Maximian

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Latin: Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus), nicknamed Herculean, was Caesar —from 285— and Augustus —from April 1, 286— of the Roman Empire until May 1, 305. He shared the office of Augustus with Diocletian, co-emperor and senior emperor /i>, political creator of the tetrarchy.

Maximian made his residence in Trier, but spent much of his time on campaign. Notable commander, he was present in the most important campaigns of the time; in the summer of 285 he wiped out the Gaul rebels known as bagaudas, and in 285-288 he fought the Germanic tribes that lived on the banks of the Rhine, using scorched earth in the territory of the Alemanni to avoid a possible invasion of the Central European provinces.

The uprising of Carausius, responsible for the control of the English Channel that had been named by Maximian, caused the rebellion of Britain and northwestern Gaul. At first Maximian was unable to fight the insurgent, as his navy was seriously damaged by storms in 289 or 290, so Constantius was given the responsibility of defeating Carausius' successor, Alecto, while Caesar i> was in Germany. After the expulsion of the rebel leader (296) Maximian moved south to fight Moorish pirates from the Iberian Peninsula and stop Berber incursions into Mauritania. Concluded the campaign (298) he returned to Italy, where he lived quietly until 305. By order of Diocletian he abdicated on May 1, 305, passing the title of Augustus to Constantius and retiring to southern Italy.

At the end of 306 he again took the title of Augustus and supported the rebellion of his son Maxentius in Italy; However, in April 307 he tried to depose his son and the tension between them caused Maximian to flee to the court of his son-in-law and Constantine's successor, Constantine, located in Trier. At the Carnunto conference—held in November 308—Diocletian and Galerius forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claims; However, two years later he would try to seize power again while Constantine was campaigning on the Rhine. The uprising was unsuccessful due to lack of support and Maximian would be captured in Marseilles, and sentenced to death by Constantine. Maximian was forced to commit suicide in the summer of 310, and during his war against Constantine, his image was removed from all public places. However, after Constantine defeated and killed Maxentius, Maximian's image was reinstated and he was ordered deified.

Youth

Maximian was born in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia), a city located in the province of Pannonia, c. 250 within a lineage of merchants. On the other hand, certain classical authors make weak allusions to a hypothetical Illyrian ancestry, to his "virtues as a Pannonian ", and to a severe education received in the devastated territory of the Danube. Maximian enlisted as a soldier with Diocletian, serving during the reigns of Aurelian (270-275) and Probus (276-282). He probably participated in Caro's Mesopotamian campaign (283) and attended Diocletian's imperial proclamation on 20 November 284 in Nicomedia. Writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes consider Maximian's appointment as caesar by Diocletian responds to a previous alliance between these two men, which is evidenced by the probable participation of Maximian in Diocletian's campaign against Carinus (283-285), although there is no conclusive evidence.

Aurelio Víctor describes him as "a trustworthy friend, although somewhat rude, and a competent soldier". He was an uneducated man, much more inclined to action than thought; indeed the panegyrist of 289, having compared her exploits to Scipio Africanus's victory over Hannibal, implied that the commander had never heard of her. Her aspirations were merely military, while political responsibility rested exclusively in Diocletian. Lactantius wrote that Maximian's attitude was much less moderate than that of his companion and denounced that he took advantage of his position to fulfill his most abject desires: he accused him of perverting the senators' heiresses and being accompanied by virgin girls who indulged his immoderate lasciviousness; however, Lactantius's credibility is limited by the hostility he displayed toward non-Christian leaders.

Maxentius and Fausta were born from the marriage between Maximian and his wife Eutropia. There is no conclusive evidence to determine the year of births; contemporary authors date that of the eldest between 277 and 287, while that of Fausta would be c. 298. Certain classical writers establish that Theodora, wife of Constantius I, was the alnada (stepdaughter) of Maximian, which leads Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein to say that she was born from a previous marriage between Eutropia and Haniabalian. Barnes shows her He disagrees with this theory by saying that the notion that supports it is based on the hypothetical Kaisergeschichte, while many other authors speak of natural descent. Barnes concludes that Theodora was not born later than 275, from a marriage Maximian's predecessor with an unknown woman, probably with one of Haniabalian's descendants.

Appointment as Caesar

In the summer of 285 Diocletian appointed Maximian as co-emperor or caesar in the city of Mediolanum (Milan, Italy). The reasons for this decision are not entirely clear. clear, although it is evident that with the fighting and insurrections in most of the imperial provinces - Gaul, Syria, Egypt and the Danube among others - Diocletian needed a competent military man to lead the Roman troops. Stephen Williams believes that the The appointment was a consequence of Diocletian's mediocrity as a commander, who considered it obvious that a soldier like Maximian would be enormously useful to him.

Diocletian's bust.

It should also be noted that Diocletian had no male descendants, which led the Dalmatian to name a Caesar outside of his lineage whom he could trust. Historian William Seston writes that Diocletian, like many other emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius augusti after his appointment; however, the historian Frank Kolb also rejects this theory, considering it based on an erroneous interpretation of papyrological evidence. On the other hand, Kolb's approach is seriously questioned by the fact that Maximian took the nomen of the lineage of Diocletian, Valerios (Valerius).

Diocletian was aware that the appointment provided the Empire with greater stability, since there were precedents of shared reign that invited optimism. Aurelian and Probus, who had reigned alone, had been eliminated surprisingly quickly despite their military successes, whereas a few years earlier the Emperor Caro and his heirs had reigned together, and even Octavian shared responsibilities, essentially military, and there were many more cases since the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

The political relationship between Diocletian and Maximian would be invested with religious connotations when, c. 287, Diocletian assumed the title of Iovius and Maximian that of Herculius. Both titles were fully symbolic: Diocletian assumed the dominant role, the role of Jupiter, taking responsibility for aspects related to order and command; Maximian was Hercules, the subordinate of the highest divinity. Regardless of said symbolism, the Roman emperors were not gods of the imperial cult, but instruments that they themselves used to do their will in the land. The rituals completed, Maximian assumed control of the western provinces and moved to Gaul to fight the bagaudas while his companion returned to the east.

Campaigns in Gaul and Germania

The Gaul bagaudas were relatively unknown until then, the rebellion of 285 being their first relevant event. Eutropius describes them as a rural town led by Amando and Aeliano, while Aurelio Víctor dismisses them as simple bandits. The historian David S. Potter believes that they were more than peasants, since among their demands was the political autonomy of the territory and the restitution of the recently deposed Caro —a native of Gaul Narbonensis; in that case the Empire would be fighting disloyal troops and not bandits. Although the insurgents were poorly led, equipped, and trained—making them an easy match for Roman troops—Diocletian considered the sedition important enough to require the presence of an emperor on the battlefield.

Maximian moved to Gaul in the summer of 285 and quickly began the campaign. We do not know the technical aspects of it, since the classical authors limit themselves to extolling the victories of Caesar. The panegyrici of 289 speaks of a resounding imperial victory and praises the commander's clemency towards the defeated rebels. As the adversaries in the contest were Roman citizens Maximian did not acquire a new cognomen nor celebrated a victory. Maximian's own panegyrist writes: "I pass quickly through this episode, for I see in your magnanimity the desire to forget this victory rather than to celebrate it". the initial rebellion, because of which Maximian decided to move his troops to the Rhine and stabilize the area.

In the autumn of 285 two hosts of German troops—one composed of Burgundians and Alemanni, the other of Chaibones and Heruli—forded the Rhine and entered Gaul. The first of these fell without a fight, decimated by epidemics and famine, while Caesar intercepted and defeated the other. After the victory, Maximian established numerous camps—most notably those he built at Mogontiacum (Mainz, Germany), Augusta Treverorum (Treveris, Germany) and Colonia Agrippina (Cologne, Germany)—on the banks of the river from which he planned to launch a new campaign.

Carausius

Although most of Gaul was pacified, the territories bordering the English Channel continued to be attacked by Frankish and Saxon pirates. Probus and Carinus had begun the fortification of the litus Saxonicum, but much remained to be done. Proof of this is the absence of archaeological evidence proving the existence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne in 270– 285. Maximian named Carausius—a Menapian from Lower Germany—in charge of preserving the Canal from possible attacks. Carausius did his duty very well and in 285 captured many pirate ships.

A Roman antefix with the banner of Legio XX Valeria Victrix, one of the legions that joined the Carausio uprising.

When Maximian was warned that Carausius had waited for the pirates to finish their looting to attack them and steal their booty, which, instead of being returned to the population or destined for the imperial treasury, had ended up in the pockets of the Menapius, Caesar immediately ordered his arrest and sentenced him to death. Carausius crossed the Channel and quickly fled to Britain, where he found many supporters, as Legio II Augusta and Legio XX Valeria Victrix joined him, as well as one of the legions stationed near Bolougne—probably Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix—. Once on the island, he quickly eliminated the few loyalist elements among his troops and proclaimed himself augusto.

When the revolt broke out, Maximian could do little against the insurgents: he lacked ships—he had ceded them all to Carausius—and he was in the middle of a campaign against the Heruli and the Franks. Carausius consolidated his position by building more ships, recruiting mercenaries, and increasing the pay of his troops. By autumn 286 Britain, northwestern Gaul and the Channel were fully controlled by rebels. Carausius declared Britain's independence — constituting the so-called Imperium Britanniarum— of which he appointed himself leader, and, to attract the support of the merchants of Britain and Gaul, he minted a purer coin than that of Maximian and Diocletian, which also caused numerous desertions among the imperial troops.

Appointment as Augustus

Spurred by the Carausian crisis, on April 1, 286 Maximian took the title of Augustus. This gave him the same status as Carausius — the combat was now between two augusts rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar—and Imperial propaganda proclaimed Maximian to be the brother of Diocletian, his equal in reputation and authority. Diocletian may not have been present at Maximian's appointment, leading Seeck to believe that Maximian usurped the title and Diocletian later recognized it in the hope of avoiding a civil strife. This theory has not had much support in academic circles and has recently been refuted by the historian William Leadbetter. Regardless of the distance between the two emperors, Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with this title, and Maximian respected Diocletian enough. enough to obey his orders.

The appointment of Maximian had consequences. The imperial propaganda of 287 reiterated the existence of a single and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum. The same panegyrici of 289 insists on the matter: « so that this great empire is a common possession of both, in which there is no discord, in which there should be no dispute between the two, you uphold the State like the two Heracleids, the kings of Sparta» Procedural rulings and imperial celebrations were carried out in the name of both emperors, and the same currency was used throughout the Empire. On certain occasions Diocletian issued orders to the province of Africa, controlled by Maximian, thus that it is presumable that Maximian could have done the same in Diocletian's territories.

Campaigns against the Rhine tribes

First campaigns (286-287)

Maximian realized that he could not immediately crush Carausius's insurrection, so he focused on fighting the Rhenish tribes. These tribes had many more soldiers than the rebels and included many supporters of Carausius. Although Maximian had numerous adversaries among them, most were more inclined to fight each other than fight the Empire.

On January 1, 287—when he was receiving the consular fasces—he heard of a barbarian incursion into Roman territory. Immediately, the emperor donned armor and marched against them, dispersing them almost entirely and celebrating a victory in Gaul later that year.

Flavio Constancio, prefect of the pretory of Maximiano and husband of his daughter Theodora.

The emperor considered that the Burgundian and Aleman tribes located in the Moselle-Vosges territory were the biggest threat, so he decided to attack them first. He employed scorched earth tactics; he razed their territories and decimated the population by famine and epidemics. After defeating these tribes, it was the turn of the Hérules and Chaibones, whom he cornered and defeated in a single combat in which he fought in person, riding through the battle line until the German troops disbanded and the Roman soldiers began their pursuit. With his enemies weakened by starvation, Maximian took the opportunity to launch an invasion across the Rhine. Roman troops pushed far into Germany, devastating the territory in their path, and demonstrating the superiority of the Roman military machine. the winter of 287 still had the initiative and had completely driven the Germanic tribes out of the Rhenish territories. Maximian's panegyrist wrote: "everything I see beyond the Rhine is Roman".

Campaign against the Alemanni

In the spring of 288 Maximian began preparations to fight Carausius and Diocletian returned from the East. The two emperors had a meeting—when and where we do not know—in which they probably agreed to start a campaign against the Alemanni and send a naval expedition against Carausius.

That same year Maximian invaded the Campos Decumanos by surprise while Diocletian entered Germany through Recia. They burned crops and food supplies in their path, destroying German livelihoods. This campaign involved the conquest of considerable territory, allowing Maximian to order the construction of numerous military buildings on the fly. As a result of the invasion, the reconstruction of numerous Rhenish cities and the construction of several bridgeheads on the eastern bank of the Rhine, in Mainz and Cologne, were carried out; likewise, Maximian established a military frontier in which he erected camps, roads, and fortress-cities. A military road through Tornacum (Tournai, Belgium), Bavacum (Bavay, France), Atuatuca Tungrorum (Tongeren, Belgium), Mosae Trajectum (Maastricht, Netherlands) and Cologne connected the most important points on the border.

Constancio, Gennobaudes and resettlement

In 288 Maximian ordered his praetorian praefectus and son-in-law, Flavius Constantius, to lead a campaign against Carausius' Frankish allies, who controlled the Rhenish estuaries and made a sea attack against Carausius impossible. Constantius immediately marched north, fighting until he reached the North Sea and causing his adversaries to capitulate. In the peace treaty, the restoration of the dispossessed king Gennobaudes was stipulated, because of which he became a vassal of Maximian, and, in the company of other minor leaders, swore allegiance to the Empire, which consolidated its dominance over the territory.

Maximian allowed Frisians, Salians, Chamaves and other tribes to settle in Roman territory, including between the Rhine and the Waal from Noviomagus (Nijmegen) to Traiectum (Utrecht) or near Trier. This permission implied a recognition of Roman rule by these tribes. Their presence meant the arrival of a large workforce and prevented the settlement of new tribes in the territory, since they constituted a kind of buffer state that reduced the number of troops needed in the area.

Last campaigns in Britain and Gaul

Expedition against Carausius

In 289 Maximian was prepared to invade Britain and nothing seemed to foresee the outcome of the campaign. That same year the panegyrici was very optimistic, but two years later he does not even mention the contest. Constantius' panegyrist implies that the armada was lost in a storm, although it is possible that he was only trying to hide a defeat. Warned of his companion's setback, Diocletian cut short his visit to the eastern provinces, and quickly returned, reaching Emesa on May 10, 290, and Sirmio on July 1 of that same year.

Carausio, rebel emperor of Britania.

Diocletian and Maximian held a further meeting in December 290 or January 291. This meeting appears to have been surrounded by enormous ostentation to please the crowds who wished to see the emperors. Historians such as Potter believe that all this pomp served to show that Diocletian continued to support Maximian. Both leaders discussed war and political matters in secret, and may have entertained the idea of expanding imperial appointments to include four emperors—known as a tetrarchy. he took the opportunity to meet with the emperors, as contact between the two bodies was unusual at the time. The emperors would not meet again until 303.

The defeat of Maximian opened an uneasy truce with Carausius. The emperor tolerated his presence in Britain and on the mainland, but refused to recognize the legitimacy of the secessionist state. Carausio for his part was happy with the situation, however, Diocletian could not resist this insult to his honor. The Menapian revolt and other strife in Egypt, Syria, and the Danube made him realize that two emperors were not enough to administer the Empire. On 1 March 293 Maximian appointed Constantius caesar in Milan. That same day Diocletian granted the same title to Galerius, thus establishing the tetrarchy, the "government of four". After the ceremony Constantius declared that he would achieve victory where Maximian had not.

Campaign against Alecto

Alecto, successor of Carausio.

Constancius quickly responded to expectations and in 293 expelled the Carausian troops from northern France. That same year Carausius was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer, Alecto. Immediately afterwards Caesar marched across the coast over the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries and defeated the continental allies. of the seditious, taking the title of Germanicus Maximus in commemoration. The defeat of the Carausian troops on the continent made it possible for him to focus his attention on Britain and begin the construction of an invasion squadron.

Maximian, who was still in Italy after Constantius's appointment, heard of the invasion plans and in the summer of 296 returned to Gaul. Once there he was in charge of protecting the Rhineland while Constantius began the reconquest of Britain. Alectus died on the North Downs fighting against Constantius' praefectus praetorio —Asclepiodotus— while Caesar himself landed near Dubris (Dover) and marched quickly over Londinium (London), whose citizens greeted him as a liberator.

Campaigns in North Africa

Constancius's victory freed Maximian to deal with affairs in Mauritania. The weakening of Roman authority in this area during the 3rd century prompted Berber tribes to attack Roman settlements, considerably compromising their position in the territory. In 289 the administrator of Mauritania Cesariense had a break after fighting the tribes in the area, but soon the raids returned. In 296 Maximian enlisted troops among the Praetorian cohorts, soldiers from Aquileia, Egypt, and the Danube, auxiliaries from Gaul and Germania, and recruits from Thrace. With the conscription complete, the emperor's men crossed Spain in the autumn, possibly holding the territory against Moorish incursions before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauritania Tingitana and defending the area from Frankish pirates.

In March 297 Maximian launched a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign dragged on considerably and the emperor spent the winters of 297 and 298 resting in Carthage before continuing the fighting. Not content with driving them back to the Atlas Mountains, from where they could continue fighting, Maximian entered Berber territory. The terrain was very adverse and the Berbers were experts in guerrilla warfare, but the Emperor continued to advance to do as much damage as possible to the Berber tribes, so he laid waste to their territories, killing as many as he could and driving them back to the Sahara. The campaign ended in spring 298, and Maximian made his triumphal entry into Carthage on March 10. Numerous inscriptions show the people's gratitude to the emperor; like Constantius at his entry into London, Maximian was hailed by the crowd as redditor lucis aeternae ("restorer of eternal light").In 299 he returned to Rome, where he celebrated a new triumph in spring.

Abdication

After this last campaign, Maximian returned to northern Italy —where he embarked on a life of pleasure and ostentation in the palaces of Milan and Aquileia— and entrusted the leadership of the war to Constantius. His relations with the Senate became very more tense; in fact, Lactantius accuses him of intimidating the senators and even—although this assertion is absolutely wrong, caused by the author's hostility—of murdering several, including the prefect of Rome (301/2). Instead, Constantius he maintained his good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and was actively fighting for the Empire. He again defeated the Franks in 300/1 and in 302—while Maximian was resting in Italy—he continued the campaign against the Germanic tribes on the upper Rhine.

Diocletian's vicennalia celebration in 303—the commemoration of the twentieth year of his reign—caused a break in Maximian's semi-retirement. It is possible that at this time Diocletian made Maximian promise to retire at the same time, ceding their titles as August to the current Caesars : Constantius and Galerius. expect that Maxentius and Constantine, heirs of Maximian and Constantius respectively, would become the new Caesars. Although Maximian apparently did not wish to withdraw completely, Diocletian was still in control and achieved his goal with little resistance. Before reaching the twilight of his career, Maximian had one last moment of glory when he officiated at the Secular Games of 304.

On May 1, 305, Maximian and Diocletian abdicated simultaneously in separate ceremonies held in Milan and Nicomedia, respectively. The succession upset Maximian, as the new Caesars would be Severus and Maximinus, leaving his heir with nothing. Severo and Maximinus were competent and military and both were closely related to Galerio: Severo was his nephew and Maximinus a former comrade-in-arms. Maximian's relations with the new order would not be good from the start, especially when he watched as Galerio he assumed the leading position that Diocletian had held. Although he presided over the ceremony of the proclamation of Severus as caesar, within two years he would rebel against the new tetrarchs. Diocletian retired to the palace he had built in his homeland and Maximian did the same in his villas in Campania and Lucania, where he continued his opulent life. Although distant from the political centers of the Empire, the former emperors remained close enough to continue in contact.

Maxentius insurrection

In the summer of 306 Constantius dies and Constantine decides to assume the title of Augustus. This fact annoyed Galerius, who agreed with Constantine to resign in exchange for the title of Caesar, while Severus became Augustus. On October 28, 306 Maxentius, jealous of Constantine's power, convinced a Praetorian cohort to proclaim him emperor. Aware of the weakness of his position, he sent representatives to Maximian with orders to greet him as august and propose a new diarchy.

Galerius decided not to recognize Maxentius and ordered Severus to march on the capital. Many of Severus's soldiers had served with Maximian and, moreover, had taken bribes from his heir, so the expedition ended amid numerous desertions. Defeated, Severus fled to Ravenna and Maxentius laid siege to the city. Aware of the complications involved in taking a city as fortified as Ravenna, Maximian proposed a peace treaty that Severus accepted. After the capitulation, Maximian decided to take Severus to a public villa located south of Rome as a hostage. In the autumn of 307 Galerius himself launched another attack on the capital, but a new defeat led him to retreat north with most of his troops.

I'm looking for Majencio.

After this victory Maximian moved to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine. They reached a pact whereby he would marry Fausta —becoming Maximian's son-in-law— and obtain the status of august in the new state. Constantine in return would revalidate the past alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and would support the cause of Maxentius in Italy, although he would remain neutral in the contest with Galerius. The agreement would be corroborated in a double ceremony held in Trier in the summer of 307 in which Constantine married Fausta and was recognized as Augustus by Maximian.

Maximian returned to the capital in the winter of 307/308, but his relationship with his heir soon became very tense. In the spring of 308 he questioned his right to reign before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of a failing administration, and accused him of weakening the Empire, even seizing him by the shoulders, ripping his garments. Maximian expected the soldiers to support him, but they sided with Maxentius and he had to hastily leave Italy.

On November 11, 308, Galerius decided to meet with Diocletian and Maximian in the military city of Carnunto to address the existing political instability. Two important decisions were made at the council: Maximian was to renounce his title of Augustus and Constantine was to return to being Caesar. Licinius—a soldier loyal to Galerius—was made August in the West. In 309 Maximian returned to Constantine's court in Gaul, the only one in the Empire where he was still accepted.

Rebellion against Constantine and suicide

In 310 Maximian rebelled against Constantine, while he was campaigning against the Franks. At Arles—the city to which he had been sent to prevent Maxentius from raiding southern Gaul—he announced that Constantine was dead and took the imperial purple, but despite promising bribes to anyone who supported him as emperor, most of the soldiers remained loyal to Constantine and Maximian had to flee. After being warned of the insurrection, Caesar abandoned the campaign and immediately moved to Massilia (Marseille), where Maximian and his men had taken refuge. Although the city was in a condition to withstand a siege, the citizens decided to open the back gates to Constantine's troops, who captured Maximian. The former Augustus had to renounce his titles and that same summer he hanged himself, since Caesar had sentenced him to death.

Despite the break in their relations, after Maximian's death, Maxentius presented himself as a devoted son of his father. He ordered coins minted with Maximian's deified image and announced his desire to avenge his death.

At first, Constantine portrayed suicide as a pitiful domestic drama. However, in the year 311 he presented a new version by virtue of which, after the caesar pardoned Maximian, he would have planned to assassinate him while he slept. Fausta found out about the plot and notified Constantine, who put a eunuch in her bed and caught Maximian as he killed him. After the incident Maximian agreed to commit suicide Constantine would also institute a damnatio memoriae on Maximian by which he ordered the destruction of any public item that alluded to him.

Constantine's victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312 brought dominance over all of Italy and the death of Maximian's only male heir. After the battle, Eutropia declared that Maxentius was not a son of Maximiano and Constantino decided to rehabilitate his memory; invalidated his apotheosis and deified him again, probably in 317. In 318 Maximian began to appear as divus on Constantine's coins with the already deified Constantius and Claudius the Gothic. All three would be hailed as ancestors of Constantine and considered "the three best emperors". Through Fausta and Flavia, Maximian would be the grandfather or great-grandfather of each reigning emperor in the period between 337 and 363.