Mountaineering

Mountaineering Group in Tyrol

Mountaineering was born in the mountains at the end of the 18th century. His objective is to get to the top of a certain mountain, as a challenge to nature, which sometimes leads to losing his life. This is the discipline, generally sports or recreational, which consists of climbing and descending mountains. It is also the set of techniques, knowledge and Skills or abilities aimed at achieving this objective. Mountaineering is not a simple sport, since it derives from an ancient exploratory activity of the human being and as such has a very important history and traditions that determine a well-defined ethic (by fair means) that is the part between this discipline and other forms of adventure tourism. In addition, those who practice it consider it a true lifestyle and a way of experiencing and interpreting the world around them.

Mountaineering can be divided into several areas that encompass various specialties, some of which are far from the strict definition of climbing mountains, but which, nevertheless, require that natural environment for their practice: hiking (or hiking), hiking (often misnamed trekking, which actually means "walking for several days in remote places"), and expeditions; sport climbing (and bouldering), canyoning (or rappelling, when done only as a downhill specialty and not as a complement to climbing) and ice climbing; Likewise, there are sports variants, such as the mountain duathlon, mountain half marathon and mountain marathon; canyoning, ski mountaineering (also called ski touring or ski-alpinism), paragliding in "Hike & Fly" (climbing and paragliding descent) and mountain biking.

The term mountaineering is often understood as the sport practiced in the high mountains, that is, high altitude mountaineering. Thus, who ascends the mountains, is called "mountainist" or "mountaineer" and not who only practices one of the mentioned specialties. Also, when talking about a mountaineering course or manual, it focuses on hiking in the mountains and not the full range of specialties that are mentioned.

History

Ancient Mountaineering

Humans have been present in mountains since prehistoric times. The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the IV millennium BC. C., were found on a glacier in the Ötztal Alps. However, the highest mountains were rarely visited in those times, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts. Nevertheless, there are many documented examples. of people ascending mountains before the sport's formal development in the 19th century, although many of these stories are often considered fictional or legendary.^{[citation needed]}

The famous poet Petrarch describes his ascent, on April 26, 1336, of Mont Ventoux (1,912 m (2,091.0 yd)) in one of his epistolae familiares, noting that he was inspired by the Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo.

During most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A widely cited example is the ascent, in 1492, of Mount Aiguille (2,085 m (2,280.2 yd)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré.

In the Andes, around the end of the 15th century and early XVI, the Incas and the peoples subjected to them made many ascents of high peaks. The highest they are known for sure to have climbed would be the 6739 m s summit. no. m. on the Llullaillaco volcano.

The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Mountaineering

Edward Whymper (1840–1911), painting by Lance Calkin

The Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change in attitude towards high mountains. In 1757 the Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts at Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a prize to anyone who could ascend the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard. The ascent is regarded as a landmark event in mountaineering history, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport.

In the early 19th century, many of the Alpine peaks were reached, including Grossglockner in 1800, Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to ascend Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.

The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK dates to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in the UK. This ushered in what became known as the Golden Age of mountaineering, and in 1857 the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – was founded.

Edelweiss, a plant associated with mountain sports

In the early years of the "golden age," scientific pursuits were mixed with sport, as was the case with physicist John Tyndall. In later years, it became more competitive in orientation, as pure sportsmen came to dominate the Alpine Club, then based in London, and alpine mountaineering in general. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is regarded as the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers such as Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona. At that time, edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers.

One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a group led by the English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four members of the group found their deaths. By this point, the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies. This Matterhorn ascent is the starting point of the Silver Age of mountaineering, which ends with the ascent of W. W. Graham's roped party to the Dent du Géant in 1882.

Expansion around the world

In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned to mountains beyond the Alps, and with the change From the 20th century to the 20th century, mountaineering had become more international.

In 1897 Mount Saint Elias (18,008 ft (5,488.8 m)) on the Alaska-Yukon border was conquered by the Prince Duke of Abruzzo and his party. In 1879–1880 exploration of the most high Andes in South America, when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20,549 ft (6,263.3 m)) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took Europeans until the end of the century XIX delve into Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro was climbed in 1889 by the Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and the German geologist Hans Meyer, Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder.

The Last Frontier: The Himalayas

Mountains, around 1900

The last and greatest mountain range was the Himalayas in South Asia. Initially it was explored by the British Empire for military and strategic purposes. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Himalayas via the Karakoram, ascending a 23,000-foot (7,010.4 m) peak. In 1895 Albert Mummery died while making an attempt on Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield undertook an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim.

In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one to Nun Kun Peaks (23,300 ft (7,101.8 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and much of the exploration was done by them.

In 1902 the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition, led by the English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and the English occultist Aleister Crowley, were the first to attempt to climb K2. They reached 22,000 feet (6,705.6 m) before turning around due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt described as "misguided" and "regrettable".

Eckenstein was also a pioneer in the development of new ascension equipment and methods. He began using shorter ice axes that could be used with one hand, designed modern crampons, and improved the spike pattern used on hiking boots.

By the 1950s, all but two of the eight-thousanders had been climbed, beginning with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The highest of these peaks, Mount Everest, was hit in 1953 after several attempts had been made by the British in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 meters (27,300 ft) before finishing on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record but still failed to reach the summit, with George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappearing on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay via the south face, starting from Nepal.

Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the German-Austrian Nanga Parbat Expedition of 1953, a siege-style expedition that culminated in a last 1,300-foot solitary step meters, under the influence of drugs: Pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers in World War II), padutin and coca leaf tea. K2 (8,611 m), the second highest peak in the world, was first climbed in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. This expedition was involved in controversy. The official account of the 1954 expedition was eventually discredited, and after protracted controversy, a second official report was published in 2007 that largely confirmed the claims that another member of the expedition, Walter Bonatti, had been making for more than fifty years. In 1964 the last eight thousand was conquered, the Shishapangma (8,013 m), the lowest of all the eight thousand.

The next challenge was for all eight thousand to be conquered by a single person. That was achieved by the Italian Reinhold Messner, from the Dolomites, who did it between 1970 and 1986. He did it, moreover, without supplemental oxygen. In women, the first to achieve this was the Spanish Edurne Pasabán (2001–2010), with oxygen; without supplemental oxygen, she was the Austrian Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner (1998–2011).

Currently

For a long time, mountaineering was the preserve of a wealthy elite, and their agents. The emergence of the middle class in the 19th and XX resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime, a hobby of many people. Some have come to criticize that the sport has become just another tourist activity.

Mountaineering, mountaineering and Himalayanism

Campo morrena on the north side of the Artesonraju, overlooking the snow-covered Pucajirca and Taulliraju in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru.

It is important to mention that the term alpinism is usually used as a synonym, as well as the terms andinismo and himalayism, but with some historical reservations or geographic that depend on the origins and traditions of this activity and the typical characteristics of these mountain ranges, the same ones that generate ascent styles.

The term mountaineering derives from alpes (steep mountain) and to date is the most widely used compared to the other two for historical reasons, due to the fact that mountaineering modern, its schools and its clubs originated mainly in the European Alps, before and after what is considered the birth of this activity with the first ascent of Mont Blanc, on August 8, 1786.

Pico Lenin (7165 m high), where you see a mountaineer showing a flag of Estonia.

The term mountaining is usually used in a general way for various sports activities that take place in the mountains, while mountaineering is a specific term for the activity of ascending mountains that involve various climbing techniques. The andinismo consists of ascending mountains in the Andes mountain range and is usually associated with heights up to 7000 m above sea level. Himalayism consists of the ascent of mountains of the Himalayas with altitudes of 8000 m a.s.l. These distinctions not only imply differences in logistics (equipment to be used and planning of the ascent), but also in the physical condition of the mountaineer, his acclimatization and the available resources.

It should be noted that in some countries where there are no steep mountain ranges (where to practice climbing) that also have high mountain landscapes (glaciers), the term mountaining is applied to low ascents difficulty (walking or hiking), that is, they do not involve alpine climbing, and they are usually very different from the activity of alpinism, which indicates more technical and demanding ascents.

The Royal Spanish Academy, in its Dictionary, in addition to the term "alpinista", also includes the term "andinista", referring to the person who climbs the Andes and other high mountains.

Areas and specialties

The twelve specialties can be grouped into four areas by their affinity. This also simplifies the materials, techniques and training:

Each specialty has its own characteristics in sports techniques, training, materials and sports medicine. The point in common that they all have, except for sport climbing, is that "the playing field" is nature which, with its environmental characteristics, substantially modifies the sporting activity depending on the time of year, altitude, temperature or meteorology. of the day Therefore, this sport is highly complex due to the different techniques that must be used, the different materials for each one, the variability of the sports work scenario and the need to maintain a permanent level of safety. Therefore, mountaineering requires adequate prior preparation before practicing it.

Equipment for a mountaineer

The mountaineer uses a particular outfit as well as a set of accessories and artifacts known as equipment. Although mountaineering can vary greatly by the type of route, clothing and general equipment required are described. A very important aspect in mountaineering is the weight of the equipment. Useful and portable objects are sought, which resist harsh treatment but with the least possible weight and volume. Some of the equipment is shared by caving with small variations.

Food

• Drink: indispensable canteen to carry water and drink when needed. It is important to also carry some isotonic or energetic drink.
• Food: usually, the route is long and it is not likely to find where to supply food; in addition, in case of loss or delay, it is important to have food (preferably lyophilized or dehydrated). It is worth taking energy items such as chocolate, nuts or cereal bars, to eat during the promotion, as they provide plenty of energy and occupy very little space. Depending on the duration of the trip, it may be convenient to add apples, nuts, oranges, peaches, fruit in syrup, jelly, honey, jams, cookies, tea, milk to prepare, cheese, ham, salami, etc.

Clothing

Good mountain boots are essential to prevent slips and lumbar problems.

It must be appropriate to the medium, or means, through which it is going to transit. As a general rule, the principles of layer theory should be followed, the elements of which are:

• Footwear: Shoes for this sport are very technical. According to the type of mountain and difficulty you should choose a shoes with very variable characteristics and weights. They always choose boots because they protect the ankle. If you are going to combine short snow paths with morrena, you should choose boots with semi-rigid soles, to which you can condition some crampons; if it is for technical climbing, they should be rigid to use automatic crampons. Depending on the time it will stay inside the snow, hours to months, it must have thermal protection. The soles must be anti-slip. Snow shoes are always accompanied by canes.
• Clothing: Suitable to the weather and the place to visit. It is always better long pants and long-sleeved garments to protect us from sun rays, plants and mild bites. Also, depending on the place, a short and waterproof jacket, to protect us from occasional inclement weather, gloves and a neck scarf. A cover of three layers of clothing is recommended: the first two, thermal, and the outermost, waterproof.
• Hat and glasses: When necessary, a hat is always better than a cap, to protect itself from the sun or the rain. The glasses must have the right protection category, so that they properly filter the visible light and avoid injuries in the cornea and retina.
• Pañuelo: a handkerchief of a certain size, approximately the one used to cover the head, can be very useful, as to wet and refresh someone who has fainted for a heat stroke, to collect wild fruits if we don't carry bag, to tape a wound, to perform a immobilization in case of joint or fracture injury, to perform a tourniquet, etc.

Basic accessories

Indispensable basic equipment for a mountaineer (in climbing and specific areas, those specific to each specialty should be added):

• Piolet and crampons: for icy surfaces.
• Walking staff: from aluminum, wood or bamboo, are usually used very similar to skiing but with the difference that a larger rosette is placed at the end: this provides greater stability and grip, as well as protection against possible injuries.
• Backpack: in size and with qualities according to the duration of the tour and the equipment to be carried, weather and comfort. It must be of quality to resist the mistreatment and effort of the activity, preferably impermeable and must be able to hold onto the back leaving the hands completely free; in addition, it should have a waist and chest adjustment to fully fit the body and prevent the movement itself from hitting or sneezing. The straps must be wide and rigid. It can also include a water tank with a tube to hydrate during the tour.
• Navaja: very useful in various situations throughout the activity (it is recommended to wear a knife that closes and opens well, Swiss Navaja type, which has good edge and has a resistant insurance). The razor must have at least 100mm long in the sharp part as with a knife that is very short of edge will not be able to cut anything long as for example bread, bacon and other things that can be taken on the excursion.
• String: in mountaineering the ropes are indispensable. If you walk through snow, the team is usually tied to 2 or 3 people. This is because there are cracks or bridges, that is, false snow floor, that when walking on it can be undone and the person can fall from a few centimeters and have a slight injury; up to an abyss and lose life. These ropes are technical, measuring several meters and must be waterproof.
• Lantern: It is important to have one since it is never safe to finish the tour before sunset; it must include batteries and spare bulbs.
• Silbato: if you do not have a mobile phone (or if there is no coverage), in case of sudden fog or having separated from the rest of the group, a whistle will allow the search team or our companions to hear us long distance and practically effortless. It hardly occupies or weighs, and should only be used in emergency situations.
• Several: camera, mobile phone, map and compass and, if available, a GPS.
• Other: protective cream (solar and labial) and small medicine.

Overnight Crew

In outings of more than one day in which it is required to spend the night, in addition to extra food and a lamp, the following must be considered:

• Field Shop: It is a tent or tent, mainly of synthetic fabric that being portable serves to sleep and protect itself from weather inclement, as well as from bug bites during the night, in addition to allowing some privacy.
• Sleeping Sack: It is suitable for comfortable sleep and avoids cold as well as reducing possible contact with insects and other animals.
• Insulating mat or under carpet: It is a thermal insulation consisting of a flexible sheet usually of a synthetic foam, which is placed under the sleeping bag and, it is used to avoid the roughness of the ground, minimize the temperature differential between the body and the ground, as well as protect from moisture.
• Plastic handle: it serves for countless uses, from protecting you from soil moisture, by making awnings, improvising water protectors, sleeping surfaces, to making a rudimentary environment of survival.