiable. It must be considered that the historical Toltecs do not have living representatives, and that a confusion in bad faith or by accident is possible between the historical Toltecs and the neo-Toltecs. Considering the alterations and false quotations that have occurred since the death of Carlos Castaneda, it must be taken into account that quotations without online links to codices or strange texts may be altered. According to new age groups, several indigenous definitions are preserved, which possibly had a spiritual content. The main ones are the following statements, possibly referring to Tlamatini as a philosophical meaning; The term Nahualli was used to describe that totality from which all the Tonalli (tonal) or particular beings proceed, as we see in the following quote: «Yohualli ehēcatl nahualli totecuhyo” (Florentine Codex, book VI, metaphor 70), which literally means “our nagual lord "wind and darkness"”; The expression "wind and darkness" is a typical diphraism of Nahuatl paremiology that means "intangible", and this is more associated with Tezcatlipoca.
- Nahualli was the name of the sages in general, as noted in the terms Nahua“understanding”; Nahualli“He who deepens or penetrates things”; Nahuatilli“legislar”, “research”, “know”, and Nahuatl“comprehensible”, the name of the tongue.
- In a pejorative sense, it was the title given to witches.
"This kind of nahual witches are different from the witches of Spain. I have heard many exquisite cases and out of what is known from other nations and people accustomed to having pact with the devil."Alarcon, Treaty of idolatry.
Spelling
Due to its pre-Hispanic roots, the term nahualismo is often used, written with h, derived from the etymological roots. The spelling nagualismo is used in connection with the writings of Carlos Castaneda, who popularized the term, so both have come into frequent use. However, governmental writings or official INAH offices use the term with h (for example, on the descriptive plates of the jade ornaments in tomb seven at Monte Albán), so this topic should be considered in academic papers. In Guatemala the concept is used by several Mayan peoples, where it is written nawal, considering the Mayan way of pronouncing this concept, but it is also used by various New Age movements. However, if the colonial orthography used for Classical Nahuatl is taken into account, such as the one used by Alonso de Molina in his dictionary, the phonemes /k, w, kʷ/ are not represented using <k> or <w>, but instead are written using a Spanish-based orthography: <c, qu, cu/uc>. Most official documents or publications with anthropological endorsement use the classical spelling.
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