Muse × paradisiaca

The scientific name Musa × paradisiaca L. (or Musa paradisiaca L.) and the common names platanera, plátano, bananero or banana make reference to a large number of herbaceous plants of the genus Musa (of Indo-Malay origin), both hybrids obtained horticulturally from the wild species Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana as genetically pure cultivars of these species, and whose fruits are known as banana, banana, banano, mínimo b>, cambur, topocho, maduro or guineo, depending on the specific cultivars or geographic regions. Originally classified by Charles Linnaeus as Musa paradisiaca in 1753, the type species of the genus Musa, subsequent studies have led to the conclusion that the complex taxonomy of the genus includes numerous hybrids, of varied genetic composition, and a strictly sui generis classification system has been developed to account for this variation. However, according to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the Linnaean name has priority, and continues to be used—both in its original form and in the modified Musa × paradisiaca, which indicates that It is a hybrid—to generically designate these varieties.

In the vernacular nomenclature of the different Spanish-speaking geographies, a difference is sometimes drawn between bananas, consumed raw as a dessert fruit, and plantains, which are Their higher starch content must be roasted or fried before eating. In other regions, sweet plantain is called banana and green plantain is called male plantain, or the terms are inverted, or even both versions are used interchangeably (go to section). The varieties with the greatest genetic presence ofM. balbisianaare usually included in the group of those that must be cooked, although it cannot be determined whether a plant will produce sweet fruits or green fruits simply by its genetic constitution, since this distinction responds to purely culinary criteria.

In any case, this group of vegetables makes up the most consumed intertropical fruit in the world. It is a false berry, with a falcate or elongated shape, that grows in clusters of up to 400 units and weighing 50 kg; yellow in color when ripe, it is sweet and meaty, rich in fiber, carbohydrates, potassium, vitamin A, vitamin C and tryptophan, it contains a very useful natural antacid against heartburn; Plus, it's low in sodium and low in fat. It is much richer in calories than most fruits due to its high starch content; Of the 125 grams that it weighs on average, 25% is dry matter, which provides about 120 calories. It contains the most digestible carbohydrates (the body can burn the calories it offers much more easily than those that come from fat).

They are grown in more than 130 countries, from Southeast Asia where they are native, to Oceania and South America; The main world producer is India, where almost a quarter of the fruits sold in the world are grown, although a good part of them are for domestic consumption. The main exporter is Ecuador, which generates almost a third of global exports. The production volume of bananas and plantains is only surpassed by wheat (Triticum spp.), rice (Oryza sativa) and corn (Zea mays). The continuous production of fruit throughout the year makes them especially valuable as food between harvests in tropical countries; It is the fried plantains that mainly fulfill this role.

Description

The banana is not a tree, but a megaphorbia, a large perennial herb. Like the other species of Musa, it lacks a true trunk. Instead, it has leaf sheaths that develop forming structures called pseudostems, similar to vertical stems up to 30 cm in basal diameter that are not woody, and reach 7 m in height.

Banana leaves are among the largest in the plant kingdom. They are smooth, tender, oblong, with a truncated apex and a round or slightly cord-shaped base, green on the upper side and lighter and usually glaucous on the underside, with smooth margins and pinnate, yellowish or green veins. Arranged in a spiral, they unfold to reach 3 m long and 90 cm wide; the petiole is up to 60 cm. In varieties with a greater genetic component ofM. balbisianathis is concave on top, with the ends almost touching above the adaxial canal. Whether it is glabrous or pubescent also depends on genetics. The leaves tend to break spontaneously along the veins, giving them a ragged appearance. Each plant normally has between 5 and 15 leaves, 10 being the minimum to consider it mature; The leaves live no more than two months, and in the tropics they are renewed at the rate of one per week in the growing season.

The perennial element is the rhizome, superficial or underground, which has meristems from which between 200 and 500 fibrous roots arise, which can reach a depth of 1.5 meters and cover 5 meters of surface. Offshoots ('suckers') also sprout from the rhizome that replace the main stem after it blooms and dies. In cultivated specimens, only one is normally left to avoid weakening the plant, but in the wild they appear in large quantities; They are the main form of diffusion in sterile varieties, which are the majority.

The flowers

About 10 to 15 months after the birth of the pseudostem, when it has already produced between 26 and 32 leaves, an inflorescence emerges directly from the rhizome that emerges from the center of the pseudostems in a vertical position; It resembles an enormous purple or violet cocoon that tapers towards the distal end, with the peduncle and rachis glabrous. In some places such as Southeast Asia the banana flower is edible. In areas of Latin America, as well as in the Canary Islands, it is called "bellota." When it opens, it reveals a spike-shaped structure, on whose axial stem double rows of flowers are arranged in a spiral, grouped in clusters of 10 to 20 that are protected by thick, fleshy purple bracts. As the flowers develop, the bracts drop, a process that takes 10 to 30 days for the first row.

The first 5 to 15 rows are of female flowers, rich in nectar; In them the compound tepal reaches 5 cm long and 1.2 cm wide; It is white or more rarely violet on the inside, with the color showing through to view from the outside as a delicate purple hue. Its upper part is yellow to orange, with teeth about 5 mm long, the two outermost ones provided with a filiform appendage up to 2 mm long. The free tepal is approximately half the size, white or pinkish, obtuse or truncated, with the apicle mucronate and short. They are followed by a few rows of hermaphrodite or neutral flowers, and the male ones in the apical region.

Except in a few cultivars, the male flowers disappear immediately after opening (the exception is 'Cavendish' bananas and 'French' plantains), leaving the apex of the spike naked except for a terminal fleshy bud containing unopened male flowers. The enormous weight of the flowers causes the flower stem to lean towards the ground in a short time; In turn, the phototropism of the flowers causes them to grow upward.

In hybrid varieties grown for their fruit, the male flowers are sterile, as are the female ones in the 'Cavendish' cultivar. The ovaries develop parthenocarpically without the need for pollination. Dark specks in the pulp indicate the rest of the undeveloped ovules.

The fruit

The fruit takes between 80 and 180 days to fully develop. Under ideal conditions, all the female flowers bear fruit, adopting a finger-like appearance that leads to the rows in which they are arranged being called hand. There can be between 5 and 20 hands per spike, although it is normally partially truncated to avoid the development of imperfect fruits and prevent the terminal bud from draining the plant's energies. The cutting point is normally set on the "false hand", one in which dwarf fruits appear. In total it can produce about 300 to 400 fruits per spike, weighing more than 50 kg.

The fruit is a false epigynous berry 7 to 30 cm long and up to 5 cm in diameter, which forms a compact cluster. It is covered by a leathery green pericarp in the immature specimen and intense yellow, red or green and white banding when mature. It is linear or falcate in shape, between cylindrical and markedly angular depending on the variety. The basal end tapers abruptly to a 1–2 cm pedicel. The pulp is white to yellow, rich in starch and sweet; In bananas it can be somewhat astringent or rubbery due to its latex, farinosine and dry content. Very rarely, diploid or tetraploid varieties produce seeds, black, globose or irregular, with a rough surface, up to 16 × 3 mm in size, embedded in the pulp. Triploids, like 'Cavendish', never produce seed.

Habitat

Origin and distribution

The modern banana is a crop, probably native to the Indo-Malay region. From Indonesia they spread south and east, reaching Hawaii and Polynesia in stages. European traders brought news of the tree to Europe around the III century BC. C., but they did not introduce it until the X century. From the plantations of West Africa, the Portuguese colonizers would take it to South America in the XVI century.

Today commercial varieties are grown in all tropical regions of the world. It is the most cultivated of tropical fruits and one of the four most important in global terms, only behind the grape (Vitis vinifera), citrus and apple (Malus domestica). i>). More than 28 million tons of fruit are produced annually, of which almost two-thirds come from South America. The main importers are Europe, the United States, Japan and Canada. India is the world's leading banana producer, with around 11 million tons (11,000,000 tons) annually, mostly destined for the domestic market. It is followed by Brazil, which produces 6 million tons annually, the vast majority of which is also consumed locally. Both Indonesia (2 million tonnes/year) and the Philippines (0.5 million tonnes/year) export the majority of their production to Japan, as does the Republic of China (0.5 million tonnes/year). The fruit consumed in Europe comes mainly from the plantations of West Africa, particularly the Ivory Coast and Somalia, from where 9 million tons annually supply European tables, and to a lesser extent from the French and Dutch possessions at sea. Caribbean. Domestic consumption in Spain has traditionally been served by dessert bananas produced in the Canary Islands (similar to those from Madeira), which they also exported abundantly to Europe, but the liberalization of the markets has made them retreat compared to imports of African origin and South American. Ecuador and Colombia are the main banana exporters in America. Production from Panama, Honduras, Guatemala and Costa Rica is mainly destined for the United States.

The banana is a fundamental crop in Colombia and Ecuador, where the plant by-products are used in animal feed, as well as in Mexico and Venezuela. The Dominican Republic is also a major producer, but the main source of bananas in the Caribbean is Puerto Rico, which produces more than US$30 million annually, consuming the vast majority of it within the country. per capita consumption of bananas in Puerto Rico was estimated at 30 kg per year in the mid-1980s. In Ghana they play an important role in the economy, especially in combination with cocoa (Theobroma cacao), cultivated as shade for this.

Floors

Bananas tolerate a wide variety of terrains well; They grow and bear fruit in very poor conditions, although for production to be economically profitable they require fertile and humid soils. They prefer deep, well-drained soils, with the water table no less than two meters deep; To avoid waterlogging of the roots, crops in areas of extreme humidity usually raise the plants using raised beds or terraces, in addition to digging drainage channels between the plants, providing a slope of around 1% to allow drainage. In drier terrain, artificial irrigation is necessary; Sprinkler irrigation allows bananas to be planted on clay soils that were traditionally considered unsuitable.

They prefer slightly acidic soils, with a pH around 6. An excess of acidity makes it necessary to add alkalis during growth to prevent the spread of fungi of the genus Fusarium, responsible for the Panama disease which is the main pest of these crops. Although the ideal soils are of alluvial origin, sandy, sandy loam, clay, calcareous and rocky soils can be acceptable; Problems arise in sands that are too fine, which retain too much water.

The nutritional requirements of bananas are high; Fruit varieties may require between 250 and 600 kg of nitrogen per hectare to provide commercial yields, and between 700 and 800 kg of potassium. The shoots cut to prevent their development and the remains of the pseudostems after harvest are left on the surface or added to a compost to improve the quality of the soil. Excess salinity does not stop the growth of the plant, but it markedly reduces its yield, giving rise to dwarf or very thin fruits.

Temperature and rainfall

Bananas are native to tropical and subtropical regions, and rarely give good results outside the band between 30°N and 30°S. Some crops are adapted to altitudes up to 2300m s. n. m., but most do not thrive above 600 m altitude.

The optimal temperature for flowering is around 27°C, and fruit growth benefits from a slightly higher temperature. Above 37°C the leaves suffer burns and the fruits become deformed; Below 16°C the rate of development is noticeably reduced, leading to the appearance of one leaf per month instead of the optimal period of one per week. Below 10°C, the plant stops growing completely, and fruit development is aborted. Even brief bouts of cold can kill the inflorescences, cause rotting of the fruits already present or abort their development, giving rise to small, gray-green fruits with a weak flavor. Frosts are tremendously harmful; Temperatures below the freezing point cause the desiccation of the green parts and the eventual fall of the pseudostems and leaves present. The rhizome survives them, and sprouts again as soon as the temperature is suitable, although climatic rigors below 7 °C below zero can damage it irreversibly. Sometimes the soil is lightly flooded in anticipation of a short frost to slow down heat exchange and allow survival; In other cases, the temperature is artificially raised through the controlled burning of debris.

The rainfall regime must be constant, with about 100 mm per month throughout the year, and no more than three months of dry season. Drought can cause a serious reduction in the number and size of fruits, compromising crop yield. In the absence of water, the leaves split or turn yellow prematurely, and finally fall completely; In severe cases, the leaf sheaths that form the pseudostem also die. A greater genetic complement ofM. balbisianafavors drought resistance. Waterlogging is just as dangerous; More than 48 hours of saturation or stagnation of water between the roots kills plants by rotting irreversibly. If the humidity is excessive, the plants may show dwarfism and lack vigor, which is solved by opening drainage ditches or raising the plantations on slopes.

In Australia and India some varieties have adapted to elevated soils. Australian varieties are grown between 60 and 300m s. n. m. to avoid the frosts that are frequent lower down; the Indian ones reach up to 2000 m s. n. m., especially the dwarf variety 'Kullen', which is grown in the eastern foothills of the Ghats, 'Vella vazhai', which is planted in the Pulneys, and the banana 'Plankel'. In Africa, most plantations are above 900 m; In South Africa, the southeastern region is the main producing focus, between 900 and 1000 m s. n. m., and in East Africa the altitudes are even higher.

Location

Due to their herbaceous nature, bananas must be protected from the wind. Above 40 km/h, varieties with more elongated stems can be uprooted, as the large leaves offer a lot of resistance; above 60 km/h even dwarf varieties suffer damage. Even less intense gusts can damage the fruits, cause the flowers to fall or dry out the leaves.

Bananas prefer full sun, except in very hot climates; In the tropics they grow well in semi-shade, but in regions with more moderate temperatures the lack of exposure to the sun leads to the production of scarce and low-quality fruits.

Cultivation

Propagation

Except in experimental projects to develop new varieties, bananas are never developed from seeds. The main means of reproduction is the cutting of potential propagules from the rhizome, either only the buds thereof - a procedure similar to that used for the propagation of the potato, Solanum tuberosum - or the "hickeys" that sprout from it next to the main pseudostem.

To use the buds, a plant about seven months old is preferably selected and uprooted, then cutting the pseudostem 1 dm above its birth. When removing the bases of the leaf sheaths, two pinkish buds remain visible, which can grow quickly after replanting. The lower buds, whitish in color, are usually discarded, since their development in case of replanting is slower and more laborious. Sections affected by diseases, discolored or presenting nodulations due to nematodes are removed, and the rest of the rhizome is divided in two. Each of the fragments is immersed in a nematicide solution and fumigated against fungi, and then allowed to rest for about 48 h before replanting. The ideal weight of each piece of rhizome is between 800 and 1800 g; if they are smaller, additional fertilization will be necessary. The practice of replanting entire rhizomes, weighing up to 8 kg, has virtually disappeared; Although they offer a better yield the first year, their development is then assimilated to that of the shoots obtained by division.

The other frequently used alternative is the use of suckers or hills, the young shoots that the rhizome produces to finally replace the pseudostem. The sucker appears as a conical shoot, whose leaves are poorly developed and have more sheath than actual leaf surface; In its most youthful form, nicknamed "peeper", it is not used except in nurseries or research programs. For commercial use, it is expected that it begins to produce leaves similar to those of the adult, the so-called "swords"; In this phase, it is known as "puyón" or "needle". To use it, it is separated from the rest of the rhizome with a machete, leaving a good-sized section attached to the pseudostem, and removing the oldest leaves. The ideal time to replant it is three or four months after it appears, when it is around 120 cm high; In the first year it will develop more quickly than shoots obtained from buds, giving the optimal yield. Old or poorly nourished rhizomes sometimes produce suckers whose leaves resemble those of adults from their first sprout; called "flags" u "orejones", in general provide a very low yield, and indicate that the rhizome should be discarded.

There are horticultural techniques to accelerate the production of shoots; One of the most common is to remove the leaf sheaths of a rhizome to expose the buds, and cut the shoots when they reach the bud stage. Another is to cut the rhizome in such a way that it produces a meristem callus that will give rise to many shoots.

In the laboratory, techniques have been developed to produce meristematic tissue in culture, with the aim of guaranteeing the uniformity of the specimens and a constant supply of shoots free of nematodes and other diseases. Although the slow development of the plants thus obtained made this system impractical, experiments in Hawaii produced very good results, with a rooting rate of 95% and better health than seedlings obtained from suckers. Obtaining disease-free propagules is a high priority, as in all plants obtained mainly by vegetative propagation.

The banana tree can also be propagated in urban gardens.

Planting

The planting time depends on the climate of the area; It is important to ensure a good level of humidity in the initial phase of growth, as well as avoiding waterlogging at all costs.

Layout

The plants are placed at regular intervals, in a hexagonal arrangement or in beds of two or three rows separated by wider lanes for agricultural machinery. The ideal distance depends on the size of the cultivar, soil fertility and other factors; it is rarely less than 2 m or more than 5. The root system of an adult banana can occupy a space of up to 100 m², which must be taken into account when planning the layout. Normally the optimal density is between 1200 and 2400 plants per hectare.

Denser plantings favor weed control and protect the specimens from the wind, but it makes pest prevention more difficult and reduces yield. Specimens planted too close to each other produce fewer suckers, shorter fruits, and ripen before allowing full fruit development. Denser plantations require greater volumes of fertilizer, and can cause other problems due to the decrease in solar exposure of the specimens. Conversely, plantings that are too widely spaced encourage the appearance of weeds, increase soil evaporation and expose plants to greater inclement weather.

Fertilization

The holes drilled for planting should be about 40 cm deep and slightly larger in diameter; They can be made deeper to improve wind resistance. They are fertilized before planting, to ensure that nutrition in the crucial first four months of development will be adequate. In poor soils, bananas will be fertilized four to six times during each production cycle. It is estimated that a harvest of about 12 tons per hectare requires from the soil about 25 kg of nitrogen, 4.5 kg of phosphorus, 62 kg of potassium and about 8 kg of calcium. The proportion of fertilizer used ranges from 3:1:6 to 8:10:8 NPK according to the characteristics of the soil; The amount will depend on the stocking density, but will be around 1-1.5 tonnes per hectare in one cycle, including 50-150 kg of nitrogen, 15-60 kg of phosphorus and 80-180 kg of potassium.

Fertilization techniques include spraying one-third of the estimated total fertilizer when sprouts appear, a second two months later covering a 30-cm area around each plant, and a third after another two months at double the amount. distance, or a progressive one, starting with a quarter of a kilo of magnesium-rich fertilizer for young plants and then applying progressively increasing doses every two months, reaching doses of 2.5 kg during the flowering season. If the soil is not rich in manganese and zinc, an annual spray with micronutrients applied to the leaves is usually added, as well as copper used as a fungicide.

Irrigation

Irrigation is used to guarantee the 100 mm of water per month that bananas require. High volume sprinklers, micro sprinklers or drip irrigation systems can be used. Low volume irrigation is more efficient. It is essential to take measures to avoid excess moisture in the soil.

Pruning

To obtain uniform vegetative growth and commercially profitable productions, suckers growing from the rhizome must be controlled; Their multiplication leads to the production of clusters of small fruits. Typically only one is left as an eventual replacement for the main pseudostem, which will die after fruiting. The rest are extracted, and their remains are left in the soil to fertilize it.

hickeys can be cut in several ways to ensure that they do not return; The most effective is to pluck them by hand, which also extracts the underlying bud, but it is slow and laborious. As alternatives, they are cut with a banana knife at ground level, using kerosene to kill the bud, or a metal instrument is used to kill the bud by percussion after cutting the sprout.

Dead leaves are also torn off to prevent them from interfering with irrigation, shading the suckers or damaging the new clusters by friction; Their remains are left on the ground to decompose. If production is good, the terminal bud of the bunch, which contains male flowers, is removed to improve the growth of the bananas.

Weeding

The main weed that affects banana plantations is Cyperus rotundus, which consumes a lot of the nitrogen that the plant needs. Attempts have been made to use geese as natural weeders, since bananas are not attractive to them, but although they consume most of the competing grasses, they do not completely eliminate the weeds. Chemical solutions used include diuron and ametrine, which are only moderately harmful to plants and disappear quickly from the soil.

Another alternative is the use of dry leaves to cover the soil and prevent herbs from sprouting, or mixed planting, either with herbs such as Neonotonia wightii or Tradescantia pendula, or with other commercial crops. If you leave a space of one meter around each banana, it is possible to alternate it with corn, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), peppers (Capsicum annuum), tomatoes ( Solanum lycopersicum), eggplants (Solanum melongena), pineapples (Ananas comosus), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) or other plants.

Harvest

Performance

The yield of a banana plantation depends on soil conditions, cultivation methods and the variety planted, but a production of between 7 and 16 tons of fruit per hectare of plantation can be expected per year, and the plantations Intensive commercial crops exceed 23 tons/ha annually. To maintain this performance, not only must the fertilizer regime be rigorously followed, but the plantation must also be renewed every two or three years, thus avoiding the aging of the plants. From the fourth year onwards, productivity begins to decline, and irregular production makes the use of mechanical means uneconomical. Plantations are periodically completely destroyed, using herbicides or razing with herbivores, to prevent the spread of nematodes and other pests.

Some varieties produce significantly higher yields, although the cost of fertilizers and maintenance is equally high; each full bunch of 'Giant Cavendish' It can reach 50 kg, with more than 350 fruits. Although the economic performance of these varieties is higher, they also require heavy investments for planters: while in Puerto Rico, a 1981 investigation determined that a traditional plantation cost its producers about 3,874.59 US dollars per hectare, producing in turn a market value of US$6,021.58/ha and a net return of US$2,146.99/ha, profits could more than double with more delicate cultivars, better fumigation and more care, reaching US$5,241, 29/ha, but at the same time the necessary investment amounted to US$ 5,268.52/ha, figures that were difficult to achieve for small farmers.

Harvest process

The fruit is harvested when it has gained its volume but before turning yellow, around three-quarters of the way through the ripening process. At this point the fruits appear less angular, and the floral styles at the end have withered and are easily removed. About 80 days after opening the first hand, the bunches are cut whole with a banana knife with a curved blade. The flower stem is tilted, pulling the leaves or with an ad hoc accessory, to lower the bunch within reach, and the harvesters work in tandem, one of them cutting the bunch and about 20 cm of stem that is used as a handle to move it to the tank or vehicle. One of the harvesters wears special, padded clothing to support the fruits on his body without them being damaged during transport. After harvesting, the pseudostem from which the bunch has sprouted is left to dry or torn off and spread on the soil to improve the reabsorption of its organic matter. The earth around it is carefully compacted to prevent the hole from allowing pests to gain access.

There is also a technique called "boomerang harvesting", regularly practiced by some large harvesting companies, based on the use of a boomerang (or boomerang) to lower the fruits from the top of the bananas and avoid being bitten by spiders. that inhabit them, mainly those of the genus Phoneutria, recognized for their danger.

Storage

In the traditional method, the bunches were stored in the dark in vehicles and transported directly to the shipping points for long-distance transportation, causing large losses due to damage. Today it is customary to transport them suspended, in specially conditioned vehicles, to avoid this. The bunches must be covered to prevent light from inducing premature ripening. At storage points and in vehicles, when supported, a mixture of leaf scraps and layers of ordinary paper is used to protect them and absorb the latex that flows from the cut at the top of the stem and from the floral styles at the bottom. fall; A plastic or polyvinyl pod can be used as an alternative, which however causes an increase in latex drainage and stains the outer surface of the fruit, decreasing its commercial value. The protection is completed with mattresses of fresh leaves and other remains from pruning the pseudostems. Before packaging for long-distance transport, the bunches are washed in tanks with a sodium hydrochlorate solution to remove traces of latex and improve their presentation; Sometimes, after washing, fungicide is applied to the cut surface to prevent fruit rot. Bunches stained or damaged after washing are destined for local consumption.

Packaging in boxes was used in the past, but the loss of fruits due to hitting the walls and bottom of the container meant that it was discarded as a transport system. Today, cardboard packages with plastic padding are used to avoid quality degradation, provided with good ventilation and adjusted to the caliber of the fruits, which are preselected for this purpose with a small banana knife with a curved blade.

Maturation

The banana is a climacteric fruit, in which ethylene acts as a regulator of ripening. Therefore, ethylene can be used to initiate and uniform ripening before marketing the product. This gas is applied two or three times, in a concentration of 10 to 100 µL/L, in the ripening rooms at a controlled temperature between 18 and 21 °C and relative humidity of 90-95%. In Argentina, acetylene is usually used., an analogue of ethylene that performs the same function and is cheaper. Ethylene improves the sweetness and aroma of the fruits, but accelerates the ripening process. Another possibility is to apply calcium carbide, a mineral that reacts with relative humidity producing a reaction that releases ethylene and heat, favoring the rapid ripening of the fruit. In domestic use, the use of closed polyethylene bags to supplement this process is common.

Several techniques are used to delay ripening. One of them is to apply a fungicide and preserve the fruits in closed bags together with packages of vermiculite treated with potassium permanganate, which absorbs (oxidizes) free ethylene, which allows the storage period to be extended up to four weeks at temperatures of 13- 15 °C. Another is the application of gibberellin or lanolin on the flower stem about 60 days before harvest, prolonging ripening between 10 and 20 days without any effect on the fruit itself. Finally, applying wax to the fruit, once it has been disinfected, prolongs the storage period by up to 60%, although it can cause irregularities in ripening later.

In the case of starchy bananas, ripening proceeds more slowly, applying ethylene only once. Between the beginning and the end of the process 4 or 5 days pass. An ethylene absorber such as vermiculite or purefil can be used to increase this duration to 25 days without refrigeration or up to 55 if the temperature is reduced to 13°C. Under these conditions, the starch content is reduced and the sugar is concentrated.

In 2016, the laboratory production of transgenic bananas in which two MADS-box genes (MaMADS1 and MaMADS2) are repressed, was reported. Its fruits show a delay in ripening and a longer postharvest life, with a delay in the appearance of the respiratory peak, a lower rate of ethylene biosynthesis, and the consequent decrease in color development and softening.

Conditions

The great genetic diversity of bananas and plantains means that few diseases affect all cultivars uniformly. One of the universal problems that affect them are nematodes, which attack the rhizomes causing them to rot; Another of the most widespread pests is the Panama disease, which destroyed hundreds of thousands of hectares of crops during the 1970s and 1980s.

Nematodes

Nematodes affect bananas and plantains in all regions of the world. They feed on the rhizomes and roots, causing damage that irremediably weakens the plant or causes its death. In addition, infection with nematodes favors the contraction of other diseases.

The most cosmopolitan of these is the borer nematode (Radopholus similis), which causes extensive damage and causes the pseudostems to blacken and fall to the ground, unable to withstand the weight of the clusters of fruit; The holes made in the root are the main entry route for the fungus Fusarium, which causes Panama disease. Other species include the spiral nematodes — Helicotylenchus multicinctus, H. nannus, and Scutellonema brachyurum—and the root nematode Meloidogyne javanica. In areas where bananas share land with coffee trees (Coffea spp.), Pratylenchus coffaea also appears, and Meloidogyne incognita moves from banana plantations. sugar cane to banana.

To control nematodes, healthy rhizomes are used, which are planted in safe land; Leaving the land fallow in full sun eliminates nematodes from the soil with great certainty, although in some regions it takes up to three years to guarantee complete cleanliness. Rotational planting with pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens, used for pastures) helps eliminate most species, although not P. coffee. The other solution is the use of commercial nematicides.

The rhizomes are disinfested by washing and hydrothermal treatment, immersing them in a 1% sodium hypochlorite solution in hot water at 50–54°C for 10 minutes. It can be replaced by nematicides such as Nemagon®, Nemacur® (fenamiphos) or Mocap® (etoprop), which however are more harmful to the plant, reducing its vigor; ethoprop or phenamiphos are almost equally effective, except againstH. multicinctus, which does not respond to the first. After planting, Dasanit® (fensulfothion) granules or ethoprop are applied around the base of the pseudostem once every six months.

Insects

The banana weevil or black weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, is another very aggressive pest. It penetrates the succulent base of the pseudostem and digs tunnels inside, feeding on the nutritional material. The sap drains through its access point, revealing the infection. The most effective insecticide is aldrin, but due to its toxicity it is prohibited in many countries. Monocrothopos or heptachlor are the most common alternatives. The nematicide aldicarb, used at the base of the pseudostem, has also been effective against the weevil; Biological controls, such as the Javanese beetle Plaesius javanus, which feeds on the weevil, have not given good results.

Banana thrips (Chaetanaphothrips orchidii) affects the banana peel, exposing the pulp and causing it to decompose; Another thrips, Thrips florum, sometimes resides in the terminal cocoon, especially in harsh and dry climates, and Hercinothrips bicintus feeds on the shell, giving it a characteristic ashy color. Dieldrin has also been shown to be effective with this, although the best measure is the use of bags soaked in insecticide to cover the fruits during their growth. This also makes it possible to control the coquito (Colaspis hypochlora), a beetle that invades the bunches, gnawing at the stems and fruits and causing latex losses that make them commercially unviable. The banana moth, Nacoleia octasema, resides in the inflorescence at the beginning of its formation, until it loses its bracts.

The banana mite, Tetranychus lambi, is also important, affecting first the leaves and then the fruit, causing cracks in the peel and premature wilting.

Mushrooms

Mycoses include several of the most virulent conditions that banana suffers from. The oldest of these is Sigatoka, caused by Mycosphaerella musicola (Cercospora musae in its conidium stage), which first appeared in Java at the beginning of the century XX. It takes its name from the Sigatoka Valley in Fiji, where it arrived a decade later. It expanded westward, finally reaching Africa in 1940. Characteristic of humid areas, it manifests itself with pale spots on the leaves, which later darken, spreading to the entire plant. Affected bananas reduce their root system, produce acidic fruit and stop their growth. It is controlled by topical application of mineral oil or by spraying with fungicides.

Black Sigatoka, the work of Mycosphaerella fijiensis var. difformis, is much more virulent. It appeared in Central America at the end of the 1960s and spread to Brazil. In 1973 it caused a terrible epidemic in Fiji, and from there it spread to Polynesia and Southeast Asia. Transmitted by the wind, it kills the leaves and causes the fruits to fall, which are exposed to the sun. It affects cultivars that are resistant to normal Sigatoka, and requires four times more fungicide to control it.

Both pale in comparison to the damage caused by Panama disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. Panama disease is transmitted through the soil, entering the rhizome through the holes caused by nematodes. It affects the leaves, which turn yellow and dry, and the pseudostem, which withers due to the progressive death of the vascular system, which softens, becomes sticky and rots. Originally from Taiwan, where it has been documented since 1967, it affects many of the most productive cultivars, including 'Gros Michel', which was virtually exterminated by this disease. Others, such as 'Cavendish', can resist it, but become infected if they are replanted in land previously occupied by susceptible varieties. The only known solution is to completely flood the field for six months to eliminate fungi and spores. There are four races of the fungus, three of which are harmful to bananas. Some cultivars, such as 'Monte Cristo', 'Maricongo' or 'Dwarf', are completely immune.

Gloeosporium musarum causes anthracnose and forms blackish lesions on the skin of the pseudostem, rotting its interior and causing the fruits to shrink and dry out. It is the fungus that most frequently affects already harvested bunches during transport.

Bacteria

The hereque or bacterial moko of banana is the work of Ralstonia solanacearum, which also affects potatoes. It is transmitted by contact between roots, the soil, insects or farm implements, and can remain in the soil for up to 12 months in some varieties. Control measures include protection with bunch bags to avoid contact with agents, disinfection of tools with formaldehyde, and the use of herbicides in the plantation and surrounding region, but there is no known solution for the infection. Some cultivars, such as 'Pelipita', are resistant.

Viruses

The cucumber mosaic virus affects bananas, where it is transmitted by mite vectors. Its importance is marginal, however. Much more dangerous is BBTV (banana bunchy top virus), which retards the growth of leaves, giving them a short, rigid and erect shape, with hardened and brittle margins. In most varieties it completely inhibits fruit formation, and there is no known cure. It has been controlled in Polynesia and other regions by exterminating the mites that serve as its vector.

Production and export

Major producers (2011)

Country	Millions tons	Percentage total world
Table 1: Production
India	29.7	20%
UgandaUganda	11.1	8%
ChinaChina	10.7	7%
PhilippinesPhilippines	9.2	6%
EcuadorEcuador	8.0	6%
BrazilBrazil	7.3	5%
IndonesiaIndonesia	6.1	4%
ColombiaColombia	5.1	4%
CameroonCameroon	4.8	3%
TanzaniaTanzania	3.9	3%
Resto	49.6	34%
Global total	145.4	100%
Table 2: Export
EcuadorEcuador	5.2	29%
Costa RicaCosta Rica	1.8	10%
ColombiaColombia	1.8	10%
PhilippinesPhilippines	1.6	9%
GuatemalaGuatemala	1.5	8%
Resto	6.0	34%
Global total	17.9	100%

Varieties

Taxonomy

The classification of the multiple varieties of bananas and plantains is an extremely complex issue, and still unfinished. Linnaeus' original classification was based on the few specimens available to him in Europe, where the climate severely limits the possibility of obtaining plants in good condition. In 1753, in the Species Plantarum, he included under the name Musa paradisiaca a specimen of starchy banana, with long, thin fruits and bracts and male flowers persistent on the rachis. of the inflorescence, which he was able to observe personally in George Cliffort's greenhouse, near the Dutch city of Haarlem. Six years later he added to his description Musa sapientum, a specimen that produced dessert fruits, with dehiscent male flowers and lower starch content in the fruit.

The classification was used for centuries, as it corresponded quite closely to the varieties widespread in America and Africa. However, the center of Musa germplasm diversity in Southeast Asia presented numerous species that did not match the descriptions that the Swedish botanist had published in many aspects. The species described and published in the following two centuries were numerous, but untidy, and confusion about their relationship was great.

It would not be until the publication in 1948 of Classification of the bananas by Ernest Cheesman that taxonomic order was introduced into the matter. Cheesman identified Linnaean types as hybrids produced by crossing two species described by Luigi Colla,M. acuminataand M. balbisiana. From them, he classified the multiple cultivar varieties into three groups according to their genetic endowment; one of them would descend mainly from each of the parent species, while a third would be made up of hybrids with mixed traits.

The group coming mainly from M. acuminatawould include the oldest edible bananas, obtained by selecting sterile and parthenocarpic specimens of the species on the islands of Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula. From these, and by chromosomal restitution, more robust and productive triploid varieties were developed. Cheesman classified these varieties along with their wild ancestor asM. acuminata, arguing that autopolyploidy did not represent alteration of the genetic material of the species.

Further north, in drier regions, varieties from M. balbisianawere more useful as they were more tolerant. The first triploid specimens of this group were obtained in the Philippines, aseminated but otherwise morphologically very similar to their wild progenitor. Spread by vegetative propagation due to their sterility, they would give rise to the second group of cultivated varieties, which Cheesman classified in parallel asM. balbisiana.

Finally, in some areas both branches came into contact, and as they were heterocompatible, they gave rise to diploid, triploid and some tetraploid natural hybrids, among which were the two varieties that Linnaeus had the opportunity to identify. Although the most botanically correct expression to designate them would beM. acuminata x balbisiana, according to the standards of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, the hybrids of interest may also carry a binomial name for identification. Since Musa paradisiaca has priority of publication, the hybrid name Musa x paradisiaca L. can be used to designate all varieties derived from the crossing of M. acuminataand M. balbisianawithout further details about its genetic composition (Valmayor et al).

However, the genetic composition is important to determine the characteristics of the different cultivar groups, which differ spectacularly from each other. Shortly after Cheesman's findings, Ken Simmonds and Norman Shepherd (1955) published a method for identifying varieties from their origin. Based on a diagnostic table that includes fifteen basic characteristics that vary betweenM. acuminataand M. balbisiana, hybrids are evaluated, assigning a score to each characteristic depending on whether it is identical to M. acuminata (one point value), identical to M. balbisiana(5 points) or an intermediate phenotype (intermediate scores according to their similarity to the parents). The values are added, and the total is used to determine roughly the characteristics of the hybrid. Scores between 15 and 20 correspond to wild or pure diploid varieties ofM. acuminata; the highest end of the scale, to theirM equivalents. balbisiana. Hybrids show intermediate scores.

Simmonds and Shepherd proposed replacing the Linnaean names with an ad hoc code to express the genotype of the variety. Each hybrid would be identified by a key of between two and four letters, according to its ploidy; each letter would respond to the origin of the variety, with A to designate a genetic branch fromM. acuminataor B for one from M. balbisiana. Thus, a triploid hybrid with two sets of chromosomes fromM. acuminataand one of M. balbisianawould be identified as AAB, and a pure diploid of M. balbisianalike BB. Research has revealed that varieties of origin A are more numerous than those of origin B; most cultivars are AAA or AAB, several bananas are ABB, and AB, AABB or ABBB are rarer. To specify the cultivar, its proper name is placed in single quotes in the genetic description. Not all sources have adopted the system, but it is widely used among specialists on the subject.

Cultivar groups

The majority of dessert cultivars come exclusively from M. acuminata, presenting a diploid or triploid constitution. Simmonds and Shepherd distinguished several phenotypic groups, to which later researchers have added recently obtained or previously unidentified varieties:

• the group AA 'Jari Buaya', very popular in Vietnam and Indonesia but almost unknown in the West;
• the group AA 'Kapas', a banana consumed cooked in Indonesia and Malaysia;
• the group AA 'Lakatan', a very fast growth banana (fructifies in less than 10 months) of Filipino origin, popular in the tropics; the binomial name today invalid M. lacatan probably corresponds to this group;
• the group AA 'Sucrier', important in New Guinea but also extended in Southeast Asia and Brazil; they are diploid specimens, of dark pseudotalles, of yellowish tone and just cerúleos, which produce small clusters, of skin fruits thin and extremely sweet. In this group there is the variety called 'Dedo de Dama' or 'Guineo Blanco', the smallest of commercially grown bananas, a thin trunk banana and strong root system, which produces clusters of between 10 and 14 hands of 12 to 20 fruits. They are resistant to drought and Panamanian disease, but susceptible to followtoka. Binomials today invalid M. berteri, M. berteroniana and M. sapientum correspond to this group of cultivars;
• the group AAA 'Cavendish', which includes most bananas consumed in Europe and the United States since the decline of 'Gros Michel'. Possibly coming from Indonesia—where the so-called 'Bungulan' grows domestically, although its irregular rhythm of ripening and little tolerance to storage makes it unfit for commercial plantations—is now developed in numerous varieties:
  • the cultivation of 'Cavendish Enano', developed in China and today the most important variety in the Canary Islands and East Africa; it is a large porte banana, with broad leaves, tolerant to the wind and drought, which produces medium fruits, of good quality but prone to the damage in transport by the skin's skin's skin. It has the peculiarity of having indehiscent male flowers. Binomial names today invalid M cavendishii, M. sinensis and M. nana (non Lour.) corresponds to this cultivar;
  • cultivate 'Cavendish Gigante' or 'Grand Naine', similar to 'Gros Michel' and uncertain origin. It is a medium porte banana, with the pardo mottled pseudotail, with bananas larger than the 'Cavendish Enano', thicker shell and less intense flavor. It is the main variety in Colombia, Ecuador and Taiwan.
  • cultivate 'Robusta', similar to 'Lakatan', a small and windproof banana that is grown in Brazil and Polynesia;
  • the cultivation of 'Valery', a variant of 'Robusta' more resistant to the followtoka but of fruit more firm and slightly cerúleo of texture;
• the group AAA 'Golden Beauty', developed in Trinidad for its resistance to Panama's disease and followtoka; they are small bananas, with short, but transport resistant and very good flavor. They are cultivated in Honduras and Fiji;
• the group AAA 'Gros Michel', which was for a long time the most cultivated banana in the West; from Burma and Sri Lanka, was introduced to Martinique by the French, and from there to Jamaica, Central America, Hawaii and Australia. They are large-scale bananas, with large clusters of long and intense yellow fruits, today almost disappeared due to their susceptibility to Panama's disease. However, it has been used as a basis for the development of other cultivars;
• the group AAA 'Morado', popular in the Caribbean but originally from India. It is disease resistant but takes more than 18 months to fructify, so it is only accessible in commercial plantations. It is a large porte banana, with intense purple leaves and stems, and the fruit pouring into the orange as it matures; it produces compact clusters of about 100 fruits of intense flavor and medium size. The 'Verde Morado' variety has a colorful green and purple jasper, and reaches 9 m high; it produces four to seven hands per cluster, of good size.

Hybrids include diploid, triploid and tetraploid cultivars:

• the group AAB 'Burro' or 'Orinoco', a high, resistant, of few long and very thick fruits, with the pulp slightly rosacea and edible in raw, but excellent cooked;
• the group AAB 'Francés', a large, vigorous banana, with the indehiscent male flowers, cultivated mostly in India and East Africa; the binomial names today invalid M. bidigitalis and M. purpureo-tomentosa correspond to this group, as well as the M. paradisiaca original Linneo;
• the group AAB 'Laknau', a triploid banana similar to 'Cuerno' and exceptional in which it produces fertile flowers, which has allowed its use as a base material for experimental crosses;
• the group AAB 'Macho', very resistant bananas that produce little fruit, edible in raw but of flavor much more pleasant after cooking. Binomial names today invalid M. corniculata, M. emasculata and M. protractorachis correspond to this group;
• the group AAB 'Manzana' is the most widespread dessert banana in the tropic, although there are no large plantations. It is a very large banana, with only a dozen hands per cluster and 16 to 18 fruits per hand, very resistant to followtoka but susceptible to Panama disease. The fruit is very fragrant, with a distinctive aroma of apple, slightly astringent before ripening but very tasty;
• the group AAB 'Mysore' is the most cultivated banana in India, where almost three quarters of the planted surface employ it. It is rare outside the peninsula, although it is planted in Trinidad with cocoa. It is vigorous, drought resistant, immune to Panama's disease and not susceptible to followtoka. It produces compact clusters of thin-skinned bananas and bright yellow, of a subsidized taste;
• the group AAB 'Rajah'; the binomial name today invalid M. regia probably corresponds to this group;
• the group AAB 'Seribu'; the invalid binomial name M. seribu corresponds to this cultivation;
• the group ABB 'Awak';
• the group ABB 'Cenizo', an extremely high banana, with an elongate floral stem and few hands per cluster. It produces fruits that are very large, of ash and very white pulp, with a high concentration of sugar compared to other bananas;
• the group ABB 'Chato' or 'Bluggoe', a very resistant banana to diseases that produces large fruit clusters, distinctive for its open structure, very important as subsistence cultivation in Africa and Asia;
• the group ABB 'Pelipita', one of the main commercial plantain cultivars in the world, resistant to black followtoka but of less intense flavor than other varieties;
• the group ABBB 'Tiparot', a tetraploid developed by its resistance to disease, but unproductive.

Sourced exclusively from M. balbisianathere are also numerous varieties:

• the group BBB 'Cardaba';
• the BBB 'Lep Chang Kut' group;
• the BBB 'Maricongo' group, the world's main commercial banana cultivation, high, very thin and good-size fruit; there is a dwarf variety, 'Enano' or 'Cochon';
• the BBB 'Saba' group, of lower culinary quality but immune to black followt.

Use

Gastronomy

The great variety of shapes makes bananas and plantains extremely versatile foods. In the West, the most frequent and simplest way of consumption is as a dessert fruit, served whole and using the peel to hold it without the hands coming into direct contact with the pulp. In pieces it is incorporated into fruit salads, jellies and other desserts, as well as smoothies and other drinks. Due to its high energy intake and high potassium content, unusual among fruits, it is frequently consumed by athletes and bodybuilders.

Cooked, bananas are used as an accompaniment to some meats in tropical recipes, as well as in Cuban rice and in the supreme Maryland. Sauces or jams are prepared with brown sugar, lemon juice or vinegar and spices, sometimes very spicy; In Jamaica, banana-chili sauce is the usual dressing for poultry. They are also used in cakes and biscuits (banana bread). Bananas Foster, flambéed with rum and cinnamon and served with vanilla ice cream, are a dessert originally from New Orleans that has become very popular in the United States.

In puree form they are a common food for children; With the only addition of ascorbic acid, used to prevent discoloration due to oxidation of the pulp, the puree is produced industrially with the specimens discarded from the packaging in the countries of origin. It is homogenized, pasteurized and packaged, either alone, combined with a cellulosic stabilizer as a base for juices, or combined with applesauce. It is also incorporated into preparations for ice cream, cakes and other desserts.

In Polynesia, bananas are usually consumed roasted, whole or forming a sweet mass with grated coconut pulp (Cocos nucifera). A refreshing and aromatic drink is also prepared with coconut milk, citrus juice and banana. In Costa Rica, a thick syrup is prepared from slowly boiled bananas. In the Caribbean islands, green bananas are boiled in their own peel and consumed alone or marinated in vinegar with pepper, garlic, onion, bay leaf and salt.

The banana is preserved in an edible state for a short time, but numerous means of preservation have been developed. Since the 1960s, sliced bananas preserved in syrup have been produced in Honduras as a means of using fruits that, due to skin defects or their degree of ripeness, cannot be transported for sale as fresh fruit. There have been experiments to can bananas while they are still green, but the latex that the fruits exude is problematic, as is the darkening of the pulp once thawed or uncanned. To deactivate the enzymes in the pulp responsible for discoloration, bananas are soaked in near-boiling water before peeling, and 2% citric acid is added to the brine solution in which they are packed. The fruit used in this way should be harvested when the pulp rate does not exceed 1/6 of the weight of the fruit, or the resulting product discolors easily as the tannin of the green pulp reacts with the iron present in its outer layer.

In Polynesia the fruits are preserved by fermentation in a preparation called masi; Stored in wells and wrapped in Heliconia or Strelizia leaves, they are covered with stones and left to ferment underground until they are needed. They can be preserved like this for years in case of famine.

Ripe plantains or green plantains are invariably consumed cooked. In Central America they are fried in butter or oil; The preparation, to which milk is sometimes added, is called mangú, and is the usual garnish for daily meals. This name is also applied to boiled green plantain puree, which is accompanied by eggs, salami, pickled onion or avocado. Tostones (mashed and fried banana slices) are served to accompany meats. The leaf cake is made with a dough of ripe banana and other foods, which is cooked wrapped in the banana leaf (it is visually similar to the Mexican tamale). Mashed and mixed with flour, milk, butter and egg, they are used to prepare a dough that is mixed with meat and cheese and baked as a cake. Greens are also used, boiled and served with honey, cooked in syrup, or cut into slices that are fried until crispy to accompany meats and other dishes. In Puerto Rico, mofongo is popular, a meatball made of green plantain puree, pork rinds, garlic and other seasonings. Fried banana slices are prepared and packaged industrially from the 'Cariñosa' and 'Bungulan'. The so-called tajadas are also prepared with them, typical of countries such as Venezuela, Colombia, Honduras and Nicaragua; Likewise, they can be baked or roasted and served with cheese.

In Africa they are consumed boiled, fried or roasted. As part of stews they complement or supplant cassava (Manihot esculenta), and are the basis of a preparation called fufu which, accompanying the soup, is one of the bases of the food in Ghana. Mashed and mixed with flour, they are used as dough for pancakes and other savory pies. Its intense use has led to the development of drying methods that allow us to have bananas all year round; dried in the sun or by mechanical means and ground they provide an excellent flour, which is used alone or mixed with wheat, corn or cassava flour. Some cultivars, such as 'Latundan' or 'Saba', are particularly suitable for these preparations. Roasted flour from green bananas has been used as a coffee substitute. In Asia, the drying of whole fruits or fruits cut in two lengthwise is practiced, which are packaged and preserved for up to a year to be consumed as a snack or in pastry preparations. Both 'Dwarf Cavendish' as 'Lakatan' are used extensively for this purpose.

In Brazil, the production of dehydrated banana flakes to incorporate into pastry products, breakfast cereals and other preparations began in the 1960s, and allows the export of a good part of its production, vacuum packaged or ready to consume. They are also used for the production of ice cream and other packaged desserts. The process is carried out by steam blanching the fruits and then dehydrating them in drums; They are kept for up to a year in these conditions. Mixed products incorporating soy or corn into the mix are marketed in Brazil, Israel and South Africa.

Other products are rarer, but enjoy some use. In Africa, alcoholic beverages are prepared through the controlled fermentation of ripe fruits, and experiments have been made with the production of vinegar from them.

The young shoots are consumed boiled as a vegetable in India and Africa, where they constitute an important food in case of famine. They are prepared in curries with other vegetables, or roasted until charred for use as a seasoning for other vegetable products. The terminal bud of the inflorescence, which contains male flowers, is cooked and consumed as a vegetable after macerating it in brine to eliminate tannins; In varieties that do not lose their male flowers, these are sometimes plucked for use in this way.

Other uses

The large size of banana leaves and their strong fiber make them an important source of fabrics. As in other species of Musa, especially M. textilis, banana leaves are used as packaging and wrapping with hardly any treatment. They are frequently used as naturally waterproof coverings for the roofs of primitive buildings, to line the inside of pits used for cooking, and as trays for food.

The fiber extracted from the processing of the leaves is resistant and durable. During the 19th century the Caribbean islands, especially Jamaica, had a flourishing textile industry based on bananas, manufacturing ropes, mats and transport utensils with that material. Fishing line is also manufactured from this fiber. In the Philippines a delicate and translucent fabric called agna is produced from the tender fiber of leaves and leaf sheaths; It is used in men's and women's clothing, in the production of scarves and other uses. A coarser and more rustic form is used in Sri Lanka for rugs and espadrilles.

The pseudostem is also useful for that purpose, and has other uses. Cut lengthwise, they are used as furniture and packaging material during fruit transportation; The remains are returned to the environment for the reuse of their nutrients. Cut into strips and dried, it is used as a soft filling for cushions and benches. Paper is made from the pulp of the pseudostem through a process of crushing, washing and drying; The resulting material is strong, and its quality improves when mixed with remains of betel nut (Areca catechu), although its production is unprofitable due to low yield. 132 tons of pseudostems are needed to make one ton of paper.

The peel of the fruit is rich in tannins, and is used in the treatment of leather. Charred is used as a dark dye, or—due to its high potassium content—in the production of detergents.

The documented medicinal effects are various. The flowers are used as a poultice for skin ulcers, and as a decoction for dysentery and bronchitis; Cooked, they are used as nutritious food for diabetics. The sap, strongly astringent, is applied topically to insect bites and hemorrhoids, and is taken as a febrifuge, antidiarrheal and antihemorrhagic. The ash obtained from burning the peels and leaves is also antidiarrheal and antidysenteric. The cooked roots are consumed for digestive and intestinal disorders, it is an excellent source of potassium, which is a mineral that helps regenerate muscles after suffering cramps.

The pulp and peel of ripe bananas contain active ingredients effective against mycobacteria and fungi; They are sometimes applied to treat a common mycosis on the tomato plant (Solanum lycopersicum). The fruit is rich in dopamine, which has a vasoconstrictive effect, and serotonin, which regulates gastric secretion and stimulates intestinal action.

A popular belief attributes a hallucinogenic value to burned, sniffed or smoked banana peel, caused by a hypothetical bananadine. It is simply a myth, and the supposed substance does not exist.

Customs

The continuous regrowth of the banana symbolizes, in Indian culture, fertility and prosperity; Both the fruit and the leaves are common gifts and ornaments during marriage ceremonies. In rice fields, a banana is sometimes planted in a corner to attract good luck.

In Malaysia, the decoct of banana leaves is used ritually in the ablutions performed by women for two weeks after childbirth.

Radioactivity

Due to its high potassium content, the banana is a radioactive fruit, like many others that contain small amounts of radioactive isotopes. Although the amount of radiation emitted by a single fruit is very small and completely harmless, however, in large quantities, such as when transported in containers or trucks, the radiation is large enough to set off alarm bells at some ports and customs. In fact, there is a specific measure of this amount of radiation called a banana equivalent dose.

Etymology

The word "plantain" comes from the Greek πλατανος (bananas) through the Latin platanus. The root πλατος (platos = flat, wide) refers to the width of its leaves. Other plant species are also called bananas which, although very different, share as a common characteristic the width and flatness of their leaves. its leaves.

The word "muse" comes from the Arabic موزة (mawza, pronounced mūza) which Latin transliterates as muse. The Persian scientist Avicenna already used this word in the XI century to refer to the fruit in his encyclopedia The Canon of medicine. Plants of this genus, native to Southeast Asia, were introduced to Europe (and later to America) through North Africa, probably by Arab merchants, and initially received this name also in European languages.. Linnaeus (1707-1778) adopted it as a scientific name in his book Species Plantarum, published in 1753.

The origin of the word "banana" is not so precise, although the most accepted theory, proposed by Robertson Smith, indicates that it also comes from the Arabic بنان (banān), which refers to the fingers or toes, so بنانة (banāna) would mean 'a single finger'. In fact, a bunch of bananas is called a “hand” in many places, and by the same analogy it is said in Arabic بنانة الموز (banānat al-mawz), which literally would be 'banana finger', to refer to each of the pods. By metonymy, banana comes to mean the fruit itself, initially in western (Wolof) and central Africa (Bantu), from where it travels to the Canary Islands, and from there to America.

Thus, banana initially refers to the plant, musa to the genus, and banana to the fruit. However, there are different local uses of these terms in different Spanish-speaking countries.

Local names

• In Venezuela it is called cambur.
• In Honduras it is also called minimumwhose origin relates to the banana production of the country. The fruits that fulfilled the "minimum" of quality were sent to foreign trade, while the rest were destined to local consumption.
• In some areas of the Caribbean it is called Guidebecause in colonial times it was thought that this fruit came from the African region of Guinea, currently called West Africa.
• In some areas of Bolivia it is called gualeOf uncertain origin.

Culture

• Carlos Luis Fallas, Costa Rican writer, in the autobiographical novel Mamita Yunai poses a harsh criticism of the miserable conditions of the workers of the United Fruit Company in the province of Limon. The work has been translated into multiple languages. This agrarian phase left great cultural and political imprints in the country.
• The Honduran author Ramon Amaya Amador wrote a book called Green prison on the conditions in banana plantations in the 1940s, and on the exploitation of workers by American companies (such as the United Fruit) with the support of the Honduran government. Written in 1945 the book was banned in Honduras for decades.
• The Central American countries were known as banana republics, not only because of their production, but because in the United Fruit Company plantations, it governed its own law with legendary nuances.
• In Colombia, at the end of 1928 a workers' strike ended up being known as the Bananeras massacre.