Meat

Mixed meats: bovine, pork and chicken.

The demand for meat from the developed world is not satisfied.

The demand of the developing world increases significantly.

A red meatburger.

Sale of meat in a London market.

Lamb meat in the Quebrada del Toro, Salta, Argentina.

Meat is animal tissue, mainly muscle, that is consumed as food. It is a colloquial and commercial classification that only applies to terrestrial animals —usually vertebrates: mammals, birds, and reptiles—, because, despite the fact that it could be applied to marine animals, these fall into another category, that of fish, especially fish —crustaceans, mollusks and other groups are usually called seafood—. Regardless of their biological classification, other animals, such as marine mammals, have sometimes been considered meat and sometimes fish. In some regions, human meat can also acquire this denomination.

From a nutritional point of view, meat is a common source of protein, fat and minerals in the human diet. Of all the foods obtained from animals and plants, meat is the one with the highest valuations and appreciations in the markets and, paradoxically, it is also one of the most avoided foods and the one that arouses the most controversy. The animals that are fed exclusively meat are called carnivores, while those that feed only on plants, herbivores. Plants that feed on insects and other animals are also called carnivorous (despite their entomophagy). Those that eat meat from prey killed by themselves are called predators, and those that obtain it from already dead animals are called scavengers.

Most of the meat consumed by humans comes from mammals, commonly known as red meat. But we use only a few of the 3,000 animal species that exist as food.It is mostly meat from hoofed animals., domesticated to provide food. The basic supply species for consumption are sheep, cattle, pigs and poultry, while complementary species are goats, horses and game (large and small). The meat industry is the food industry that moves the highest volume of sales. Meat consumption is growing globally in line with the increase in the world population, with developing countries having the greatest growth ratio, which implies that in a few years solutions will be needed to satisfy the growing demand for this food.

History

The profession of butcher was very prestigious in the Middle Ages.

It is common for humans to eat meat in the diet, as well as for other animal species, and even for a few plant species. The diet of the first hominids (Australopithecus and Homo habilis) is the subject of study and debate, although it seems that the meat of small animals or from scavenging would be part of their diet., as occurs with some anthropomorphic monkeys (chimpanzees). The mastery of fire, one of the main features of the hominization process, is usually explained in relation to the culinary transformation of food, especially meat. Some of the most famous anthropological speculations have this theme in particular (The Raw and the Cooked, by Claude Lévi-Strauss). Homo neanderthalensis and the first representatives of the human species Homo sapiens, such as Cro-Magnon man, subjected to the climatic conjunctures of the glaciations in Europe and Asia, had necessarily predatory behavior and a high proportion of meat in their diet.

The Neolithic period made the diet of agricultural communities more dependent on plant species, while the carnivorous diet ceased to depend on hunting and began to do so on the domestication of certain animals (such as Bos primigenius 7,000 years ago in Macedonia, Crete and Anatolia) and the livestock work of pastoral societies. Meat and its consumption used to be limited to special, festive occasions, and was very frequently associated by ancient cultures with different forms of religious ritual, such as the Greek hecatomb (great sacrifice of one hundred oxen, from the Greek ἑκατόν, hekatón, "one hundred" and βοῦς, boũs, "ox"), the Passover, or the slaughter of the pig practiced in many societies. During the time of the Roman Empire, domesticated pig, sheep and goat meat was frequently consumed, originating mainly from grazing activities. The cultural evolution of different models of meat consumption and of species considered consumable, prohibited (taboo foods) or sacred in different civilizations, such as cows in India, is one of the main themes of cultural anthropology, which seeks both explanations symbolic given by their own cultures or religions such as economic and social logic, in balance with the environment (the ecological sustainability of livestock is compromised when demographic pressure exceeds natural limits).

Values taken from different sources.

During the Middle Ages in Europe, animal meat was a commodity reserved for the highest classes of society. The consumption of poultry and pork meat was frequent, leaving the large animals to the care and service of agriculture. Salted preparations, as well as vinegar marinades, were common to preserve meat for as long as possible. The Catholic Church established some rules for partial fasting during Lent (the previous festival is Carnival or Carnestolendas) and other religions such as Islam (as well as Judaism) prohibited the consumption of pork, also imposing Rules about the slaughter of animals intended for human consumption. The coexistence of the three monotheistic religions in some areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages, had one of its points of discrepancy in the consumption of meat, subjected to different food taboos and sacrifice rituals, which made it necessary to separate butcher shops into Christians, Jews and Muslims. In particular, the prohibition of pork consumption for Jews and Muslims made them the object of ridicule by Christians when they were the dominant ones, coming to use in Spain and Portugal since the end of the Middle Ages the concept of pig to designate Jewish converts.

I will bind you my verses with bacon so you don't bite them, Gongorilla

Francisco de Quevedo, accusing of New Christian to his enemy Góngora

In England, beef has long been preferred, as indicated by the nickname beefeaters given to the keepers of the Tower of London, meaning they were royal servants on a good diet. (beef eaters), some of the recipes such as oxtail soup indicate that preference from early in medieval English societies. In the Middle Ages (13th century) the profession of butcher was established in European cities. In the Ménagier de Paris published in 1393, mention is made of the meat trade between different European towns.

The preservation of meat in pre-industrial times was very poor and produced the need to mask the putrefaction with all kinds of seasonings and spices. Since the Late Middle Ages, Europe had demanded sufficient quantities of pepper to justify long-distance trade with Asia, which was one of the reasons that led to the Crusades. At the end of the Middle Ages, the obstruction of the eastern Mediterranean route by the Turkish Empire stimulated the Age of Discovery that led the Portuguese to circumnavigate Africa and the Castilians to undertake the expedition of Christopher Columbus. The discovery of America brought the possibility of having new spices for preserving meat, such as paprika from peppers.

Casa de la Carnicería in Plaza Mayor de Madrid, where the boarders of the Abasto de la Carne (in charge of a monopoly duty or contractor) arose to the public, controlled by the Chief Justice. There were also other dishes selling meat, and a Rastro where the skins from the slaughterhouse were tanned. The living creatures took advantage of the pastures of the Dehesa de la Villa. This form of organization of the meat trade rose throughout the Old Regime, until the establishment of the covered markets and the organization of a modern slaughterhouse in Legazpi, at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth century.

The European colonization of America from the 16th century led to an exchange of livestock species, especially from Europe to America, since conversely only the introduction of the turkey was significant, contrary to what happened in agriculture, that there was a more balanced exchange. Large herbivorous animals had gone extinct in the Americas thousands of years earlier, shortly after the arrival of humans. The absence of meat livestock, beyond small animals, has been adduced as one of the causes of pre-Columbian ritual anthropophagy (anthrophagy or necrophagy appeared in many other cultures of different levels of social development and geographical area, and its anthropological explanation and weight in the diet is very diverse). Andean camelid (llama, vicuña and guanaco) farming did not spread to Europe. The expansion of the species introduced by the Spanish, mainly sheep, has been compared to the parallel decline of the indigenous human population, which reached catastrophic proportions. Cattle farming was especially important due to the ease of its simple release in vast areas of pasture, such as the Argentine Pampa. Similar livestock landscapes were created in the XIX in the western United States and Australia. In each one of them, an entire culture was created around them, which in its early days focused on skins and wool, and treated meat as a virtually unusable by-product, given the impossibility of preserving and transporting it to consumer markets., which paradoxically lacked such abundance.

In Don Quixote it deals on numerous occasions with the prestige of meat, which the poor hidalgo ate problematically.

A pot of something more cow than ram, salpicon the most nights, duels and cracks on Saturdays, lentils on Fridays and some vintage dove on Sundays consumed the three parts of their hacienda.

The taste for meat consumption, and the few fussiness that had to be done for it, produced proverbs such as

If nothing, run or fly to the pot.

Regarding the quantitative figures, in the Spain of the Old Regime it was conventional to consider "half a pound of meat" a sufficient daily ration (230 grams, while one pound of bread was considered sufficient), which did not mean that the entire population could access its daily consumption, nor that it was top quality meat (the poorest only managed to buy entrails and offal). The way of preparation (prolonged cooking in the pots , which some make derive from the Jewish custom of letting it cook slowly all Friday night and Saturday morning so as not to light a fire on shabbat) made the meat of very old beef more or less edible, although It was only in broths, like the silly soup or gallofa that the convents distributed for free. The custom of putting a bone in the broth, which was reused day after day, and was even shared among the neighborhood, lasted until the "hungry years" of the post-Spanish Civil War (1940), and was already described in The Lazarillo de Tormes. The predilection for the different forms of stew, served with its "three turns" (soup, vegetables and meat), which associates in its different regional variations (escudella, fabada, etc.) all kinds of meat and all kinds of legumes and vegetables, also reached the proverb:

After God, the pot. Everything else is bambolla.

Features

Butcher showing a wide range of sausages employed at the Grünkohlessen in Germany.

In bromatology, meat is the product obtained after slaughtering an animal in the slaughterhouse and removing the viscera under adequate hygiene conditions, both from the process and from the animal. The analysis of meat and meat products is an important activity in the meat industry and in particular within the domain of food analysis, perhaps because it is an important and relatively expensive food item in the diet. The characterization of meat through chemical analysis is of importance to meat buyers in the food processing industry and is also the subject of extensive control regulations in most countries. Meat analysis is vital in the food processing industry for quality control, guarantee, nutritional characterization and product labeling.

Meat has a rather complex and variable chemical composition depending on a large number of factors, both extrinsic and intrinsic. Detailed knowledge of its composition and the way in which these components are affected by handling, processing and storage conditions will ultimately determine its nutritional value, durability and degree of acceptance by the consumer. Chemically, both fresh meat and industrially processed meat are characterized by analyzing their microbial content and by measuring physical attributes such as texture and color, the main moisture constituents, the level of protein with respect to fat, and the ash (inorganic material). In the case of raw meat for sale, other measurements such as pH and color are carried out. Both are indicators of meat quality. Meat is typically tested for freshness levels or rancidity, with tests indicating the value of peroxides and thiobarbituric acid (referred to as TBA number test). These measure the oxidative state of rancid fat, while tests that find out fatty acid levels measure the hydrolysis state of rancid fat. Meats usually have a range of fat content that varies from 1% to 15%, generally stored in adipose tissue.

Most of the meat content is of protein origin, usually collagen or elastin. Collagen breaks down into gelatin when cooked over heat in humid environments; on the other hand, elastin remains unchanged when cooked. The protein content is divided between actin and myosin, both responsible for muscle contractions.

Flavors and smells

Dry meat in a Brazilian butcher shop.

The flavor of meats contains nearly 1,000 chemical compounds identified in the volatile constituents of beef, veal, chicken, pork, and lamb. These volatiles are described as organic chemical compounds such as carbohydrates, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, furans, pyridines, pyrazines, pyrroles, oxazines and other compounds that are generally based on the sulfur atom and halogen elements. It is believed in the scientific community that the flavors and aromas of meat come predominantly from acyclic sulfur compounds and heterocyclic compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur. However, there are differences regarding the amount of compounds depending on the species. animal in question.

The flavor of stored or cured meat has been studied in detail by the meat industry, being able to verify that some existing nitrites in the meat react with the fibers, masking the natural flavors. Especially if the meat is cured by smoking. While cured or salted meats maintain their flavor (cecina, Carne-de-sol, etc.). The techniques for measuring the flavors of meat are practically the same, and do not depend on the species analyzed. However, one of the "facilitators" of flavor and texture in this food is its fat content.

Meat contains vitamins and minerals of vital importance for growth and development, as well as for the proper functioning of the body, especially B vitamins, especially B12, and minerals such as zinc, iodine, selenium and the match.

Colors

Color is one of the indicators used by consumers when choosing meat. Bird meat tends to have, as a general rule, a lighter color than mammal meat, which is usually darker and more reddish in color. The reason for this difference is the type of muscle fiber that composes it, therefore, it is different in birds and in large mammals, due to the greater intensity of the work that the latter's muscles support. There are basically two types of muscle fibers, those belonging to the muscles that perform explosive work (white fibers) and those that perform slow and repetitive work (red fibers). The white fiber muscles are found mainly in birds, which need fast movements, while large mammals have red fiber muscles necessary to withstand great efforts. The red color of meat is mainly due to myoglobin; this color has led to a "non-scientific" (non-nutritional) classification of meats into white (lighter) and red (darker). The final color of the meat also depends on its processing, storage and cooking. The hue tends to change towards brown if the piece is exposed to air for some time, due in part to myoglobin oxidation processes.

Varieties

There are many varieties of meat from many locations, it can be said that most of the world's meat consumption comes from domesticated animals to supply the meat industry with raw material. A small proportion comes from hunting. This was not always the case, since in ancient times (long before the industrial revolution) most of the meat consumed by humans came from hunting, with livestock and grazing being a minor element.

Vaccine

Korean beef piece. You can see the grease between the fiber, characteristic of some breeds.

Argentinian grill—race meat, pork, ribs, pork ribs, chinchulines, mollejas, chorizo, morcilla, chicken, kidneys.

One of the first domestic breeds that could supply man with his meat needs may have been the aurochs (Bos primigenius) which spread throughout Eurasia. In the 17th century, some farmers in Europe began to select various bovine breeds to improve certain qualities such as milk, capacity and resistance to agricultural work, meat quality, etc. In this way, today there are breeds such as the French Charolais and Limousin, the Italian Chianina (of immense size), the English Hereford and Shorthorn or the Galician Blonde. In the United States there are native breeds that provide meat with streaky tallow (in English it is called 'marbling') and that usually come from animals slaughtered at the age of 15 to 24 months, this type of meat is considered of good quality by the average American consumer. In Japan there are breeds such as wagyu of streaky meat (from the Kobe region), some of these meats are cut into thin 1.5 to 2 mm fillets and dishes such as sukiyaki and shabu shabu.

As for preservation, for the meat to be good it has to be fresh and tight, with plenty of white fat. The color of the meat depends on the myoglobin, so that in normal conditions the color of the meat has to be purple-red. If the bovine is older, the color will be darker.

Sometimes, when two cut surfaces come into contact, the meat turns a dark brown color, but this does not affect the quality of the meat.

The color of the fat indicates the age of the animal. Thus, if it is white, it means that the meat belongs to a young animal, and, if it is yellowish, to an older animal.

Regarding conservation, veal can remain in the refrigerator for up to 14 days. In addition, it is better to consume it after a period of rest. Normally, when the meat is bought, it has already had said resting period.

World production

According to data provided by the United States Department of Agriculture, world beef production has remained stable in the five-year period 2010-2014 with values between 58 and 59 million metric tons.

The figures were rounded to two decimal places for ease of reading and the weight of the slaughtered animal was calculated, that is, discounting the weight of the skin, head and internal organs.

Foreign trade in beef

Evolution of the main beef exporters in the world

The United States, the Netherlands and Australia were the world's three largest beef exporters from 2010-2014.

The figures presented in the table below are in US dollars FOB value.

It can be seen that during the four-year period 2011-2014, the United States was the largest exporter in the world. Within South America, Argentina and Brazil were the only countries that completed the list of the ten largest exporters.

Top world exporters of bovine meat period 2010-2014. Source

Evolution of the main importers of beef in the world

On the other side of the trade balance, Italy, Germany and the United States and Spain were the main world importers of beef during the years 2010-2014.

The figures presented in the table below are in US dollars FOB value.

The list was completed by Japan, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Canada and Chile.

Top world meat importers bovine period 2010-2014. Source

Sheep and goats

Lamb meat is highly accepted in the various cultures of the earth; The sheep (Ovis aries) was possibly one of the first animals to be domesticated by man (after the dog and the aurochs) and is highly valued for the production of wool (almost 10% of the breeds produce it) and milk (used in making cheese). Lamb species have also been selected to provide various by-products such as milk or wool, in addition to generating certain characteristics such as a greasy tail, highly prized in some places. Sheep are closely related to the herding activities of nomadic societies. As of 1996, the main producers of sheep meat in order of importance are: China, Australia and Iran. Goat meat is low in fat and is popular in areas where grazing is important.

World production

According to data provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, world production of sheep meat has been around 8.33 and 8.59 million tons during the five-year period 2009-2013. biennium 2010-2011 there was a slight decrease that was later reversed in the subsequent years 2012-2013.

Lamb chops, stick chops.

Evolution of the main exporters of sheep meat in the world

New Zealand, Australia and the United Kingdom were the world's three largest exporters of sheep meat in the five-year period 2010-2014.

The figures presented in the table below are in US dollars FOB value.

New Zealand was the only nation to outperform other world exporters year after year by a comfortable margin. Uruguay was the only South American country that was ranked within the top ten world exporters.

Top world exporters of ovine meat and caprine period 2010-2014. Source

Evolution of the main importers of sheep meat in the world

On the other side of the trade balance, France, the United States and the United Kingdom were the main world importers of sheep meat during the years 2010-2014.

The figures presented in the table below are in US dollars FOB value.

The list was completed by China, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Japan and Malaysia.

Major world importers of ovine meat and caprine period 2010-2014. Source

Swine

Pig loin tape, loin cut.

Pigs are descendants of the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). If cow meat has been the favorite of many inhabitants of Europe and America, pork is the one that has fed the highest percentage of the population in the rest of the world, in some countries such as China the word "pork" is understood as a generic meaning of "meat". Their livestock has some advantages: it is relatively small, it is omnivorous, it has a fairly good growth rate compared to other animals, and almost all parts of its body are consumed. It is dedicated exclusively to the production of meat. Other disadvantages fall on the consumption of its meat: it transmits diseases from parasites and has a relatively high percentage of fat content. The main producers of pork in order of importance are: China, the United States and Brazil (data from 1996). It is good to note that Jewish and Muslim religious precepts strictly prohibit the consumption of this meat due to the fact that their dogmas they dictate that the pig is an "impure" animal.

Avian

Volatry cans, according to the artist Albrecht Kauw.

Among poultry meat (sometimes called poultry) there are those that are free-range, such as chicken (Gallus gallus, its care also provides eggs); the duck that is consumed in two stages: in the germinated egg as they do in the Philippines in the balut, or in an adult from 6 to 16 weeks; turkey that can be cared for specimens in a range of 6-9 kg for human consumption between 12 and 18 weeks while in the United States the period can be extended up to 32 weeks to acquire huge specimens; goose, quail, partridge, pigeon, etc. all of them domesticated animals that also produce eggs. Much of the existing varieties of chickens are adapted and selected to provide high growth performance. As a general rule, they are considered white meat, although there are exceptions (such as ostrich meat). The hens have derived by selection to races of high speed of growth with the objective of satisfying the demand for meat. As a general rule, a bird is capable of reaching the age of its slaughter in a few weeks, the time depends on the type of bird and within the type there are "earlier" breeds than others.

Others

In different cultures the type of meat consumption varies a lot, the habitual concept is relative and is related to the culinary customs of the place, the availability of the animal, the sociological traditions, etc. In Western cuisine, certain preparations are not made because they are "unusual" or because they are an abandoned practice, or very localized in certain areas:

• Hares and rabbits. They are usually animals that have traditionally been considered hunting, their high rate of reproduction makes them a suitable species for their cattle breeding. It is a low-fat meat (less than 4%) and high in protein content (more than 20%). The pieces usually have between 2.5 kg of weight. Although mammals are considered as white meat, having a very similar look to chicken meat.
• Horse meat. It is frequently consumed in some European countries, such as Germany and the west of France and in some parts of Asia, even though it has been rejected in some parts (both meat and milk). The flesh of its equivalents is the donkey and mule. The ancient Greeks offered it as a sacrifice to Poseidon. The consumption of horse meat is called hypophagia.
• Dog meat. It exists in Korean and Chinese cuisine. In some places in Asia it is consumed traditionally from a very old age for medicinal purposes, where it is believed that it prevents impotence as well as providing "heat" to the five vital organs. It was consumed in different parts as in pre-Hispanic Mexico, since the Aztecs consumed the "itzcuintli" or Mexican peel dog.
• Cat meat. It is not strange to see it in Chinese markets to be cooked. Although in Spain it is rejected for consumption because it is an animal of company, it has come to consume in times of scarcity, like dog meat (it is the origin of the expression give cat for hare).
• Poultry meat. Although originating from Australian cuisine, it is becoming more and more popular in Europe, and today the farms of ostriches or cattle ranchers that complement their farm with these animals are becoming more and more frequent, it is usual to find them at cattle fairs.
• Meat from amphibians and reptiles. It is a very appreciated white meat in much of Asia. In Europe it has tradition the consumption of frog meat, however it fell into disuse. For several decades it has been timidly consumed again, mostly in an appetizer called frogs. With respect to reptiles, consumption of turtle meat, iguana and snake is very common in America. The meat of the cayman with glasses is also consumed in Venezuela (where it is known as baboba), especially during the Major Week.
• Insect meat. Entomophagia is not considered in most Western countries, but little by little it is gaining adept consumers and can become an important source of protein in the Western diet. However, in Colombia and Venezuela it is common to consume ants of the species Atta laevigata either as an appetizer or as part of a hot sauce called a waterfall.
• Camel meat. He is very employed in certain places in Africa (Eastern and North) as well as in some countries in the Middle East, where his milk is also appreciated. The sacrifice of an adult drugstore can provide between 500 and 600 kg of net meat with a low fat content that can reach 5 %. This flesh is avoided by the Copt Christians of Egypt. Within the same species is the Flame in a dry meat preparation called charqui (a kind of cecina that is also made with the meat of other animals) and can be made between 10 and 15 kg per flame.
• Whale meat. The consumption of the meat of these large mammals (above 150 tons) is highly regulated and banned in some countries, although it is consumed in some places where their meat is part of the most traditional recipes. His flesh is very similar to the flesh of the calf, but with a higher fat content, the color of the flesh depends on the age of the specimen and may vary between red to dark red. This meat has very short conservation periods and tends to get rage very quickly.
• Carne de cuy. The consumption of this species, also known as the guinea pig, guinea pig or guinea pig, is common in Andean countries of South America such as Peru, Bolivia or Ecuador. Its meat has a high nutritional value: little fat and a lot of protein.
• Cannibalism. Consumption of human flesh. It was a practice carried out in ancient cultures, being with the time rejected, abandoned and finally restricted by the criminal sphere and persecuted by modern societies. It emerges more often in periods of famine as a form of despair. It is more common in African, Caribbean or Pacific Islands tribes as part of its rituals.

Game meat

The hunt of the quailFor Goya. The hunt for certain animals was associated from ancient to high classes in society.

Game meat is a different case from meat from farm-raised animals. The meat of animals confined (or with a restricted degree of freedom) possesses very different qualities from those of 'industrial' meats. These game meats are highly appreciated and are eaten especially in autumn. In many restaurants in Europe, the arrival of the autumn season is celebrated by offering game dishes. In countries like the United States, as meat from hunting is not inspected, its consumption is banned by food authorities. It was the tradition of the native Indians of North America to hunt bison.

Game meat has a lower fat content than that of farm-raised or domesticated animals. The reasons are obvious, since both types of animals have very different diets and lifestyles. This characteristic makes them need less time to cook (fat is a poor conductor of heat) and they present a more "dry" appearance. when they are barbecued. Game has a characteristic flavor that sometimes tries to imitate other meats. This flavor was removed in kitchens of the 18th century century by over-curing the meat: it was left hanging for sometimes a week to the point of reaching almost decomposition, this process was called mortification or faisandage (of the pheasant) and had two purposes: to make the meat more tender and reduce the taste of 'game' (not appreciated at the time). On other occasions, game meat was used in more elaborate dishes, so as to mask the flavor, such as smoked meat or marinades.

Game meat is often categorized as "big game" and "small game." This differentiation depends fundamentally on the size of the piece. Thus, the larger game corresponds to animals such as wild boar and deer, and the smaller game to hare, rabbit, wild duck, quail and partridge. In some cases it is customary to eat small birds, such as fried birds in Spain (nowadays their consumption is not legal).

Processing

Sometimes the meat appears already processed in the form of sausage (in the image a typical dat of Saboya).

Manipulation

Before death, the edible tissues of a healthy animal can be considered sterile since they are protected from bacterial contamination by the outer skin, which functions as an almost perfect cover against microbial aggression. In addition, the intestinal tract serves as an effective barrier that stops the immense mass of microorganisms that it contains. Normally, any microorganism that penetrated these barriers would be quickly destroyed by the natural defenses of the living organism. After death, however, these mechanisms are blocked or cease their activity and in this way the exposed tissues become highly perishable tissues. Animal tissues are exposed to large numbers of microbes that pass through the skin or intestinal tract without a barrier to stop them. The outer surface of the skin, or hide, is heavily contaminated by a wide variety of microorganisms. When the butcher inserts the knife to separate the cuts, the first routes of entry for contaminants and pathogens appear. In addition, it is possible that some of the microorganisms of the intestinal tract find their way to the surface of the carcass during the forming operations, mixing its content with that of the meat (this operation must be carried out with great care to avoid possible contamination of the meat).. Some contamination may, however, occur during neck cutting, and it is possible that some of these microorganisms may reach muscle tissues via the bloodstream immediately prior to death. All these operations should be carried out by qualified personnel, in order to maintain the required quality levels. Despite this, most of the staff have no training. The way the animal is slaughtered affects the final quality of the meat, it should be slaughtered 'at once' without generating stress in the animal so that the lactic acid characteristic of dark red cuts does not exist in the tissues, even so, due to the low qualification of the personnel and the insufficient maintenance of the cutting machines, it is frequent that the cattle suffer a death slow and painful.

After death, the carcasses (also called carcasses) are cooled and classified to later enter the distribution and food processing chains. This set of processes is what transforms the muscle of the animal into meat. It is necessary to take into account the appearance of rigor mortis (generally after about three hours after slaughter, although in pork and lamb it occurs within an hour), a phenomenon that strains the meat and makes it not very pleasant to eat. For this reason, a waiting time of about 48 hours (sometimes 72) is introduced in a refrigerated environment so that this phenomenon disappears. During this time the meat is hung "upside down" so that the muscle fibers stretch under their own weight and the blood drains. The cutting and cutting allow a large number of microorganisms to contaminate surfaces, sometimes it is done in clean places. The fate and ability of these microorganisms to affect the health of consumers depends to a large extent on the final use made of the meat: meats served raw are more likely to affect them, those cooked at temperatures of 80 °C less. Fresh, chilled meat has a high water content with an aw value of about 0.99. This environment is very suitable for the growth of microorganisms; if they are left without a protective envelope to oxygen, the growth of contaminating microorganisms will be favored. Meats cut in the Jewish (kosher meats) or Muslim (halal meats) style require a short salting period (in kosher salt for 30 to 60 minutes).

Industrial processing

Beef cuts per channel.

Most meat today spends an average interval between 4 and 10 days from the time the animal is slaughtered until it reaches the market to be sold. Post-slaughter refrigeration creates a selective medium that allows growth of only those microorganisms capable of growth at near-freezing temperatures. Vacuum packaging of meat with an oxygen-impermeable membrane constitutes a second limitation on the environment surrounding the meat and allows the growth of fewer microorganisms during distribution to the consumer. Curing, smoking, cooking, marinating and fermentation are other procedures that influence the nature of the final altering microflora of the meat, prolonging its expiration date. The meats after slaughter need a curing period that makes the flavors distribute thanks to enzymatic reactions and improve organoleptic properties such as the tenderness of the meat. The curing methods can be carried out in controlled environments of a humid or dry nature. In a humid environment they are placed in special plastic packages subjected to vacuum, remaining inside for six weeks (cryovac method), this method causes a bad smell to appear when the package is opened, the bad smell disappears in a few minutes of ventilation. Dry curing methods hang meats in a controlled environment in refrigeration and humidity for a period of six weeks, meats cured by this method can lose almost 5% to 20% of their weight, and may also acquire off-flavors.

Many of the processed meats are finely minced (using a mincing machine such as a chopping board) and mixed with different spices to finally be “stuffed” (transformed into various sausages) in plastic containers or casings. In the various cuisines there are various preparations of meat products, one of the most famous are sausages in the case of Germany and northern European countries, Italian and Romanian salami or chorizos from pig slaughters carried out on the peninsula. iberian.

Types

Lomo of ox served raw, as a rule the comensal is prepared in a hot stone the meat to its taste.

There is a purely culinary categorization of meat that does not obey a clear scientific reason and that takes into account the color of the meat. This classification is:

• Red meat: usually comes from adult animals. For example: beef (cow meat), pork, veal meat and ox meat. The beef and the ovine are also considered red meats. From a nutritional point of view it is called red meat to “all that comes from mammals”. The consumption of this type of meat is very high in developed countries and represents 20% of caloric intake. It is associated with the appearance of cancer in adults who consume relatively high amounts.
• White meat: it is called as opposed to red meats. In general it can be said that it is the meat of birds (there are exceptions such as ostrich meat). Some of the cases in this category are chicken meat, rabbit meat and sometimes fish is included. From the point of view of nutrition it is called white meat to “all that does not come from mammals”.

The term "red meat" or "white meat" is a culinary definition that refers to the color (red or pink, as well as white) of some meats in the raw state. The color of meat is mainly due to a pigment red called myoglobin. This classification is subject to numerous exceptions.

Social postures

Meat consumption sometimes raises social controversy. Some people choose to avoid its consumption, be it for philosophical, medical, ethical or other reasons, and are known as vegans or vegetarians.

A philosophical position, sensocentrism, considers that animals, as sentient beings, deserve moral consideration, so any form of exploitation of animals is a form of cruelty and therefore immoral. The slogan "meat is murder" represents this moral approach.

Other people, also defending animal rights, are against sacrifices or the extreme conditions in which animals for human consumption are raised or slaughtered. Some refuse to eat certain types of meat treated following an industrial process typical of intensive agriculture, aware of the conditions suffered by animals in so-called factory farms.

Sometimes there are underlying environmental reasons, since animals are part of a food chain that pollutes and modifies the environment, promotes non-organic agriculture, causes high water consumption, etc.

Eating meat is also avoided sometimes for nutritional and health reasons (in these cases the protein intake is obtained through other products of vegetable origin). Sometimes the consumption of meat is restricted to only a certain type. For example, the Islamic and Judaic religions prohibit pork, some Indian religions do not allow cow slaughter, and Jainism prohibits meat consumption in general, as do Adventists. These social groups instead eat meat-like foods, which mimic some of the nutritional and organoleptic properties and provide protein to their diets. These substitutes are generally made with soy protein (tempeh) or wheat gluten (seitan). Islam and Judaism further require that the slaughter of certain animals be in accordance with very strict ritual regulations and be carried out by qualified personnel.

Similarly, other religions adopt the consumption of meat as a symbol of the sexual act and for this reason it is subjected to abstinence rules, either during a certain period (abstinence Fridays during Christian Lent and during the Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) or for a lifetime. In some cases meat consumption is taboo. On the contrary, in others the concepts of meat and sex are intentionally mixed, as is the case with the Hooters restaurant chain. There are studies that relate the consumption of meat with the intrinsic vision of the male (since it reflects the attitudes of a hunter) compared to the more feminine (and vegetarian) vision. On the other hand, meat has come to mean "activity" compared to the "inactivity" of vegetables (as indicated by the verb: "vegetate").

The meaning of meat has been, however, in ancient cultures, a Fact of divine offering». Thus, in classical Greece animal offerings were made to the gods such as the hecatomb, a rite of sacrifice of almost 100 oxen.

Ethical considerations

Health Effects

Nutrition

Studies have been carried out on the impact that exists between the consumption of meat, the minimum doses that must be taken into account, the types of meat most consumed, the effect that it can have on various groups of the population: children, the elderly, athletes, etc. and there are some strong conclusions, while on the other hand there are controversies that are still under debate. What no one doubts is that meat has great nutritional value, providing macronutrients such as protein and fatty acids, and micronutrients such as minerals (mainly iron), vitamins, etc. The average content (by weight) of the meat ranges from 70% water, 20% protein, 7% fat and 1% minerals, of course the variations depend on the type of animal, the breed and the your diet.

Dietary contribution

From a nutritional point of view, meat is a great contribution of protein (20% of its weight) and essential amino acids, being also responsible for reactivating the metabolism of the human body. One hundred grams of red meat provide 20.7 g of protein and the same amount of white meat provides 21.9 g of protein. The meat has no carbohydrates and does NOT contain fiber. The fat content of the meat depends to a large extent on the species of animal as well as the cut chosen, the way in which the animal has been cared for during the growth phase, the foods offered during that phase and the methods of cooking or used in its cutting and quartering by the butcher shop. Since the end of the 20th century, important research has been carried out in the area of "light meats" with low fat content, investigating breeding and feeding conditions, so that they include less fat content. It is possible to think that the fat in the meat has two effects, on the one hand it is an enhancer of the flavors and on the other it is a means of transport of the liposoluble vitamins that exist in the meat (great source of Cholesterol). Meat has little carbohydrate content (generally in the form of glycogen), although it can be said that its content is especially high in horse meat. From a nutritional point of view, meat provides other nitroso compounds different from proteins, such as creatine. Many of the national health recommendations advise people to limit consumption of processed meat and red meat, which are linked to an increased risk of death from heart disease, diabetes, cancer and other diseases.

From the point of view of micronutrients, red meats are an important source of iron (the other minerals do not account for more than 1% of the weight of the meat) and they usually contain vitamin B12 (little present in plant foods, since vitamin B12 is produced by soil microorganisms living in symbiosis with plant roots) and vitamin A (if liver is consumed). The amount of vitamins in meat is greatly reduced, and the reduction it will be higher the longer it cooks, or the higher the temperature. Some meats such as lamb or sheep are rich in folic acid. The nutritional contributions of meat will depend to a large extent on the breed and the diet to which it has been subjected during its breeding. There are nutritionists who advise eating meat in moderation, including a variety of vegetables and fiber in the portions of the dishes. which is called a balanced diet. Meat consumption at meals has been shown to increase the absorption of iron from plant foods. This enhancing effect is known as the "meat factor".

Important.

Red meat has been classified as Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans). In the case of red meat, the classification is based on limited evidence from epidemiological studies showing a positive association between red meat consumption and the development of colorectal cancer as well as strong mechanistic evidence.

The processed meat was classified as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans). This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. In other words, there is compelling evidence that processed meat causes cancer. The evaluation is generally based on epidemiological studies showing the development of cancer in exposed humans.

Disease appearance

Animal fat has a relatively high content of saturated fat and cholesterol, the consumption of both compounds is related to some health problems, including some heart disease and arteriosclerosis. About the appearance and incidence of colon cancer, There are studies that relate consumption to the appearance of this cancer in the colon region, based on the consumption of fats and especially meat. The incidence of these diseases has been changing consumption habits in some countries, Thus, for example, in the United States, a report shows how in the period between 1970-1974 and 1990-1994 the consumption of beef decreased by 21%, while the consumption of chicken meat increased by 90%.

Toxicity

Cooking meat too much makes you have chemical reactions with toxic effects.

Consumer demand experienced at the end of the XX century led to the use of growth hormones to increase meat production of some species (based on somatropin stimulation). However, it can be said that there is no conclusive evidence about the toxicity of these practices, although it is possible to think that the studies carried out in the United States deny the existence of a danger to health, the studies carried out in Europe indicate the opposite, in this way Authority European Food Safety Authority (Eeuropean Food Safety A authority -EFSA-) stated otherwise in 2002.

The appearance of diseases such as Kreufeld-Jacob spongiform encephalitis (also called mad cow disease) caused the image of bovine consumption to begin to change in the 1990s. Many products based on meat changed their composition to avoid low sales rates, a clear example is the case of food products based on meat extracts: the bovril case is an example of a product modified in its content (avoiding beef) to maintain market shares. Other cases such as the bird flu that occurred in 1997 have affected the consumption of meat from certain birds, especially in certain parts of Asia.

Pork meat, if undercooked (or at low temperatures), can transmit diseases based on parasites such as cysticercosis and trichinosis. On some occasions, during the industrial process, chicken meat becomes contaminated of the bacterium Salmonella enterica. Ground meat can become contaminated during handling with Escherichia coli O157:H7 bacteria (killed at a temperature of 69 °C). Since 1985 in the US and later in the rest of the world, meat has been irradiated with the in order to eliminate or reduce bacterial populations (especially e. coli from fecal material).

As a general rule, when meat is cooked it generates a series of carcinogenic chemical compounds such as polycyclic aromatic carbohydrates (for example, benzopyrene) that appear in organic materials (including fat and wood) when it is cooked. are heated and are about to burn, in this way preparing a barbecue on a piece of wood burning with smoke, this type of polycyclic carbohydrates are deposited on the surface of the meat, meats cooked on "smokeless" fires They do not have this type of carbohydrate. Another carcinogenic compound that appears during cooking are heterocyclic amines that are formed at high temperatures with the amino acid compounds of meat (creatine and creatinine), this compound appears in meats exposed with a large surface area to an intense heat source, there are more concentration of it in "well done" meats and less in "almost raw" meats, it has also been verified that acid marinades prior to cooking using radiant heat reduce the appearance of this amine. Nitrosamines appear when nitrites (used as preservatives to reduce the occurrence of botulism) react with amino acids in meat, the reaction occurs in the stomach and in very hot pans, this nitrosamine is known as a DNA damaging agent although they are unknown its effects on the appearance of cancer, for this reason it is advisable to undercook salt-cured meats (ham, pastrami, etc.).

Preparation

Meat and heat

A thermometer for meat, an ideal instrument when you want to control the process.

Meat undergoes some chemical reactions when it is cooked; these reactions modify the flavors and smells of the meat, depending on the way it is cooked, these qualities can be enhanced or mitigated. When meat is cooked, it is exposed to a heat source that raises its temperature. Among the most common reactions is the coagulation of the protein responsible for muscle contraction, myosin, which coagulates at 50 °C, which makes the meat firm, at the same time they release water molecules and this is the cause of the initial juices that the meat gives off when it is cooked. Upon reaching a temperature of 60 °C other proteins begin to coagulate and the meat becomes increasingly firm, when a temperature between 60 °C and 65 °C is reached the meat releases a lot of juices and shrinks appreciably. These changes occur due to the denaturation of collagen in cells. The meat loses a sixth of its volume and the cells become denser. As a general rule, meat is usually served at this temperature (corresponds to the measure of on point). If cooking continues, the meat dries out until it reaches 70 °C, a temperature at which the collagen dissolves in gelatin and makes the meat more tender (this temperature is reached with barbecues). At a temperature of 70 °C the vast majority of bacteria die, so it can be said that it is the safest way to serve meat.

The ideal way to cook meat is one that minimizes moisture loss during the process, maximizing the collagen denaturation process and its subsequent dissolution. This means cooking the meat quickly up to a temperature of 60 °C and then slowly reaching this point up to 70 °C. Some cooks achieve this precision by observing and controlling the controls of the fire. Others use various thermometers. However, there is no ideal way to cook any meat, the method must be suitably adapted to the type of meat in question. Cooking meat by controlling the temperature is difficult due to the fact that the 'doneness' it is not homogenized equally throughout the meat, as a general rule the surface is at a high temperature while the interior is raw. There are many methods to prepare meat controlling the temperature throughout the volume of the meat, the most used are carried out in two stages (fast-slow) controlling that the interior is done, sometimes the meat is surrounded by another food in the form of strips (larked).

Many cooks mention that the skill of cooking meat properly is knowing when to stop cooking. There are numerous approximate ways depending on the thickness of the meat, minutes of cooking depending on the weight, etc. But the exact shape depends on the fat content: fat is a worse conductor of heat than muscle fibers, and these are worse than bone. It depends on the exposed meat surface and how it is treated. In such a way that it can be said that there is no single formula that determines the finish of the meat, remaining in the experience of the cook.

Preparations

Pig pig accompanied by various vegetables.

In most cultures meat is cooked before being eaten, although there are popular dishes that include raw meat such as steak tartare and carpaccio. Meats offer different aspects depending on the cut and on some occasions these cuts not only depend on the type of animal but also on the culinary culture of a country. It is advisable to eat the meat through various heat preparations: roasted, grilled, barbecue, stew, etc. For cooking meat, it is advisable to reach a temperature of 70 °C in the innermost point of the dough for at least a period of 2 minutes before being served. Undercooked beef has caused numerous outbreaks of salmonellosis and infections due to Clostridium perfringens and E. Coli contamination. These contamination operations are avoided with proper handling and cooking. The meats prepared on the grill or on the barbecue have a graduation (called "done") that depends on the tastes of the diner: each one has its own temperature. Poultry meat is, as a general rule, highly exposed to contamination, and this is due to the fact that colonies of bacteria can exist on its surface as well as in its abdominal cavity.

Among the most common forms of cooking are roasted meats, which can be made in one piece on the barbecue or in pieces such as Köfte or kebabs, preparations such as meatballs, Romanian mititei, interiors of empanadas or hamburgers. They can participate in sauces such as ragù from Neapolitan cuisine, English gravy, some of the Indian curries, Latin American sancochos or dolmades from Turkish cuisine. Its preparations are usually typical in the form of aspics, sausages (sausages, salami, etc.), salted meats (ham, Cecina, pastrami, smoked meats, Skerpikjøt, etc.), marinades, pates (meat pies), etc. Sometimes it is canned like spam or corned beef. Some preparations are exotic, such as the Chilean curanto, chili con carne (vegetables with meat) or fricassee.

Preservation and storage

Meats are a very perishable and unstable product and must be stored in refrigerated environments (ideally between -1 °C and 2 °C), meats packed in refrigerated vacuum packages must remain stored in its interior until minutes before it is cooked. If the packaging is broken, its half-life is reduced to a few days. Do not wrap the meat with plastic bags as it increases the possibility of bacterial growth, so meat should not be wrapped under any criteria until it is marketed and reaches the final consumer. Meat must be separated and out of contact with other foods to avoid cross contamination. Minced meat must be eaten a few hours after being processed, its state makes it easily oxidizable, also having a large surface area to be attacked by microorganisms. Vacuum-packed minced meat resists a few more days.

Some of the organoleptic effects when meat is out of its consumption period are rancid odors and flavors from the first chemical reactions due to the oxidation of fatty acids (in combination with light). This oxidation is not poisonous but it makes the meat unappetizing for the consumer since it modifies its color and smell. Unsaturated fats are the first to go rancid, which is why meats with a higher content of this type of fat should be marketed earlier. Meat should be put in the refrigerator in the darkest, coolest area possible.

For freezing meat, it is recommended that it be done "as fast as possible", slow freezing causes ice crystals to grow in the muscle fibers, breaking the structure of the piece and modifying the tenderness and texture properties they previously owned. The ideal temperature for freezing meat is -45 °C, the duration of the meat under these conditions depends on the species, but as a general rule, well-frozen meat can last about six months before being prepared.

Preservation by dehydration

The technique of drying raw meat using the sun as a dehydrator is a primitive technique and custom used by many cultures, in different times and parts of the world. It is simply a primitive method that consists of letting the meat of domesticated animals and/or various species dry through dehydration; There is archaeological evidence that Neanderthals dried mammoth meat in caves.

This process, which can last days, weeks, months and even years, is only possible in places with a dry and cool season, resulting in a staple food with high nutritional value.

The method consists of changing the position of the meat to facilitate evaporation, even on certain occasions small perforations can be made in order to speed up drying/ripening or for better penetration when salt is used.

Loss of volume and weight can rise from 40 to 50% and even more; therefore, these benefits have made this one of the main foods of choice for travelers, explorers, hunting peoples, mountain farmers, herders and nomads, including as a source of food for armies (the famous kuivaliha from Finnish soldiers or shit on a shingle from American soldiers, both products used during World War II).

Since 1996, dehydrated meat has been chosen several times by astronauts as space food thanks to its low weight and high nutritional value (low in fat and high in proteins).

The "sun-dry," "air-dry," or "wind-dry" method is the most primitive; In regions of South America and based on the great availability of salt, salting was given, this technique being much more efficient; Subsequently and more evolved came cold smoking, including the addition of aromatic herbs, spices and/or condiments such as pepper, ground chili peppers, nutmeg, etc. increasing and improving the flavor of dehydrated meat.

It was the need to preserve meat for long periods of time due to the lack of technology and necessary refrigeration tools. Initially, it was produced individually or by hand, later the production was developed by butchers to finally reach the industry.

Without the need for prior washing, often boned and fat-free, filleted, shredded into pieces or simply in a single body, once dissected it could be easily transported or stored for long periods of time.

Over the centuries, these products have become important ingredients in the cuisine of many regions of the world where they are still consumed. With curing, techniques were improved, thus emerging hams, cold meats, sausages and the industrialization of production in controlled environments of light, temperature and humidity through salting rooms with techniques such as freeze-drying.

The "salting" technique can be done "by brine" (which is the most common for fish) and "dry" (which is most commonly used for meat). The difference lies basically in the preparation technique, although practically the same result is obtained: dried or dehydrated meat.

Known Types

World consumption

The amount of meat consumed in each country depends to a large extent on social, economic and political conditions, religious beliefs, geographical influence, etc. The consumption of meat in the world is growing as the world population is growing, consuming more and more meat per head. This effect, for example, can be seen when examining the composition of the recipes of the century XIX where meat was used in "small amounts" to flavor dishes, with the exception of high society recipes. World meat consumption in 2004 is distributed as follows: pork reached 38%, poultry consumption 30% and beef consumption 25%, with sheep approximately 7%. This consumption means that a person living in a developed country would consume about 30 kilos of meat per year. The increase in meat consumption was already foreseen by the writer Upton Sinclair in the 1906 novel entitled The Jungle (The Jungle), in which he describes a world where the meat industry would have a very important relevance in the economy of developed countries.

The largest meat producers in the world (2004)

Position	Country	Production (in Tsd. t)	Position	Country	Production (in Tsd. t)
1	China	72.640	13	Australia	3.751
2	United States	38.852	14	Poland	3.266
3	Brazil	19.919	15	United Kingdom	3.212
4	Germany	6.758	16	Japan	3.006
5	France	6.319	17	Philippines	2.405
6	India	6.032	18	Vietnam	2.375
7	Spain	5.726	19	Netherlands	2.278
8	Russia	5.138	20	Indonesia	2.132
9	Mexico	5.058	21	Denmark	2.121
10	Canada	4.533	22	Pakistan	1.985
11	Italy	4.153	23	South Africa	1.853
12	Argentina	3.951	24	Thailand	1.774

Source: Handelsblatt - Die Welt in Zahlen (2005)

Meat for sale in the international market of Rungis, France.

Meat consumption is usually high in producing countries and that of grazing animals is higher than that of poultry. Every year the world population grows at a rate of 73 million people and the demand for meat consumption is expected to double in the period from 1995 to 2020. The way to satisfy the world demand is for farmers to produce a 40% more grain in 2020. The increase in crop area is expected to grow by only a fifth more between 1995 and 2020, the increase in demand is expected to be greater in developing countries. In developed countries during the 1990s the demand for meat grew almost three times more than in developing countries. Demand growth is estimated to be greatest in East Asia, followed by Latin America.

Inhabitants of developed countries consume on average one third of meat production and one third of milk and its derivatives, but this situation is changing rapidly. The amount of meat consumed in developing countries has grown by the end of the XX century three times compared to consumption in the developed countries. The so-called livestock revolution is being prepared in which production is governed by demand. According to forecasts, in the year 2020 the distribution of world meat consumption in developing countries will expand from 52% to 63%. Forecasts for the year 2020 suggest that developing countries will consume 107 million metric tons (mtm) more meat and 177 mmt more milk than was consumed in the 1996/1998 period, which will force developed countries to produce an increase of 19 mtm of meat and 32 mtm of milk. The increase in the livestock mass will require an increase in the production of cereals of about 300 mtn in the year 2020. The countries hope that there will be a change in the world diet in such a way that it will be possible to curb this terrible demand, especially when the stability cereal prices could jeopardize this growth.

Future trends

One Kielbasa, sausage of Polish origin, decorated with an eneldo sprig.

From a nutritional point of view, meat is, although not the only one, one of the largest sources of protein (one of the three macronutrients in the human diet) that exists. The existing nutritional controversies about the possible ability or inability to build a healthy diet based on meat raise other possibilities for the future.

One of them proposes maintaining the protein intake that is considered adequate for a healthy diet by changing culinary habits. One possibility is the adaptation to entomophagy (insect eating) and another is the progressive conversion of meat into a functional food that has reduced levels of fat and cholesterol.

The scientific community has initiated several lines of research aimed at mitigating some of the harmful effects of meat. For example, research is being done on how to replace almost 100% of the fat in meat with healthier vegetable fats (specifically olive oil); adding soy as a more digestible source of amino acids; the use of natural extracts from green tea leaves to reduce lipid oxidation, which causes rancid odor; sodium control to prevent damage in hypertensive patients (meat is relatively low in NaCl content, but its derivatives are not so much); the addition of omega-3 fatty acids -there are already studies of sausage made with these fatty acids-; the addition of fiber, etc.

Other research focuses on the production and marketing of meat in vitro, without direct animal intervention, thanks to tissue culture in controlled environments. There have been patents on its cultivation in Europe since 1999, used mainly in production of sausages. Other studies have focused on achieving the growth of fish meat (mainly Carassius auratus), reaching growth percentages of 20 % maximum. However, the progress of this process requires the resolution of some technical problems such as the necessary support to generate large quantities, vascularization, etc. Research within this area is related to the so-called bioreactor technique. In vitro meat has the advantage of offering the consumer meat with "controlled" ingredients (that is, controlling the content of proteins and fatty acids, as well as that of vitamins and mineral salts), control over diseases, efficiency, minimize the use of animals, etc. The unknown remains about the final acceptance of the consumer.

In art

Literature

• In the story of Argentine writer Esteban Echeverría The slaughterhouse, set at the time of the governor Juan Manuel de Rosas, the environment of the slaughterhouse is posed as a metaphor of that period of Argentine history, where those who exercised the power killed those who did not commune with their policies.
• The novel The jungle (The Jungle) of the author Upton Sinclair (Sinclair, Upton (1906). The Jungle. Wm. Heinemann.), describes a world where the meat industry would have a very important relevance in the economy of developed countries.
• The novel Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal (2000) is a journalistic research carried out by Eric Schlosser on the topic of fast food in America. U.S. meat consumption in burgers. Subsequently in 2006, a film entitled Fast Food Nation whose script was based on the homonymous novel.
• In the story Bye, Cordera! by Leopoldo Alas (Clarin), the cow of an Asturian mini-fundio is used as a metaphor for the fate of the child who, as a young man, is sent to war.

There he went, like the other, like the Grandma cow. The world took him away. Cow meat for gluttons, for the Indians: flesh of his soul, cannon meat for the madness of the world, for the ambitions of others.

• The story of Jack London For a steak reproduces the topic by which meat consumption increases strength, in this case of a boxer obsessed by the impossibility of getting it.
• In the novel The Tree of Science, by Pio Baroja (1911), the main character is a doctor who torments himself with the idea that a carnivorous diet detracts him from the serenity of spirit (ataraxia).
• The social novel Huasipungo, by Jorge Icaza Coronel (1934), narrates the desperate recourse to the consumption of meat in poor condition by a hungry family in Ecuador.
• Animal Farm (Animal Farm, translated as Rebellion on the farm) is a novel by George Orwell (1945) in which the animals mistreated by the farmer are replaced, organising in a utopia that parodies the Soviet Union (the author has a political stance close to Trotskyism). The consumption of meat is one of the treated matters.
• Several films have been written and directed on the Uruguayan Air Force Flight incident 571 (of 2006: Miracle in the Andes, 72 days in the mountains and my long journey homeand 1974: Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivorswhich was relaunched in 1993 and 2005) in which there was a forced situation of anthropophagia (not confusing with cannibalism) against the idea of survival. The film was shot in 1993 under the title They live: the miracle of the Andes English Alive: The Miracle of the Andes).

Filmography

• CarneGaspar Noah, 1991 (related with the libido, set from 1960 on).
• The marrana, José Luis Cuerda, 1992 (changed at the end of the 15th century).
• The locker., Luis García Berlanga, 1985 (changed in Spanish civil war).
• Fast Food Nation, Richard Linklater, 2006, (changed in the meat industry aimed at producing burgers).
• Delicatessen, Jean-Pierre Jeunet and Marc Caro, 1991, (changed in a timeless period where there is a food shortage, meat occupies a line of argument).
• Earthlings, Tom Regan, 2010, (documentary set in the current process of obtaining various meat products).