Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands, officially known as the Republic of the Marshall Islands (in English, Republic of the Marshall Islands; in Marshallese, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ), is an island country located in the Pacific Ocean, in the region of Micronesia.

It was part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and was administered by the United States. It achieved full independence in accordance with international law on December 22, 1990, when the United Nations officially terminated its trusteeship over the territory, making it one of the youngest countries in Oceania. It is a member of the UN and APEC.

Etymology

The current name of the Marshall Islands refers to the British Captain John Marshall, who together with Thomas Gilbert explored the islands in 1788. The archipelago was named for the Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern and the Frenchman Louis Isidore Duperrey, who drew the first maps of the region in the 1820s. British cartographers later repeated this designation on their own maps. The original Spanish name for the group of islands was Los Pintados and the first explored island was called San Bartolomé in 1526. Other Spanish names for the islands were Barbudos and Islas de los Jardines. The Spanish name for Bikini Atoll in 1529 for its part was ''Good Gardens''.

History

First settlers

Little is known about the prehistory of the Marshall Islands. These islands appear to have been reached by successive waves of migration from Southeast Asia that occurred in the Western Pacific around 3,000 years ago.

Spanish rule (1526-1885)

The first European to reach the archipelago was the Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar in 1526, during the expedition of García Jofre de Loaísa. Commanded by the ship Santa María de la Victoria, the sole surviving ship of this voyage on August 21 sighted an island (probably present-day Taongi) at 14°N which it named "San Bartholomew".

Another Spanish explorer, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, in command of the ship Florida, claimed them in the name of the King of Spain in 1528. He called this group of islands “Los Pintados”. Numerous Spanish expeditions followed. Ships like the San Jerónimo, Los Reyes, Todos los Santos visited the islands in different years.

After that, there were many more visits in order to trade and replenish supplies. Since the islanders were not immune to European diseases, many died from contact with the Spanish.

The English named them «Marshall» on their maps, after the explorer John Marshall who visited them in 1799, but they were claimed by Spain in 1875 and their sovereignty recognized by international diplomacy, except Germany and the United Kingdom, as part of Spanish Micronesia.

The Spaniards called the current Atoll of Bikini Good Gardens in 1529

The Marshall Islands were formally claimed by Spain in 1874 through its capital in the East Indies, Manila. This marked the start of several strategic moves by the German Empire during the 1870s and 1880s to annex them (claiming that they were 'by chance unoccupied'). This policy culminated in a tense naval episode in 1885, which did not degenerate into a conflict due to the poor preparation of the Spanish naval forces and the lack of will for open military action on the German side.

After the mediation of the Pope and a German compensation of 4.5 million dollars, Spain reached an agreement with Germany in 1885: the Spanish-German Protocol of Rome of 1885 that put an end to the so-called Crisis of the Carolinas. This agreement established a protectorate and established trading stations on the islands of Jaluit (Joló) and Ebon to carry on the flourishing trade in copra (dried coconut meat). The Marshallian iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under an indirect German colonial administration, made tacitly effective by the wording of the Protocol of 1885, which delimited a zone subject to Spanish sovereignty (0º-11ºN, 133º-164ºE) omitting the Carolinas eastern, i.e., the Marshall and Gilbert archipelagos, where most of the German trading posts were located. The disputes were terminated after the sale of the entire Caroline archipelago to Germany 13 years later.

Other European contacts

Captain John Charles Marshall and Thomas Gilbert visited the islands in 1788. The islands were named after Marshall on some Western maps, although indigenous peoples had historically called their home "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God). Around 1820, Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern and French explorer Louis Isidore Duperrey named the islands after John Marshall and drew maps of them. British maps later repeated the designation. In 1824, the crew of the American whaler Globe mutinied and part of the crew landed on Mulgrave Island. A year later, the American schooner Dolphin arrived and picked up two children, the last survivors of a massacre perpetrated by the natives due to their brutal treatment of women.

Several ships visiting the islands were attacked and their crews killed. In 1834 Captain Don Sette and his crew were murdered. Similarly, in 1845 the schooner Naiad punished a native for stealing with such violence that the natives attacked the ship. That same year the crew of a whaler was murdered. In 1852, the San Francisco-based ships Glencoe and Sea Nymph were attacked, killing all but one crew member. The violence is usually attributed as a response to the ill-treatment that the natives received in response to petty theft, which was a common practice. In 1857 two Christian missionaries successfully established themselves at Ebon, living among the natives until at least 1870. They built the first schools.

German rule (1885-1914)

Posada Germania in the Atoll of Jaluit (photo of the 1880s)

In 1859 the first documented German visit to the Marshall Islands took place; Adolph Capelle arrived from Samoa.

In 1864, the Portuguese whaler José deBrum reached the Marshall Islands and established a trading post with Capelle; both married local women.

Subsequently, several German traders came to the Marshall Islands. It is mainly about Joh. Cess. Godeffroy & Sohn (Hamburg) from 1873, who were already active in many regions of the Pacific and who now established coconut plantations in Ébano for the extraction of copra. joh. Cess. Godeffroy & Sohn later expanded with trading posts in Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili and Namorik. The German company Hernsheim & Co. also traded in jaluta. Later, the Capelle-deBrum company in Likiep also started producing copra, which was very profitable.

After raising the German flag on the island of Jaluit on October 15, 1885 as a sign of inauguration, the first Imperial Commissioner Wilhelm Knappe assumed the sovereign rights of the German Empire in 1886. From 1893 to 1898, Georg Irmer He was the first Governor of the Marshall Islands (Landeshauptmann der Marshallinseln). In 1906, the islands officially became part of the colony of German New Guinea (Deutsch-Neuguinea)

Protector of the Marshall Islands, German Colonial Atlas of 1897 (Deutscher Kolonialatlas) - Map 30 of Justus Perthes

During separate administration, the following Empire officials headed the "protectorate":

Germany established a protectorate in 1885 and trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry on the flourishing trade in copra (coconut dried meat). The Marshallese iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect German administration.

When World War I broke out in 1914, all German buildings in the Marshall Islands were destroyed. The only building from that period still standing is the House of Brum (Haus deBrum) in Likiep, built by Joachim deBrum in 1904-05.

Japanese rule 1914-1944

Nan'yo-cho (South Pacific Mandate Administrative Session) Japan Empire Office at the Jaluit Atoll

At the beginning of World War I, Japan seized the Marshall Islands. Its headquarters were set up in the German administration center, Jaluit.

The Imperial Japanese Navy (大日本帝國海軍) occupied the defenseless archipelago in September/October 1914 during World War I, following Japan's declaration of war on the German Empire on August 23, 1914, and immediately began to establish military bases and to assume the management of the islands. After the war, the League of Nations officially entrusted Japan with administration of the islands as part of the Japan South Sea Mandate. Japan used the occasion to almost completely seal off the Marshall Islands—like all of its mandate islands in the South Seas—from the world to settle Japanese immigrants unmolested, disenfranchise and exploit the native population, and expand the military presence. The first airfields for the new air force of the Imperial Navy were also built in the 1930s.

At the start of World War II, the Marshall Islands were important bases for Japan, especially as the easternmost possessions in the Pacific. From there, the submarines and also the flying boats were deployed towards the main US base on the island of Hawaii, also in the air-naval battle of the Midway Islands. Following the Japanese defeat there, the Imperial Japanese Navy repeatedly moved larger warship units into the lagoons of the Marshall Islands in 1942 and 1943 and bolstered its defenses with numerous soldiers, construction workers, and also the naval air force, since an American offensive against the archipelago was now expected. The atolls of Mili, Jaluit, Arno, Wotje and Kwajalein were specially defended. Others, like Majuro, Eniwetok and Bikini, were little or not busy at all.

Japanese Festival in the Jaluit Atoll, Marshall Islands

After the first air raids from aircraft carriers as early as March 1942 – still with little effect – the US offensive began on January 31, 1944 with the landing of strong naval troops under the protection of a large fleet of aircraft carriers in Kwajalein Atoll, chosen for its good strategic location in the archipelago and which was conquered after a few days with the destruction of all the Japanese occupation forces.

The Japanese navy did not intervene, nor was the regional air force reinforced, so it quickly fell to the vastly superior US carrier force. Numerous other islands were subsequently occupied by US forces, making Majuro Atoll in particular a major naval base. Other heavily fortified islands, such as Mili and Jaluit, were only held by air and naval bombardment, so Japanese troops remained there until the end of the war.

American rule 1944-1979

On January 31, 1944, during World War II, American troops landed on Kwajalein Atoll and conquered the islands from the Japanese on February 3, followed by heavy fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak Atolls.

In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, reached an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. A major radar was built on the Kwajalein Atoll.

After World War II, the United States was engaged in a Cold War nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build larger, more destructive bombs.

Expulsion of the inhabitants of Bikini by the United States Government in March 1948

Bikini in the Marshall Islands was remote from regular shipping and air traffic, making it an ideal location for these tests from the US government's point of view. In February 1946, Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the military governor of the Marshall Islands, asked the atoll's 167 Micronesian inhabitants to voluntarily and temporarily relocate so that the United States government could begin testing atomic bombs. for "the good of humanity and to end all world wars". After a "confused and painful deliberation" Among the Bikinians, their leader, King Juda, accepted the US request for relocation, announcing Men Otemjeej Rej Ilo Bein Anij, which translates as "Everything is in Gods hands" 34;. Nine of the eleven heads of households, or alaps, chose Rongerik as their new home.

In February, Navy sailors helped them dismantle the church and community house and prepare for their move to their new home. On March 7, 1946, residents gathered their personal belongings and saved up building supplies. They were transported 125 miles (201 km) to the east on US Navy Landing Ship 1108 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate supply of water and food and due to entrenched traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the Demon Girls of Ujae. The Navy left them a few weeks worth of food and water, which soon proved insufficient.

From 1946 to 1958, the early years of the Cold War, the United States tested 67 nuclear weapons at its Pacific Test Range, located in the Marshall Islands, including the largest atmospheric nuclear test ever conducted by the United States, Las The bombs had a total yield of 108,496 kilotons, more than 7,200 times more powerful than the atomic weapons used during World War II" With the 1952 test of the first American hydrogen bomb, called the "Ivy Mike& #34;, the island of Elugelab in the Enewetak Atoll was destroyed. In 1956, the United States Atomic Energy Commission considered the Marshall Islands to be "the most polluted place in the world, by far".

Castle Bravo Nuclear Test Mushroom in the Bikini atoll of the Marshall Islands on 28 February 1954. It was the most powerful nuclear explosion carried out by the United States.

Nuclear claims between the United States and the Marshall Islands continue, and the health effects of these nuclear tests persist. Project 4.1 was a medical study conducted by the United States on residents of Bikini Atoll exposed to rain radioactive. From 1956 to August 1998, at least $759 million was paid to Marshall Islanders in compensation for their exposure to US nuclear testing.

Independence

On May 1, 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States admitted the constitution of the islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates American and British concepts. Full independence in accordance with international law occurred on December 22, 1990, when the United Nations officially terminated the trusteeship over the territory.

There have been numerous local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded, and democracy has generally worked well. The United Democratic Party, following a platform of reforms, won the 1999 parliamentary elections, seizing control of the presidency and cabinet.

The islands signed an agreement with the United States in 1986, and until 1999 the islanders received $180 million for the use of Kwajalein Atoll, $250 million in compensation for nuclear tests, and $600 million in other items.

Despite the Constitution, the government was largely controlled by traditional chiefs. It was not until 1999, under accusations of corruption, that the aristocratic government was overthrown, with Imata Kabua being replaced by the "commoner" Kessai Note.

21st century

Missile testing on Omelek Island (0.22 km2) in 2009, rented to the United States by the Marshall Islands

In 2008, extreme waves and high tides caused widespread flooding in the capital, Majuro, and other urban centers at 0.91m above sea level. On Christmas morning 2008, the government declared a state of emergency. In 2013, strong waves again breached the Majuro city walls.

In 2013, the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands suffered from a drought. The drought left 6,000 people surviving on less than a liter of water a day. This caused crop failure and the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, conjunctivitis and influenza. These emergencies caused the then President of the United States to declare an emergency on the islands. This declaration activated the support of US government agencies under the status of "free association" of the Republic with the United States, which provides humanitarian aid and other vital aid in exchange for the use of military installations on the islands.

Following the 2013 emergencies, Foreign Minister Tony deBrum was encouraged by the Obama administration in the United States to turn crises into an opportunity to promote action against climate change. DeBrum called for a new commitment and international leadership to prevent further climate catastrophes from hitting his country and other equally vulnerable countries. In September 2013, the Marshall Islands hosted the 44th Summit of the Pacific Islands Forum. DeBrum proposed a Majuro Declaration for Climate Leadership to drive concrete action on climate change.

Sea level rise threatens the islands. Regardless of the cause, much of the island surface may become uninhabitable if levels are excessive. Major flooding occurred in 2014, causing a state of emergency for Majuro again. Thousands of islanders have already moved to the United States in recent decades for medical treatment, further education or employment, many settling on the Arkansas State; emigration is likely to increase as sea levels rise. The right of residents to do so ends in 2023, unless the pact with the United States is renewed. The US Geological Survey warned in 2014 that rising sea levels will salinize freshwater on the islands, "probably forcing people to leave their islands within decades, not centuries, as previously thought." 34;.

A mid-2017 report by Stanford University, some 70 years after the detonation of 23 atomic bombs on Bikini Atoll, indicates the existence of abundant fish and plants in coral reefs. However, that part of the islands was still not habitable for humans, due to contamination by radioactivity. A 2012 United Nations report had indicated that the contamination was "almost irreversible".

In January 2020, David Kabua, son of founding president Amata Kabua, was elected the new president of the Marshall Islands. His predecessor, Hilda Heine, lost the post after a vote.

Government and politics

Marshall Islands Capitol Building.

The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as stated in Article IV of its Constitution. Elections are held every four years under universal suffrage (for all citizens over the age of 18). years), with the election by its 24 members from among one or more senators to the lower house (bicameral legislature). Dalap-Uliga-Darrit, the capital of the atoll, elects five senators. The president, head of state and government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela, who in turn has to choose a presidential cabinet made up of ten ministers who must be approved by the lower house.

There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP).

Human Rights

In terms of human rights, regarding membership of the seven bodies of the International Bill of Human Rights, which include the Human Rights Committee (HRC), the Marshall Islands has signed or ratified:

Status of major international human rights instruments

Marshall Islands	International treaties
	CESCR		CCPR			CERD	CED	CEDAW		CAT		CRC			MWC	CRPD
	CESCR	CESCR-OP	CCPR	CCPR-OP1	CCPR-OP2-DP			CEDAW	CEDAW-OP	CAT	CAT-OP	CRC	CRC-OP-AC	CRC-OP-SC		CRPD	CRPD-OP
Pertenence
Signed and ratified, signed, but not ratified, neither signed nor ratified, without information, it has agreed to sign and ratify the body concerned, but also recognizes the competence to receive and process individual communications from the competent bodies.

Judicial branch and legal system

The judicial system in the Marshall Islands has the following levels:

Marshall Islands Constitutional Convention in 2017

The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeals and makes final decisions on all matters brought before it. It is composed of a presiding judge and two associate judges.

The High Court has its own jurisdiction and is the court of appeal for all lower courts. It is composed of a president and an associate judge.

The Court of Traditional Rights is a special court with three or more judges to ensure fair representation of all (land law) classes in society: Iroijlaplap (high chief/superior chief); when possible, Iroijedrik (underboss/underboss); Alap (Commoner/Worker Clan Overseer; Commoner/Worker Clan Chief) and Dri Jerbal (Commoner/Worker). Examines court cases for compatibility with traditional customary law and makes recommendations to the High Court.

The District Court is competent for the simplest disputes (private cases up to $10,000, criminal cases with expected penalties of up to $5,000) and is the court of appeal for local courts. It is made up of a presiding judge and two associate judges; these are lay judges who have received additional training.

The community courts are responsible for the simple matters of their municipalities, of which there are 24. They are made up of a presiding judge and a variable number of associate judges.

The legal system is based on a mixture of US mandate law, laws passed by Parliament, municipal law, common law, and common law. The right to vote is granted to all citizens over the age of 18.

Traditional dance called Jabwa during the visit of the President of Taiwan (Republic of China) to the Marshall Islands in 2017

Foreign Policy

The Compact of Free Association with the United States grants Marshallese islanders the right to immigrate to the United States without the need for a visa, but as foreigners they may be subject to removal proceedings if convicted of certain crimes.

The Marshall Islands were admitted to the United Nations by recommendation of the Security Council on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704, and by approval of the General Assembly on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/3 In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands have often voted in coordination with the United States regarding General Assembly resolutions due to the economic aid provided by this country.

In October 2011, the government declared its territorial waters a shark sanctuary. It is the largest shark sanctuary in the world, which expands the previous sanctuaries of about 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 specimens. In these sanctuaries, shark fishing is prohibited and bycatch must be released. However, some observers expressed doubt that the Marshall Islands would be capable of enforcing this ban.

In 2012, a prolonged, unseasonal drought set in, causing water shortages and infectious diseases. Since January 2013, drinking water has to be imported, but this exceeds financial resources in the long term. The rise in sea level had noticeable effects on the islands. As a result, the Marshall Islands began accelerating its transition to renewable energy, such as solar, as well as testing promising techniques for generating ocean power. However, since the bulk of the world's CO2 emissions come from other countries, he asked other nations to contribute more to climate protection than they have done so far.

The country is a member of the Climate Vulnerability Forum. In early 2013, the Marshall Islands appealed to the United Nations Security Council to recognize climate change as a threat to international security. In May In 2013, Marshall Islands Foreign Minister Phillip Muller published an appeal in the Washington Post describing the situation as an emergency.

Academias de idiomas en Estados Unidos

At the start of the UN Climate Summit, COP26, in Glasgow, Marshall Islands climate ambassador Tina Stege warned of the imminent disappearance of the islands within 50 years due to rising sea levels and called for international support.

In 2014, the Marshall Islands filed a lawsuit against the so-called ''nuclear powers'' USA, Russia, UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea before the International Court of Justice. The UK, India and Pakistan accepted the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. In 2015, the people of the island nation were awarded the honorary Right Livelihood Award for their involvement in the anti-nuclear movement. The Marshall Islands has been a leader in that organization.

Journalist Giff Johnson addressed the consequences of the tests in his books. In Don't Ever Whisper: Darlene Keju, Pacific Health Pioneer, Advocate for Nuclear Survivors (2013), he creates a literary memorial to his wife, health activist Darlene Keju. She has publicized the health consequences of the experiments around the world, noting in particular the numerous stillbirths and deformities of newborns.

In March 2017, at the 34th regular session of the UN Human Rights Council, Vanuatu made a joint statement on behalf of the Marshall Islands and some other Pacific nations raising violations of human rights in Western New Guinea, occupied by Indonesia since 1963, and requested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report. Indonesia denied the accusations.

In 2021, the Australian and Japanese governments decided to fund two major law enforcement developments for the Marshall Islands.

In February 2021, the Marshall Islands announced that it would formally withdraw from the Pacific Islands Forum in a joint statement with Kiribati, Nauru and the Federated States of Micronesia following a dispute over the election of Henry Puna as Secretary General of the Forum.

U.S. Coast Guard Cuter Oliver Berry (WPC 1124) sails in formation with the ship Lomor 03 of the Republic of the Marshall Islands in front of the Kwajalein atoll in 2018.

Defense

The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the United States sole responsibility for the international defense of the Marshall Islands.

Since 1991, the Republic of the Marshall Islands Marine Patrol, a division of the Marshall Islands Police, has operated the 160-ton patrol vessel RMIS Lomor. The Lomor is one of 22 Pacific Forum patrol vessels Australia provided to the smaller Pacific Forum nations. While other nations' missions for their ships include sovereignty, protection, the terms of the Compact of Free Association restrict the Lomor to civilian missions, such as fisheries protection and search and rescue.

On April 28, 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Islands-flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by the German company Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship did not contain any special cargo or military weapons. According to the Pentagon, the ship fell under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard. Tensions have risen in the region due to the intensification of attacks by the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance plane were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that the 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials then said they would review US defense obligations to the Marshall Islands government in the wake of those events while condemning the firing on the bridge as "inappropriate." In May 2015 it was reported that Tehran would release the ship after paying a fine.

Territorial organization

Organization in districts.

The country is made up of twenty-nine atolls and five islands. The most important ones in turn form two groups: the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain (in Marshallese "dawn" and "sunset" respectively). The government of the country has made territorial claims for the sovereignty of Wake Island, to the north of the archipelago^{[citation required]}, administered by the United States, under the name Enen-kyo. The 24 districts into which the country is divided correspond to the different islands and atolls:

Geography

Map of the Marshall Islands.

The Republic of the Marshall Islands is located northeast of Australia, specifically north of Nauru and east of Micronesia. It has 370.4 km of coastline and also has Majuro as its only major port, which is the capital. It has a maximum height of 10 meters, and that is why it is a country in danger of disappearing due to the rise in sea level.

It is made up of two archipelagos called Ralik and Ratak; some coral reefs that barely emerge on two submarine volcanic ridges that are members of the Pacific Ring of Fire that in total add up to some 1,152 Pacific islands grouped into 34 atolls and 870 reefs. This insular dispersion covers a maritime area of approximately one million km², however the emerged area does not exceed 176 km². The Marshall Islands Exclusive Economic Zone occupies an area in the Pacific Ocean of about 2,131,000 square kilometers
These islands mostly barely protrude from sea level, this means that the rise of 0.59 m in the level of the Pacific Ocean for the year 2011 will flood a large part of the territory during high tides, and it is feared that almost the entire territory (of similar to what happens to other low-lying small island countries such as Vanuatu, Maldives, Kiribati, Tuvalu or much of the Carolinas) are at risk of being submerged with rising sea levels due to global warming.

The island group of the Ralik or Ralic chain (in the southwest) includes Ujelang, Enewetak, Bikini, Ujae, Jaluit, Kwajalein, Rongelap, Namu, Ebeye, Ailingalap, Ebon, Wotho, Rongerik, Namorik, Likiep atolls; the Ratak or Ratac chain group (in the northeast) includes the small islands of Taongi, Bikar, Mejit, Likiep, Wotje, Erikub, Enetewak, Maloelap, Aur, Majuro (where is the capital formed by the small village agglomeration of Delap, Uliga and Djarrit.

Climate

Eneko Island Beach, Marshall Islands

The climate is clearly tropical with temperatures and thermal variations very moderated by the ocean, the average temperature in 2001 was 28 °C.
The climate is hot and humid, with a dry season from May to November. It occasionally suffers from typhoons. Despite the possible torrential rains, the small size, the high insolation throughout the year, the low altitude and porosity of the emerged land mean that fresh water is scarce and accumulates, before draining or evaporating, in ponds under the shade of trees or in the sap of plants.

Climate change is a serious threat to the Marshall Islands as typhoons are getting stronger and sea levels are rising. The sea around the Pacific islands has risen by 7 mm a year since 1993, which is more than twice the world average. In Kwajalein, there is a high risk of permanent flooding; when the sea level rises one meter, 37% of the buildings will be permanently flooded in that scenario. At Ebeye, the risk of sea level rise is even higher, with 50% of buildings permanently flooded in the same scenario. With a sea level rise of 1 meter, some parts of Majuro Atoll will be permanently inundated and others are at high risk of flooding, especially the eastern part of the atoll. With a sea level rise of 2 meters, all buildings in Majuro will be permanently flooded or at high risk of flooding.

CO2 emissions per capita were 2.56 t in 2020. The Marshall Islands government has committed to being net zero by 2050, with a 32% decrease in GHG emissions by 2025, from 45% in 2030 and 58% in 2035, all compared to 2010 levels.

Geology and geomorphology

The formation of the Marshall Islands followed the usual pattern of small western Pacific islands: the eruption of submarine volcanoes (here 70-80 million years ago in the Mesozoic), the growth of seamounts, the subsidence Due to volcanic activity and coral growth in the shallow coastal waters of dormant volcanoes, as these volcanic cores eroded, the sea level rose and so did the corals, which gradually formed reefs. of the atolls is a long-term process.

Bikrin Island in the Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands

Due to the long-term evolution of coral, the surface of atolls consists essentially of coral-derived calcareous sand or pebbles, often consolidated into limestone at deeper levels, with occasional overhanging limestone.

The 29 atolls consist of coral-created island rings or continuous land belts around a lagoon (created where the volcanic peak eroded), sometimes broken by larger gaps connecting the atolls to the ocean. There are 5 islands (not counting the inner lagoon).

The land surface rises an average of 2.1 m and rarely more than 3 m above sea level. The highest elevations are 10 m above sea level at Likiep Atoll and 14 m above sea level on Airik Island in Maloelap Atoll.

The soils of the Marshall Islands are among the most nutrient poor in the world. These include sand, gravel, silty sand, acid peat soil, boggy or hydromorphic organic soils, "taro mucks" and artificial soils.

Hydrogeoraphic analysis shows that the Marshall Islands have no significant surface water sources, as permeable calcareous soils allow precipitation to percolate rapidly. On some islands, there are small lenticular groundwater deposits that are entirely dependent on rainfall, lying above the denser saline water layers and draining underground to the sea. They can be pierced for human use.

Flora

Over 700 plant species have been registered in the Marshall Islands

Over 700 plant species have been described from the Marshall Islands, about half of which are indigenous. Of these native plants, about 80 grow on land, the rest are algae and sea grass. Most of the native plants are found in the tropical Pacific region. More than half of the native plants have local names, and only a small percentage have English names.

The following vegetation zones (plant communities) are distinguished in the Marshall Islands:

• Wūjooj-in-lojet: saltwater aquatic vegetation, marine grass communities.
• Mar-in-ioon-cap: coastal vegetation on sandy and rocky coasts.
• Pat: vegetation of mangroves or wetlands along the coasts or in lowlands of the interior with salt water or saltwater
• Buuson-mar: forest in the atoll or inside the island, groups of trees, bushes and native herbs in wild or abandoned areas.
• Kein-ikkan: Vegetation cultivated, including laagrosilviculture on cultivated trees and other cultivated associated plants; and natural or excavated lowlands in which certain tubers and associated herbs grow.

Wildlife

More than 5,000 animal species from 19 different groups have been described in the Marshall Islands:

An important phylum is the arthropods, with 600 species, most of which are terrestrial. In terrestrial ecosystems, insects, land crabs, spiders, millipedes, and scorpions play important roles. In the sea, the world's only exclusively maritime family of insects is found in the form of sea waders.

The 19 lizard species are almost all indigenous, except for the now common Pacific monitor lizard ("tokake", Varanus indicus), which has also been observed at sea.

More than 100 bird species have been classified in the Marshall Islands including 19 indigenous species

All 9 species of terrestrial mammals have been imported. The Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) is widespread.

Birds are the second largest group of terrestrial animals, with 106 species, of which 19 are native, 6 imported and 78 migratory that only rest here briefly.

Marine life shows great diversity.

Near the coast there are more than 800 species of fish. In the deeper areas, there are probably at least 120 species of fish, but this area is difficult to explore. In the open ocean, 67 species of fish have been described so far.

Coral reefs are home to more than 250 species of coral and about 100 species of the cnidarian phylum.

The largest phylum in the Marshall Islands is the molluscs, with more than 1,650 species of the five main classes.

Other members of the phylum are the equiuroids and the tardigrades. The subphylum of gilled animals only has 85 species worldwide, of which at least two live in the Marshall Islands, and one of them, the "jaibo" (arrow worm), is a popular food on many atolls.

Described marine mammals include Humpback Whale, Japanese Beaked Whale, Blainville's Beaked Whale, Blue Whale, Fin Whale, Sperm Whale, Eastern Pacific Dolphin, Borneo Dolphin, Long-Snouted Common Dolphin and the pygmy pilot whale.

Economy

1995 currencies in the Marshall Islands

Phosphate deposits stand out as natural resources on the mainland, as well as the collection of copra. Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms and the most important cash crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons and breadfruit. Having a small although intensive agriculture of copra, coconut, sweet potato and banana (plantain).

Livestock is restricted (due to the small area) to raising pigs, poultry such as chickens, and to a lesser extent cattle and goats. Fishing is obviously very important, although the seas surrounding these islands, being warm seas, are not very prolific in fish, which is why fishing companies with nominal headquarters in this country can choose to fish mainly in colder seas.

The industry is mainly copra, coconut oil, frozen fish for export, handicrafts. Aid from the United States government is the mainstay of the economy.^{[citation needed]} Small-scale industry is limited to crafts, fish processing, and the copra.

Tourism is now a small source of income employing less than 10% of the workforce, it remains the best hope for future added income. The islands have few natural resources and imports far exceed exports. Despite the relative scarcity of natural resources in their emerged lands, the Marshall Islands have in their jurisdictional waters significant wealth that is little exploited due to the scarcity of capital, among these underwater wealth is that of manganese nodules. The issuance of postage stamps, mainly for philatelic collecting, is also an important source of income for its economy.

Two-thirds of the nation's population lives in the capital Majuro and the city of Ebeye. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to the scarcity of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally still quite traditional and the nutrition of the rural population who harvest and hunt is superior to that of the urban residents who eat rice.

In 2005 Aloha Airlines canceled its flight services to the Marshall Islands as part of its withdrawal from various markets in the region. Although other international airlines continue to land in Majuro, this is a setback to the country's desire to increase tourism revenue.

Under the terms of the amended Compact of Free Association, the United States will provide millions of dollars each year to the Marshall Islands until 2023, when a trust fund created by contributions from the United States and the Republic of the Marshall Islands will begin to be effective annually.

Boat model with balancín, Marshall Islands, 1891.

Fishing

Fishing has been an essential source of food for people for thousands of years. In 2016, it caught 64,795 tons of fish, according to official figures, plus 5 tons from underdeveloped aquaculture, representing a total of 64,800 tons; this figure puts the Marshall Islands as 95th in the world. In 1998, fishing contributed 7.40% of GDP.

However, these official data are disputed by experts. In addition to export-oriented industrial fishing, there is small-scale fishing, although both are not sufficiently recorded statistically for various reasons, especially small-scale fishing, which can therefore be partly attributed to the informal sector. With climate change as a backdrop, more attention has been paid to food security in recent years. A study published in 2020 examined the figures from 1950 to 2017 and returns the following figures:

• Total catch figures: realistically estimated 27 per cent higher than the figures reported by the Marshall Islands to FAO.
• Industrial fish: approximately 84% of all catches, mainly targeting various species of tuna, but also includes sharks and swordfish as accessory catches.
• Artisanal fisheries: approximately 26 per cent of total catches; about 1950 1,100 tonnes/year, since then increasing and from 1990 relatively stable at 4,500 tonnes/year

Industrial fishing figures:

• Fishing with nets: 75% of the catches, for statistical correction it is necessary to increase the absolute figure by 5%.
• Palangre fishing: 25% of the catches, for statistical correction it is necessary to increase the absolute number by 30%.

Artisanal fishing figures:

• Artisanal fish: 26 % (of which 45 % have not yet been recorded statistically); light increase of +3 %/year since 2009.
• Self-supply Fishing: 74 % of artisanal fishing (of which 92 % have not yet been recorded statistically); since 2009 it decreases slightly by -2 %/year
• Recreational fishing: growing quota; in 1988 to 4.9 tons, in 1998 to 6 tons.

An example of self-sufficiency fishing: Fishing is not just for the fish. For example, the traditional method of "kajiabo" used to capture "jaibo" (arrowworms), hemichordates that in some respects have more in common with fish than with worms. They live in the mud and sand of many lagoons. They are captured with a "nok" (a coconut leaf), which is skilfully introduced into the hole to harpoon the animal. Eating the "jaibo" raw is considered a delicacy.

The beaches are one of the main attractions of the Marshall Islands

Tourism

Tourism, one of the few sources of foreign exchange, employed just over 600 people in 2015, around 5.5% of the country's active population. In Majuro there are two hotels (150 and 40 rooms), as well as holiday flats and two backpacker hostels. The largest hotel is run by the State, has an occupancy rate of only 50% and has been in a loss since 2006. In the other atolls, there are a total of about 100 rooms available, mainly in hotels and holiday establishments; the country's overall occupancy rate was a low 23% in 2006/2007. In addition, there are several providers of tourist activities such as fishing, diving, surfing and historical guided tours. According to official figures, the number of visitors has been around 4,000-6,000 from a peak of around 7,500 guests in 2005, but in 2019 there was an increase to 10,771 guests (measured in air arrivals), attributed to some international conferences. Most of the guests came from the United States and Canada, as well as the Pacific. The government supports tourism, among other things, with its own offers, as well as training and study programs in educational institutions. Tourism problems include unreliable air transport links, water shortages, and broken sewage pipes or a lack of sewage treatment.

According to another source, only 6,100 tourists were registered in 2019. In absolute numbers, this puts the Marshall Islands 200th in the world. In relative terms, there are 0.10 tourists per inhabitant, where the Marshall Islands rank 121 in the world (for comparison, it ranks 5th within Micronesia). This meant for the Marshall Islands 20.10 million dollars and 8.2% of its GDP.

Demographics

According to statistics from 2011, the population of the archipelago amounts to 53,128 people, of whom the majority practice Mormonism and 93.7% knew how to read and write. However, the average life expectancy is very low compared to the rest of the countries, since it does not exceed 67 and a half years for men or 71 and a half years for women, in addition to having a fairly high fertility rate. (4.12 children per woman)^{[citation required]}. The birth rate has not had a significant impact on the population (whose annual growth is in the order of 2.1%) due to the high percentage of migration to the island of Guam or to the state of Hawaii, which are part of the USA. It has a population growth rate of 2.2%.

The percentage of unemployment is 31%, that is, more than a quarter of the population. There are ten totally uninhabited atolls. According to 2013 estimates, the four most populous atolls had more than 2,000 residents. These were: the capital, Majuro (27,139 inhabitants), Kwajalein (11,964), Arno (2,668) and Ailinglaplap (2,088).

Religion

Catholic Church of the Holy RosaryHoly Rosary church), in the Atoll of Likiep, Marshall Islands

According to 2011 data, Christianity is the dominant religion on the islands. The largest churches are: United Church of Christ (47% of the population), Assemblies of God (16.2%), Catholics (8.5%), Mormons (7%), Bukot nan Jesus (5.4%), Full Gospel (3.3%), Congressional Reformed Church (3%). There are also other Christian denominations. The remaining 1.2%, and people without any religious affiliation make up a small percentage of the population (1.1%). There are less than 20 people who practice the Jewish faith and less than 20 members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community (est. 2009).

Father A. Erdland, Catholic priest of the Hiltrup Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (German Empire, called in German Herz-Jesu-Missionare and in Latin Missionarii Sacratissimi Cordis), lived in Jaluit between 1904 and 1914. After doing considerable research on Marshallese culture and language, he published in 1914 a 376-page monograph on the islands. Father H. Linckens, another Sacred Heart missionary, visited the Marshall Islands in 1904 and 1911 for several weeks. In 1912 he published a small work on Catholic missionary activities and the people of the Marshall Islands. Catholics are under the responsibility of the Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands (Praefectura Apostolica Insularum Marshallensium) with headquarters in the Cathedral of the Assumption (Cathedral of the Assumption), in Majuro which was created by Pope John Paul II in 1993 through the bull Quo expeditius.

The Marshall Islands constitution provides for freedom of religion, although it provides that this freedom may be limited by "reasonable restrictions." The constitution further establishes that no law can discriminate against any person on the grounds of religion.

Foreign missionaries are present and operate freely. Religious schools are run by the Roman Catholic Church, United Church of Christ, Assemblies of God, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Bukot Non Jesus, and Baptist Churches. There are no requirements for religious groups to register with the government, but they can receive tax benefits if they register as non-profit organizations.

There is no religious education in public schools, but school functions and government functions often begin and end with a Christian prayer. According to the government, this is a very old and widely accepted practice in the country. The government funds private religious schools.

The Ahmadiyya Muslim community in the Marshall Islands have reported difficulties relating to the government, as well as harassment in the broader society. Representatives attribute these attitudes to prejudice against Muslims due to the perception that Islam is linked to terrorism.

Languages

The official languages are Marshallese and English. Although English is recognized as an official language and widely spoken, albeit not as fluently, Marshallese is used by the government.^{[citation needed]}

Health

The Minister of Health of the Marshall Islands at a meeting with the Chief Minister of Scotland (R.U) in 2021

Life expectancy for Marshallese in 2017 was 67 years for men and 71 years for women. Infant mortality has been reduced from 40 to 22 per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2010.

A study conducted between 2007 and 2008 revealed that the rate of type 2 diabetes is one of the highest in the world; 28% of those over 15 years of age and 50% of those over 35 years of age. Approximately 75% of women and 50% of men are overweight or obese. This is mainly due to the adoption of an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise. Approximately 50% of the surgeries performed on the island are amputations due to complications of diabetes. There are no facilities for kidney dialysis.

The Board of Health Services is responsible for public health services. There are two public hospitals, the Leroj Atama Medical Center in Majuro, which has 101 beds, and the Leroj Kitlang Health Center in Ebeye, which has 45. There are 58 health centers on the outer atolls and islands. There is also a hospital in Kwajalein Atoll, on the US military base, which only caters for US forces. As of 2008 there were 2 pharmacists, 7 dentists, 38 doctors and 172 nurses working in the country. very little commercial healthcare.

Blood transfusions are organized informally, as there is no blood bank.

Education

The educational system is modeled after the American system. It is funded in large part by the US Department of the Interior and the US Department of Education.

Education is the responsibility of the Marshall Islands Ministry of Education:

The flag of the Marshall Islands at the Majuro Cooperative School, the capital of the country.

In public education, there are 75 elementary schools, one "middle school" and two secondary schools with more than 10,000 students.

In the private sector, run mainly by Christian churches, there are 26 primary schools and 10 secondary schools with about 5,000 students.

Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age, that is, up to the eighth grade. Education is delivered in Marshallese and English. Some of the public schools need repairs and have no electricity.

The College of the Marshall Islands (College of the Marshall Islands), which offers two more years of schooling, is located in Majuro and teaches 431 students.

The Republic of the Marshall Islands, along with eleven other island states, manages the University of the South Pacific. Majuro is home to the Alele Museum & Public Library, the only public library in the country.

Transportation

Gulfstream V in the Marshall Islands

Transportation in the Marshall Islands is done by road, by air and by sea. There is no public passenger transport in populated areas. The surface of the country is 181 km² (217th in the world). The shape of the territory is archipelagic and extends from southeast to northwest for 2,000 km. The geographical position of the Marshall Islands allows the country to control shipping routes in the eastern Pacific Ocean between Southeast Asia and North America.

The total length of roads in the Marshall Islands, as of 2007, is 2,028 km, of which only 75 km are paved (ranked 176th in the world).

The country, in 2013, has 15 airports (146th in the world), of which 4 with paved runways and 11 with unpaved runways.

As of 2015, the Marshall Islands has 1 registered airline owning 1 aircraft. In 2015, the total passenger traffic on domestic and international flights was 86,87,000. During 2015, there were no air cargo shipments other than passenger luggage.

Air Marshall Islands airline that operates regional flights in the country.

The Marshall Islands are members of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Pursuant to Article 20 of the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, the International Civil Aviation Organization has assigned a registration prefix, V7, based on the radio call signs assigned by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)., for the country's aircraft as of 2016. Airports in the Marshall Islands have an ICAO letter code beginning with -PK.

The country's merchant marine fleet, in 2018, consisted of 3,419 maritime vessels with a tonnage greater than 1,000 registered tons (the seventh in the world), of which: dry bulk carriers - 1,437, container ships - 256, cargo general - 68, tankers - 837, others - 821.

In 2010, the number of merchant ships flying the country's flag but owned by other countries is 1,465.

The State manages the country's transport infrastructure through the Ministry of Transport and Communications. As of July 20, 2016, the ministry has been led by Mike Galferti.

Culture

Artisan fans made in the Marshall Islands.

Although now in decline, the Marshallese were once skilled navigators, using the stars and shell charts to find their way around. They also had great experience building canoes, and to this day there is an annual competition that includes a unique type of ocean-going canoe called a prao.

Also, from the past, the art of tattooing was very present in the Marshall Islands: they covered a large part of the body, to such an extent that in October 1529 when the expedition led by Álvaro de Saavedra, upon his return from the Philippines landed on a reef northwest of the islands, he was so impressed by the tattoos that they named the islands "Islas de los Pintados" and they took with them some Indians to display at the Spanish court.

Its national holidays are September 17 (Independence Day) and May 1 (Constitution Day).

Gastronomy

Marshallan cuisine comprises the dishes, foods, drinks and eating customs of the Marshall Islands, including their ancient traditions related to food. The most common indigenous and traditional foods are breadfruit, coconut, bananas, papaya, shellfish, pandanus and bwiro. Other imported foods, such as rice and flour, are also part of the people's diet and contribute to enriching the cuisine. The practice of preserving food is part of the history of the islands and continues to exist today.

Various typical dishes of Marshall Islands Gastronomy

Other foods including fish prepared in various ways (such as fried), coconut crab, chicken, pork, clams, sashimi, sea turtles, and coconut water. Breadfruit is a staple, as is fish, with an average amount of fish consumed in the Marshall Islands of 240 pounds per year. Fishing is a common activity on the islands, and there are 50 phrases and words in the Marshallese language devoted solely to fishing techniques. Various foods, such as rice, flour, sugar, and tea, are imported to the islands, and are sometimes used to supplement indigenous foods.

Food plays an important role in celebrations and special events on the islands. In Marshallian culture, it is customary to offer food to the Iroij, chiefs of the Marshall Islands, as a form of recognition and respect.

Some traditional foods and dishes are pandanus, the breadfruit, including bwiro, a breadfruit dish consisting of fermented breadfruit paste, wrapped in banana leaves and cooked in an underground oven, the roasted breadfruit and taro root puree. The copra, the dried meat or kernel of the coconut, is a major export of the Marshall Islands, and is used to make oil by pressing.

In Marshallese culture, a kemem is a holiday that begins with a child's first birthday. At kemems it is traditional for a large amount of Marshallian and other foods and dishes to be served, and along with consumption For food, guests are often encouraged to bring some sort of household item from home to the party.

Food preservation has been a historical part of Marshallese culture and food security on the islands, and is still practiced today, though not as much as in the past. People from the chain islands Ratak of the North Atoll, Ailuk, Likiep and Mejit, still produce a dried pandanus paste, which is called mokwan, and also the people of the islands of the Ralik chain, Ujae, Lae and Wotho, who refer to the paste such as jããnkun. When properly prepared, pandanus paste is storable and remains edible for years. Bwiro, the fermented and cooked breadfruit dish, can be kept "for many months without spoiling".

Traditional dance

Music

Music from the Marshall Islands has a long history. The Marshall Islands are an independent island chain, geographically and culturally part of the Micronesian area. It was part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, governed by the United States, until its independence in 1986.

The roro is a kind of traditional song, usually about ancient legends and that is interpreted to guide during navigation and give strength to mothers in childbirth. Modern bands have mixed the unique songs of each island in the country with modern music.

Although drums are not usually common in Micronesian music, one-sided hourglass-shaped drums are an important part of local music[1].

The national anthem of the Marshall Islands is "Forever Marshall Islands" (The Marshall Islands forever), whose lyrics Amata Kabua wrote.

There is a traditional Marshallese dance called beet, which is influenced by Spanish folk dances. In it, men and women take side steps in parallel lines, creating a very difficult and complex rhythm. There is a kind of "stick dance" performed by the Jobwa, today only on very special occasions.

Sports

Giordan Harris Marshall Islands swimmer at the London 2012 Olympic Games

The main sports played in the Marshall Islands are volleyball, basketball (mainly men's), baseball, soccer, and a number of water sports. The Marshall Islands have been represented at the Summer Olympics in every game since the 2008 Beijing Olympics. At the 2020 Tokyo Olympics the Marshall Islands were represented by two swimmers.

The Marshall Islands has a small league of soccer clubs, with Kobeer standing out as the most successful club. A tournament was organized by Play Soccer Make Peace. There is a small football association on the island of Majuro. Soccer is a relatively new and growing sport in the Marshall Islands. Currently, the Marshall Islands does not have a national soccer team. The Marshall Islands is the only sovereign country in the world that does not have a record of a national football match.

Softball and baseball are under a single sports federation in the Marshall Islands. The president is Jeimata Nokko Kabua. Both sports are growing at a rapid rate, with hundreds of Marshallese behind the Marshall Islands Baseball/Softball Federation. The Marshall Islands achieved a silver medal at the Micronesian Games in 2012, as well as medals at the SPG Games.