Lycaon pictus

The lycaon (Lycaon pictus) (from Ancient Greek: Λυκάων < λύκος [Lykáōn < lykos] 'Licaon, wolf') (Latin: painted) is a species of carnivorous mammal in the family Canidae (canids) and of the subfamily Caninae (canines). In English it is also commonly known as African wild dog, painted wolf, hyena dog or Cape hunting dog.

It is the only living representative of the genus Lycaon. It is endemic to the African continent, found in savannah environments. It is distinguished from the genus Canis by a highly specialized dentition for a hypercarnivorous diet and lack of dewclaws. About 6,400 adults, including 1,400 mature individuals, are estimated to live in thirty-nine subpopulations that are all threatened by habitat fragmentation, human persecution, and disease outbreaks. Since the largest subpopulation probably consists of less than 250 individuals, the African wild dog has been listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1990.

His scientific name means; wolf painted, referring to its tricolor coat of black, white and oxide stains distributed irregularly, except the front of the face and throat, which are always black and the last half of its tail, which is always white. It is characteristic of the species that there are no two individuals with the same pattern of stains. Females are usually 3 to 7% smaller than males and is the only species of canid that has four fingers in the previous and subsequent feet. It can measure up to 75 cm of height on the cross and exceed 30 k of weight. The males are more corpulent than the females. They have big rounded ears and naughty ones. It has strong jaws and its dental formula is as follows:3.1.4.23.1.4.3× × 2=42{displaystyle {tfrac {3.1.4.2}{3.1.4.3}times 2=42}.

The African wild dog is a highly social animal, living in packs with separate dominance hierarchies for males and females. Uniquely among social carnivores, females, rather than males, disperse from the natal group once they reach sexual maturity. The hatchlings are allowed to feed on the carcasses of their prey first. Wild dogs are daytime hunters specializing in hunting antelope, which they capture by chasing them to exhaustion. Like other canids, the African wild dog regurgitates food for its young, but this action also extends to adults, to the point of being central to their social life. Its natural enemies are lions and hyenas: the first they kill canids whenever possible, while hyenas are frequent kleptoparasites.

Although not as prominent in African folklore or culture as other African carnivores, it has been respected in various hunter-gatherer societies, particularly those of the pre-dynastic Egyptians and the San people.

Taxonomic and evolutionary history

Taxonomy

The first written reference to the species appears to be from Opiano de Anazarba, who wrote of the thoa, a hybrid between the wolf and the leopard, resembling the former in shape and the latter in color. In Collea rerum memorabilium of Cayo Julio Solino from the III century d. C. describes a multicolored wolf-like animal with a mane native to Ethiopia.

The species was first scientifically described in 1820 by Coenraad Temminck, after having examined a specimen taken from the Mozambique coast. He named the animal Hyaena picta, misclassifying it as a species of hyena. Later it was recognized as a canid by Joshua Brookes in 1827, and he renamed it Lycaon tricolor. The root word Lycaon comes from the Greek λυκαίος (lykaios), meaning "wolf-like". The specific epithet pictus (Latin for "painted"), which derives from its original form picta, was reinstated in accordance with the International Nomenclature Standards taxonomic.

Palaeontologist George G. Simpson placed the African wild dog, the cuon (Cuon alpinus) and the deer dog (Speothos venaticus) together in the subfamily Simocyoninae on the basis that all three species have equally biting meat molars. This grouping was disputed by Juliet Clutton-Brock, who argued that, other than dentition, there are too few similarities between the three species to justify their classification into a single subfamily.

Evolution

The African wild dog has the most specialized adaptations among canids for coat color, diet, and for pursuing prey through its cursorial (running) ability. It has an elegant skeleton, and the loss of the first toe on its front feet increases its pace and speed. This adaptation allows it to pursue prey across open plains for long distances. The teeth are generally shaped like meat molars, and their premolars are the largest relative to body size of any living carnivore except the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). In the mandibular carnassial molars (mandibular first molars), the talonid has evolved into a meat-cutting cleaver, with reduction or loss of the postcarnassial molars. This adaptation also occurs in two other hypercarnivores: the cuon (Cuon alpinus) and the deer dog (Speothos venaticus). The African wild dog exhibits one of the most varied coat colors among mammals. Individuals differ in patterns and colors, indicating underlying gene diversity. The purpose of these coat patterns may be an adaptation for communication, camouflage, or temperature regulation. In 2019, a study indicated that the lycaon lineage diverged from Cuon and Canis one million seven hundred thousand years ago through this set of adaptations, and these occurred at the same time that the large ungulates (their prey) diversified.

The fossil of L. The oldest pictus dates from two hundred thousand years ago and was found in HaYonim cave, Israel. The evolution of the African wild dog is poorly understood due to the paucity of fossils. Some authors consider the extinct subgenus of Canis, Xenocyon as ancestral to both the genus Lycaon and the genus Cuon, which lived in Eurasia and Africa from the Early Pleistocene to the Early Middle Pleistocene. Others propose that Xenocyon should be reclassified as Lycaon. The species Canis (Xenocyon) falconeri shared the absent first metacarpal (dew) of the African wild dog, although its dentition was still relatively unspecialized. This connection was rejected by one author because C. (X.) falconeri lacking the metacarpal was a poor indication of phylogenetic closeness to the African wild dog, and the dentition was too different to imply ancestry.

Another ancestral candidate is L. sekowei from the Plio-Pleistocene in South Africa, based on distinct accessory cusps on its premolars and anterior accessory canines on its lower premolars. These adaptations are found only in the genus Lycaon, which shows the same adaptations to a hypercarnivorous diet. L. sekowei had not yet lost the missing first metacarpal in L. pictus and was more robust than modern species, with teeth 10% larger.

Relation of Lycaon pictus to Cuon alpinus

In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare the cuon (Cuon alpinus) with the wild dog. There was strong evidence of an ancient genetic mixture between the two. Today, their ranks are far apart; however, during the Pleistocene era, the quon could be found as far west as Europe. The study proposes that the dion's distribution may have once included the Middle East, from where it may have mixed with the African hunting dog in North Africa. However, there is no evidence that the quan existed in the Middle East or North Africa.

Subspecies

Since 2005 Mammal Species of the World (MSW) recognizes the following subspecies:

• Lycaon pictus lupinus (Thomas, 1902)
• Lycaon pictus manguensis (Matschie, 1915)
• Lycaon pictus pictus (Temminck, 1820)
• Lycaon pictus sharicus (Thomas & Wroughton, 1907)
• Lycaon pictus somalicus (Thomas, 1904)

IUCN conducted an assessment in 2012 on a specific population of wild wolves in North Africa:

• North African Lycaon: It is a possible extinct or extremely rare subspecies Lycaon pictus in North Africa. The remaining populations may have a high conservation value, as they are likely to be genetically different from other populations L. pictus. The only countries in North Africa where African wild dogs can still persist is in Algeria and Chad, but there is no information about their current status. If they persist, there seems to be little doubt that the total size of the subpopulation does not exceed fifty mature individuals. It is probably extinct in Mali and Nigeria, and is extinct in Egypt, Libya, Mauritania and Sudan. IUCN classifies this population as a critical endangered species. The specimens of Tanezrouft, Algeria, were indicated as a subspecies of North African Lycaon, although possibly applicable to subspecies Lycaon pictus sharicus.

However, although the species is genetically diverse, these specific designations are not universally accepted. Wild dog populations in eastern and southern Africa were once thought to be genetically distinct, based on a small number of samples. More recent studies with larger numbers of samples showed that extensive admixture between populations from eastern Africa and southern Africa has occurred in the past. Some unique nuclear and mitochondrial alleles are found in populations from southern Africa and northeast Africa, with a transition zone spanning Botswana, Zimbabwe, and southeastern Tanzania between the two. The West African wild dog population may possess a unique haplotype, possibly constituting a truly distinct subspecies.

Behavior

Handle of wild dogs

Wild dogs hunt in packs. He is the best hunter in the world with a success rate of between 70 and 89% according to various sources: ten hunts up to nine are successful. Together with the cheetah, they are the only large daytime predators that inhabit Africa. Its preferred prey is the impala, as well as other similar medium-sized ungulates. They are known for their stamina and for being cunning hunters. They have been observed taking prey in relays, or even blocking a potential escape route for prey, which they eventually defeat through exhaustion. They make characteristically screeching or screeching sounds, similar to those of a bird. Populations of this species in the Okavango Delta have been observed to gather before going out to hunt, not all gatherings result in a hunt, hunts become more likely when more than one wild dog "sneezes";. These sneezes are characterized by a short, sharp exhalation through the nostrils. When the dominant mating pairs sneeze first, the group is much more likely to go hunting. If a dominant wild dog initiates, around three sneezes guarantee exit. When a non-dominant wild dog sneezes first, it takes about ten members of the group to also sneeze to go hunting. The researchers state that wild dogs in Botswana "use a specific vocalization (the sneeze) along with a variable response mechanism in the decision-making process [to go hunting at a particular time]".

Although it is not considered a strictly territorial species, it does occupy huge home ranges that can cover from 50 to 200 square kilometers. It is common for the ranges of different herds to overlap. They are normally elusive, and unlike other canids, they are extremely difficult to tame.

The werewolf has a complex matriarchal social system. They often regurgitate food for other members of the pack: the old individuals, the cubs, or the young and the adults that have been left to care for the young during hunting trips. The size of their herds is very variable, from those formed only by the parents and their litter to groups of more than thirty individuals. The gestation period ranges from sixty-three to seventy-two days and they give birth to five to eight pups per litter.

Population

African wild dogs are rarely observed, even when relatively common, and populations appear to have always existed at very low densities. African wild dogs have disappeared from much of their former range. Its population is currently estimated at approximately 6,600 adult individuals in thirty-nine subpopulations, of which only 1,400 are mature individuals. Population size continues to decline as a result of ongoing habitat fragmentation, conflict with human activities, and infectious diseases. Given the uncertainty surrounding population estimates and the species' tendency to fluctuate, the largest subpopulations may well have fewer than 250 mature individuals, thus warranting a listing as an endangered species.

Proportion of mature individuals

Estimating the number of “mature individuals” is challenging, because African wild dogs are obligate cooperative breeders: within a pack, the alpha male and female are the parents of most surviving pups (Girman et al 1997). The IUCN Red List User Guidelines (IUCN 2010) define mature individuals as “individuals known, estimated or inferred to be capable of reproducing”, but do not specify the time period within which reproduction is considered possible. The user guidelines go on to say that “in many taxa there is a group of non-breeding (eg, deleted) individuals that will rapidly become reproductive if a mature individual dies. These individuals can be considered capable of reproducing."

In African wild dogs, a high proportion of individuals suffer from reproductive suppression, but these animals do not always become reproductive 'quickly'; if an alpha individual dies. In a mature pack, most pack members are offspring of the alpha pair; for these animals, the death of an alpha would not generally open up a breeding opportunity because there would be no unrelated mates available within the pack. The death of an alpha often leads to the disintegration of the pack, with no breeding until new packs are formed. Given these complexities, and in the spirit of capturing a “snapshot” of current conditions, mature individuals have been defined as those considered capable of reproducing within the current breeding season. The number of mature individuals thus comprises the number of alpha males and females and the number of subdominant (i.e. non-alpha) animals that reproduce successfully.

Estimates roughly equal the number of alpha males and alpha females. No published estimate of the proportion of adults and yearlings successfully breeding as subdominants is available. However, German et al. (1997) report the proportions of surviving pups with subdominant mothers and/or fathers.

Current population size

A total of thirty-nine distinct subpopulations are comprised, estimated to range in size from two to two hundred and seventy-six mature individuals. Few wild dog subpopulations have been systematically monitored and these estimates are subject to considerable imprecision.

Change in population size

Data on previous world population sizes of African wild dogs are taken from Ginsberg and Woodroffe (1997). Few of these population estimates are based on systematic monitoring and all should be viewed with caution. Assessing changes in population size is complicated by the fact that a less complete data set was available in 1997 than in 2012. As a result of these improved data, the global estimate of dog population size African savages is indeed higher for 2012 than it was for 1997. However, this difference reflects the larger area surveyed in 2012.

Causes of decline

The causes of the decline of African wild dogs are reasonably well understood and include extreme sensitivity to habitat fragmentation as a consequence of wide-ranging behaviour, conflicts with livestock and game breeders, accidental deaths by people in traps and traffic accidents and infectious diseases. All of these causes are associated with human encroachment on the African wild dog's habitat and, as such, have not ceased and are unlikely to be reversible over most of the species' historical range.

Fluctuations in population size

African wild dog populations are prone to marked fluctuations on a variety of temporal and geographic scales that are likely to increase extinction risks and undermine the accuracy of population estimates. At the local scale, a combination of high mortality, high fecundity, and dispersal by both sexes means that herd size fluctuates substantially over short periods, although the fluctuation in the number of mature individuals would be less dramatic. Because African wild dogs are seasonal breeders throughout most of their remaining geographic range, fluctuations can be synchronized between packs.

The same demographic characteristics (high mortality, high fecundity, and long-distance dispersal) also lead to fluctuations in the population scale. This pattern is further exaggerated by the species' susceptibility to infectious diseases that can cause rapid extinction. Local extinctions are not uncommon, and are often rapid and unforeseen. There are three relatively well-documented cases of local extinctions involving small subpopulations of wild dogs affected by rabies.

Similar deaths have been documented in larger populations of African wild dogs. For example, five of twelve study herds in Botswana (Alexander et al. 2010) and three of eight study herds in Kenya (Woodroffe 2011) have been reported to die within short periods of time during disease outbreaks. Although these relatively large study populations recovered, it is estimated that most African wild dog subpopulations comprise fewer than twenty mature individuals and could be severely compromised by outbreaks of this size.

For comparison, under good conditions, African wild dog populations can also grow relatively quickly. The ability of African wild dogs to disperse over very long distances means that subpopulations sometimes reappear unexpectedly and grow rapidly; examples include natural recoveries in the Samburu and Laikipia districts of Kenya (Woodroffe 2011), the Savé Valley Conservancy in Zimbabwe (Pole 2000) and the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania (Marsden et al. 2011). As an example of the speed of recovery, the subpopulation in Laikipia district, Kenya, grew from zero in 1999 to 17 adults and yearlings in two flocks in 2000, and by 2006 had increased tenfold to 170 adults and yearlings (Woodroffe 2011).

Based on this evidence, it was concluded that African wild dogs show substantial population fluctuations, but may not experience extreme fluctuations in subpopulation size as described in the guidelines. Red List. However, the substantial fluctuations that occur contribute to increasing uncertainty about the size of subpopulations.

Distribution

African wild dogs once ranged across much of sub-Saharan Africa, absent only from the driest desert regions and lowland forests. The species has been largely extirpated in North and West Africa, and has been greatly reduced in numbers in Central Africa and Northeast Africa. The majority of the species' population is now found in southern Africa and southern East Africa; more specifically in countries like Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. However, it is difficult to track where they are and how many there are due to habitat loss.

North Africa

The species is very rare in North Africa, and the remaining populations may be of high conservation value, as they are likely to be genetically distinct from other populations of L. pictus.

• Algeria: Although historically present, L. pictus has probably been extinct locally, although it may exist as a relict population in the south. Since 1997, the only recent reports come from the Teffedest Mountains. The species was once in the Mouydir Arah mountains, but has disappeared, probably because of the capture and poisoning by members of the Tuareg tribe. The last sighting at the Ahaggar National Park was in 1989.
• Mauritania: It is probably not present. In 1992, hunters from the coastal zone of Western Sahara described a wild dog, although the identity of this animal has not been confirmed. They've seen one thirty years before.

West Africa

The species is doing poorly across most of West Africa, with the only potentially viable population found in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park. African wild dogs are occasionally seen in other parts of Senegal, as well as in Guinea and Mali. Historical data indicates that African wild dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from the desert to the mountaintops, and they were probably absent only in the lower jungle and the drier desert. They have disappeared from much of their former range. The species is virtually eradicated from West Africa, surviving only in Senegal and in Complex W of protected areas in Benin, Burkina Faso, and Niger.

• Benin: It is very likely that L. pictus locally extinct, and a survey conducted in 1990 indicates that the locals thought that the continued survival of the species in the country was extremely unlikely. Parc W could accommodate the remaining populations L. pictus in the country, although in 1988 they were considered to be in decline or locally extinct. It can occur in decreasing numbers in the Pendjari National Park.
• Burkina Faso: It is likely that L. pictus it has become extinct locally and widespread poverty prevents the effective protection of wildlife, despite the protected legal status of the species. The last sightings of the animal occurred in 1985 at the Nazinga Game Ranch. It can still occur in the Arli National Park and the province of Como, but in few quantities.
• Ivory Coast: Very few sightings have been made and most of the public have not heard of the species. Moreover, their legal status is 'noxious'. The species can still be found in the Comoé National Park (where it was last seen in the late 1980s) and in the Marahoué National Park (where the last sightings occurred during the 1970s).
• Gambia: The most recent sighting occurred in 1995, on the northern border with Senegal. There may be a small population in the border area with Senegal.
• Ghana: Although L. pictus it is legally protected, probably locally extinct, as poaching is rampant and traditional attitudes towards predators are hostile. Although no recent sightings have been made, the species can still occur in Bui National Park and Digya National Park. The hunters have reported the presence of L. pictus in the Kyabobo National Park, although the species is probably rare there.
• Guinea: Although protected, prospects for L. pictus in Guinea are bad. The species can be found in the Badiar National Park, as the park is adjacent to the Niokolo-Koba National Park of Senegal, where it occurs L. pictus. The most recent reports of the species include sighting in 1991 along the Sankarani River and the death of three cows in 1996 at Ndama Fôret Clasée.
• Liberia: Liberian folklore does not mention L. pictuswhich indicates that the species has probably never been common in the area. The species may have once inhabited the north, but it is almost certain that it is now rare there.
• Mali: Although it was very widespread once, L. pictus Now it's extremely rare in Mali. Although it was spotted at the Forêt Classée de la Faya in 1959, the species was significantly absent during a land survey in the 1980s. The species can still be found in the south and west of the country in the border regions with Senegal and Guinea.
• Niger: It is almost certain that the species has been extinct locally, having been the subject of an extermination campaign during the 1960s. Although legally protected, hunting guards still fired specimens of L. pictus in 1979. Even if they are still present, the chances of survival of the species remain low, due to regular droughts and loss of natural prey. L. pictus may still be present in small quantities at Parc W, in the north end and the Sirba region.
• Nigeria: Although legally protected, there are no populations of L. pictus residents in Nigeria, although occasionally there are individuals wandering from neighbouring countries. Factors that inhibit the recovery of the species include lack of effective protection and drastic reduction of its prey. L. pictus It can still persist in small quantities in the Gashaka Gumti National Park, which is quite close to the Cameroon Faro National Park, where the species is still located, although there were no sightings in the period 1982-1986. L. pictus is reported occasionally in the Chad Basin National Park, and the most recent sighting occurred in 1995. It is likely to be locally extinct in the Kainji National Park and the Borgu Caza Reserve, as the poaching is intense and the species has not been sighted since the 1980s. It is also extinct at Yankari National Park, and the last sighting took place in 1978. A confirmed sighting of a solitary individual occurred in 1991 at the Lame Burra Caza Reserve.
• Senegal: Although only partially protected, L. pictus has increased in number since the 1990s in and around the Niokolo-Koba National Park, so Senegal is the best hope for the species in West Africa. L. pictus is present in increasing quantities in the Niokolo-Koba National Park and its surroundings. The park population was estimated at 50-100 specimens in 1997. This population is monitored and studied by the IUCN Group of Specialists in Canids, together with the Licaone Fund of Senegal. In other places, L. pictus It's weird or it's extinct. From 2011 to 2013, conservationists documented the continued existence of wild dogs in the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal with photos and traces of wild dogs.
• Sierra Leone: It is almost certain that the species is extinct in Sierra Leone. It's possible that L. pictus has ever been present in the areas of forests and savannahs of the north, as the natives there have names for the species, and some unconfirmed sightings were made in the 1980s. A small population can inhabit the Outamba-Kilimi National Park, although only one unconfirmed sighting has been recorded.
• Togo: Despite partial protection, L. pictus It has probably been extinguished and the country is severely lacking in prey species. It can occur in the Fazao Malfakassa National Park, although in very few quantities. There are rumors that some small herds of L. pictus they take refuge in caves on the slopes of the Mazala, Kpeya and Kbidi mountains.

Central Africa

The species is doing poorly in Central Africa, being classified as critically endangered. It is extinct in Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. The only viable populations are in the Central African Republic, Chad, and especially Cameroon. Historically, Lycaon pictus sharicus lived in the northern Republic of the Congo, Chad, the Central African Republic, Niger, southern Algeria, Libya and eastern Sudan.

• Cameroon: The state of the African wild dog in Cameroon is uncertain, although there are three herds in the north of the country, making it the only possible refuge for the species in Central Africa, together with those present in the Central African Republic and southern Chad. Historically, most conservation efforts were directed to the reserves of the tropical jungle, where the African wild dog is not found, although efforts in the 1990s sought to correct this. However, attitudes towards the species remain negative, with twenty-five specimens killed by professional hunters in northern Cameroon in 1991-1992, with a government quota of sixty-five specimens during the hunting season from December 1995 to May 1996. The species is still regularly spotted in the Faro National Park and its surroundings, where four herds were recorded in 1997. It is present in a smaller number in the National Park of Bénoué, having occurred several sightings in 1989 in the area between the two parks. The African wild dog was spotted several times in the Boubandjida National Park and its surroundings in 1993. A recent 2012 study at the Benoue Complex in northern Cameroon found no present wild dog.
• Chad: There have been no other recent reports on the African wild dog in Chad, and its legal status is unknown. The southern part of the country can form an important link between African wild dog populations in Cameroon and the Central African Republic. The species was already considered rare in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Fauna Reserve during the 1980s and has not been seen since. It is considered extinct in the Bahr Salamat Fauna Reserve. No recent registration has placed the species in the Manda National Park and the Siniaka-Minia Fauna Reserve, although they have ever occurred in reasonable quantities during the 1980s.
• Gabon: The African wild dog is probably removed. Apparently, the species was once present in Petit Loango National Park, but it has not been seen in years. A jauria of seven dogs from Port Lympne Wild Animal Park will be reintroduced in the Parc de la Lékédi, where they were last seen more than 25 years ago, in December 2019.
• Equatorial Guinea: The species is extinct in Equatorial Guinea. There are no records of the species on the island of Bioko and Rio Muni.
• Central African Republic: Although full legal protection is provided, the population of African RCA wild dogs has an uncertain future, although it is not far from the largest population in Cameroon. It's rare at the Manovo-Gounda St National Park. Floris, with sightings that have been reported as recently as 1992. It was reported that it was once common in the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park during the 1980s, although there were only two sightings in 1988 and 1990. African wild dogs have been documented in southern Central African Republic in the Chinko-Mbari drainage basin in 2013. Between 2012 and 2017, wild dog populations in the RCA decreased due to the direct slaughter of the shepherds.
• Republic of the Congo: Although full legal protection is provided, the African wild dog has not been spotted in the Republic of the Congo since the 1970s. The species may have once inhabited the Odzala National Park, although it was mainly in unprotected areas, where it fed cattle and was subsequently exterminated by the local shepherds.
• Democratic Republic of the Congo: Although the Democratic Republic of the Congo once had a healthy population of African wild dogs, it has probably been removed in the late 1990s. The most recent sighting occurred in 1986 in Upemba National Park.

East Africa

The range of the African wild dog in East Africa is patchy, having been eradicated from Uganda and much of Kenya. A small population occupies an area encompassing southern Ethiopia, South Sudan, northern Kenya, and probably northern Uganda. The species can still be found in small numbers in southern Somalia and is almost certainly extinct in Rwanda, Burundi, and Eritrea. However, it remains somewhat numerous in southern Tanzania, particularly in the Selous Game Reserve and Mikumi National Park, both of which are occupied by what may be the largest population of African wild dogs in Africa.

• Burundi: Declared extinct in 1976. No reports have been made in the large protected areas of Kibira National Park and Ruvubu National Park and the remaining areas are too small to sustain the species.
• Eritrea: Reports from the early 1900s indicate that the species once occurred in some remote areas, including the future Yob Wildlife Reserve, but without recent reports.
• Ethiopia: The African wild dog is rare in Ethiopia, despite full legal protection and government efforts to strengthen its network of protected areas. The species has been removed in three national parks, although it is still in the south of the country. The species was recorded once in Gambela National Park and its surroundings, although the last sighting occurred in 1987. It is frequently seen in the Omo National Park and the Mago National Park, and the most recent sighting in the first occurred in 1995. Between 1992 and 1993, one or two herds were estimated at Omo and up to five in Mago. Occasionally it occurs in the National Park of the Bale Mountains, although it is hindered by the rage and persecution of the shepherds. Sporadical sightings have also taken place in Awash National Park and Nechisar National Park. Three specimens were seen at the Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuary in 1996. Outside the protected areas, the species has been reported in Jijiga and Filtu.
• Kenya: Although widespread, the African wild dog receives only partial legal protection and is mainly found in unprotected areas, without high population densities. The number of African wild dogs has decreased and has been extinct locally in many areas, with only fifteen herds throughout the country in 1997. Local attitudes towards subspecies are poor and often shot in livestock areas. He is occasionally spotted in the southern part of the Turkana Lake National Park and surrounding Turkana County. Sometimes vagabond individuals are seen on the border with Sudan, as well as in the northeast, around Mandera, Wajir County and Marsabit National Park. They are rarely found in the Samburu National Reserve and have been absent in the Buffalo Springs National Reserve since the mid-1980s. It was observed twice in 1982 and 1983 in Kora National Park. He is now absent in Mount Kenya, although it is reported to be common in the 1950s. It is probably extinct in the Nakuru Lake National Park and a fence erected around the park to protect rhinoceroses prevents the species from re colonizing the area. He was spotted twice outside the Nairobi National Park, although he is regularly shot and trapped there. The species disappeared from Masai Mara in 1991 after a disease outbreak. You may still be present in the national parks of the Rift Valley province and Tsavo East National Park and Tsavo West National Park. It is still present in small quantities in Lamu County, but it is decreasing in Dodori's national reserve and may be absent in the reserve of primates of the Tana River. Some herds were present in Laikipia County until 2017, when the widespread illegal invasion of herds caused animals to be shot or affected by diseases introduced by domestic dogs. It is now believed to be absent in the region, except perhaps some individuals.
• Rwanda: Although legally protected, the African wild dog is extinct in Rwanda, probably due to a disease outbreak. The excessively high human population of modern Rwanda makes the country not suitable for future re-colonization and a reintroduction project in 1989 was frustrated by the beginning of the Rwandan Civil War. The species once occurred in large quantities in Akagera National Park, to the point of being known as Le Parc aux Lycaons. A disease outbreak ended this population between 1983 and 1984.
• Somalia: The ongoing Somali civil war has made the African wild dog perspective very poor in the country, with deforestation, poaching, drought and over-storage preventing the species from recovering, even though it is legally protected. The species may still be present in the north, although the last sighting occurred in 1982. It was once common in the Buloburde district before the end of the 1970s. A population probably in decline can occur near the Juba River. In 1994, a herd was spotted at Lag Badana National Park, which can be the best bastion of the species in Somalia. Recent sightings of the African wild dog occurred in 2015 and 2016 in Istanbuul-Kudaayo and Manaranni-Odow, and during the rainy season in Hello, Wajir, Yamani and Manarani.
• Sudan: As with all large carnivores, the populations of African wild dogs decreased dramatically during the Second Sudanese Civil War, although there have been sightings in South Sudan. The species once occurred in the Sudd, although no updates are missing and no legal protection is granted in the area. You may be present at Bangagai Game Reserve. A herd was spotted in 1995 at the Dinder National Park.
• South Sudan: In April 2020, African wild dogs were photographed in South Sudan National Park with trap cameras.
• Tanzania: The prospects in Tanzania are good for the African wild dog, as the government imposed a moratorium on the entire hunt for the species and receives full legal protection. Although rare in the north, the south offers an ideal habitat, as large populations of glossine prevent widespread human colonization. The Selous Hunting Reserve and probably the Ruaha National Park represent the best bastions of the species throughout Africa. The species is common in the Selous Caza Reserve, where about eight hundred and eighty adult specimens were estimated in 1997. It is also present in the neighboring Mikumi National Park and has been spotted in other nearby areas^{[chuckles]required]}. The African wild dog may no longer be found in Serengueti National Park, with only thirty-four individuals accounted for at the end of 1990. It is occasionally seen in the Kilimanjaro National Park and the Arusha National Park.
• Uganda: Uganda is unlikely to have a resident population of African wild dogs, as the species was heavily persecuted after a 1955 directive to shoot him in sight. The vagabond specimens occasionally enter the country through Tanzania and South Sudan. A survey conducted in 1982-1992 showed that the species was probably removed in Uganda,^{[chuckles]Which one?]} Although sightings in some scattered areas may indicate that the African wild dog is recolonizing the country. In 1994, lone individuals and small herds were seen in the Murchison Falls National Park and several times in the Karamoja Controlled Hunt Area.
• Yibuti: No data. It is unlikely that the only protected area, the Day Forest National Park, shelters the species.

Southern Africa

Southern Africa contains numerous viable populations of African wild dogs, one of which includes northern Botswana, northeastern Namibia, and western Zimbabwe. In South Africa, around four hundred specimens are found in the country's Kruger National Park. Zambia has two large populations, one in the Kafue National Park and one in the Luangwa Valley. However, the species is rare in Malawi and is probably extinct in Mozambique.

• Angola: Although the African wild dog is legally protected, the Angolan civil war prevented data collection and there have only been a few reports of the species since 1990. The species was once found in the protected areas of Angola, although it fell in decline in mid 1970. It can still occur in the province of When Cubango, where Zambian and Namibian vagabonds may arrive, although the population is likely to be unviable. In 2020, researchers found unequivocal evidence that wild dogs reside and reproduce in the Bicuar National Park and are present (but possibly only in a transitory way) in the western province of When Cubango.
• Botswana: The prospects of the species in Botswana are hopeful, as the north of the country probably hosts the largest populations of African wild dogs in Africa. However, it receives only partial protection and farmers can shoot it in defense of cattle. The most important bastion of the species in Botswana is in the Northwest district, which includes the Okavango delta, the Moremi Hunting Reserve and the Chobe National Park. In 1997, at least forty-two herds containing between four hundred and fifty-five hundred individuals were estimated in the area. L. pictus It's scarce in other places.
• Malaui: Although rare, the African wild dog is legally protected and can only be captured by government hunters and private citizens with ministerial permits. In the 1990s, he was regularly spotted at Kasungu National Park. The species was reported regularly in the Kasungu National Park in the 1990s, where there were eighteen sightings only in 1991. It occurs in small quantities in the Nyika National Park and the Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve.
• Mozambique: The perspectives of the African wild dog in Mozambique are bad. The species experienced a rapid reduction in number after the Mozambique War of Independence in 1975, reaching the brink of extinction in 1986. However, it regularly enters the country through Kruger National Park in neighboring South Africa. The African wild dog was once widely distributed in the remote and protected areas of the country, although it was declared extinct in the west of Manica province, in danger in Tete Province and Zambezia Province and extinct in Nampula Province. The species still existed in the regions of the Ruvuma River and the Lugenda River in 1986, and a herd with calves was observed in the Cahora Bassa reservoir in 1996. In 2018, fourteen individuals from South Africa were reintroduced in Gorongosa National Park.
• Namibia: Although strongly pursued by farmers throughout the country, the species has total legal protection and is doing well in the northeastern part of the country. The species is restricted to the northeast, being extinct elsewhere. The population of the northeast is probably related to that of northern Botswana.
• South Africa: Population L. pictus South Africa appears as 'especially protected' in the Red Data Book of South Africa and has a bastion in Kruger National Park, which housed between three hundred and fifty-four hundred specimens in the mid-1990s. There have been several attempts to reintroduce the species elsewhere, although only two of these attempts were successful and the resulting populations were not large enough to be viable. The species is located in three regions: the Cabo del Norte province, the Kruger National Park and the KwaZulu-Natal province. Kruger's population is around three hundred and seventy-five to four hundred and fifty specimens, although they face the pressure of the lions and the stained hyenas and sometimes they are shot or trapped outside the limits of the park. Six specimens were released in the Madikwe hunting reserve during the 1990s, although the reserve is too small to sustain a large population. In KwaZulu-Natal Province, the species is present at Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park, where it was reintroduced in the early 1980s. This population has fluctuated since reintroduction and local attitudes towards it vary from hostile to favourable.
• Swaziland: There seems to be no resident population in the country. The African wild dog has only been spotted once, when it was observed that a herd killed a blesbok in December 1992, remaining in the area for two weeks before disappearing.
• Zambia: Although it was once pursued extensively, the species has total legal protection in Zambia and can only be hunted after purchasing a costly license from the Minister of Tourism. L. pictus is still very widespread and is found in most of the protected areas, which are large and contain suitable habitats and dams. However, populations have declined since 1990. The species was present in decreasing quantities at Lusenga Plain National Park in 1988 and has not been reported there since. There have been sightings in Nsumbu National Park, where the species is likely to be decreasing due to disease. Small quantities were recorded in the North Luangwa National Park in 1994 and are occasionally seen in the adjacent hunting management areas of Musalangu and Lumimba. It is often seen in the South Luangwa National Park, where it was previously decreasing due to anthrax outbreak. There are also occasional sightings in the Lupande Hunting Area, Luambe National Park, Lukusuzi National Park and Lower Zambezi National Park.
• Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe has viable populations of African wild dogs, which were estimated to consist of between three hundred and ten and four hundred and thirty individuals in 1985. The population increased during the 1990s, and in the 1990-1992 period it was estimated that the population was between four hundred and six hundred animals. The species is legally protected and can only be hunted with a permit, which was granted only once between 1986 and 1992. Most of the population of African wild dogs in Zimbabwe lives in the Hwange National Park and its surroundings, including the Victoria, Matetsi and Deka Safari Areas National Park and Kazuma Pan National Park. Together, these areas contain an estimated thirty-five herds consisting of two hundred and fifty-three hundred individuals.

Threats

A lican showing its characteristics rounded ears.

The wild dog is listed on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature as an "endangered species". It is estimated that around 6,600 adults, including 1,400 mature individuals, live in thirty-nine populations that are threatened by direct persecution by humans, habitat transformation and fragmentation, and the spread of infectious diseases such as rabies, many times transmitted by domestic and feral dogs. Furthermore, their relatively small size makes them vulnerable to predation by lions, hyenas, crocodiles, and rarely leopards, especially in the case of small herds. It is estimated that in 2007 there are less than six thousand individuals spread across a series of enclaves throughout sub-Saharan Africa, occupying a small portion of their historical area of distribution.

The main threat to African wild dogs is habitat fragmentation, which increases their contact with people and domestic animals, resulting in human-wildlife conflict and the transmission of infectious diseases. The important role played by human-induced mortality has two long-term implications. First, it makes it likely that, outside of protected areas, African wild dogs will not be able to coexist with increasing human populations unless land use plans and other conservation actions are implemented. Second, the fetching behavior of African wild dogs leads to an 'edge effect' of the dog. very substantial, even in large reserves. Simple geometry dictates that a 5,000 km² reserve does not contain any points more than 40 km from its borders, a distance within the range of distances traveled by a pack of African wild dogs in their usual ranging behaviour. Therefore, from an African wild dog perspective, a reserve of this size (quite large by most standards) would be an advantage. As human populations increase around the borders of the reserve, the risks to African wild dogs venturing outside are likely to increase as well. Under these conditions, only the largest unfenced reserves will be able to provide any level of protection for African wild dogs. In South Africa, "predator-proof" around small reserves have been shown to be reasonably effective in keeping dogs confined to the reserve, but such fences are not 100% effective (Davies-Mostert et al. 2009) and are unlikely to be of long-term benefit to communities wildlife.

Even in large, well-protected reserves, or in stable populations that remain largely independent of protected areas (such as in northern Botswana), African wild dogs live at low population densities. Predation by lions, and perhaps competition with hyenas, contribute to keeping the numbers of African wild dogs below the level that their prey base could support. Such a low population density brings its own problems. Larger areas contain only relatively small feral dog populations; for example, the Selous Game Reserve, with an area of 43,000 km² (about the size of Switzerland), is estimated to contain around 800 wild dogs africans. Most reserves, and probably most African wild dog populations, are smaller. For example, the population of Niokolo-Koba National Park and buffer zones (some 25,000 km²) is likely to be no more than fifty to one hundred dogs. Such small populations are vulnerable to extinction. 'Catastrophic' events, such as epidemic disease outbreaks, can drive them to extinction when larger populations have a greater chance of recovery; such an event appears to have led to the local extinction of the small population of African wild dogs in the Serengeti National Park ecosystem in Kenya and the Tanzanian border. Small population problems will be exacerbated if, as seems likely, small populations occur in small reserves or habitat areas. As discussed above, animals inhabiting such areas suffer from a strong 'edge effect'. Thus, small populations might be expected to suffer disproportionately high mortality as a result of their contact with humans and human activity.

Throughout most of its geographic range, utilization of this species is minimal. There is evidence of localized traditional use in Zimbabwe (Davies and Du Toit 2004), but this is unlikely to threaten the persistence of the species. There are also some reports of trade in captive and wild-caught animals in southern Africa. The potential impact of such trade is currently being assessed.

Surveys in the Chinko area of the Central African Republic revealed that the African wild dog population declined from 160 individuals in 2012 to 26 individuals in 2017. At the same time, transhumant herders from the Sudan border area moved to the area with their cattle. Rangers seized large amounts of poison and found several lion carcasses in cattle herder camps. They were accompanied by armed traders who also poached large herbivores, sold bushmeat, and traded lion pelts.

Conservation

Conservation strategies have been developed for the species in all regions of Africa (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004, Woodroffe et al. 1997) (IUCN SSC 2008, 2009, in preparation), and many range states. distribution have used these strategies as templates for their own national action plans (Department of Wildlife and National Parks 2008, Wildlife Service 2010). Although each regional strategy was developed independently through a separate participatory process, all three strategies have a similar structure, comprising objectives aimed at improving coexistence between people and African wild dogs:

• Encourage land use planning to maintain and expand the populations of wild dogs.
• Develop dog conservation capacity in distribution area states.
• Disclosure to improve public perception of wild dogs at all levels of society, ensuring a policy framework compatible with the conservation of the wild dog.

Several pieces of information are needed to enable more effective conservation of African wild dogs. These include:

• The development of cost-effective methods to inspect wild dogs on large geographical scales.
• Surveys on the distribution and status of wild dogs, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Central African Republic, Chad, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan.
• Development of effective and appropriate means at the local level to reduce conflicts between wild dogs and farmers.
• Establish which techniques will be more effective and sustainable to protect wild dogs from disease.
• Determine the characteristics of the landscape that facilitate (or prevent) the movement of wild dogs long distances and therefore promote (or block) the connectivity of the landscape.