Lusitanian language

The Lusitanian is a Paleo-Hispanic language of the Indo-European family known from a handful of inscriptions and innumerable place names and theonyms in historic Lusitania, that is, the territory inhabited by the Lusitanians, which stretched across the center-south of the Duero and a good part of present-day Extremadura.

Distribution and history

Geographic extent

The Lutheran language in the context of the paleo-Hispanic languages.

Inscriptions have been found in Arroyo de la Luz (Extremadura, Spain), Cabeço das Fráguas (Guarda, Portugal), Lamas de Moledo (Viseo, Portugal) and Arronches (Alto Alentejo, Portugal).

If the information given by the different theonyms, anthroponyms and place names is also taken into account, the extension corresponds to the northeast of modern Portugal and adjacent areas of Spain, with a center in the Sierra de la Estrella.

There are well-founded suspicions that the area of the Galician peoples, the Astures and perhaps the Vettones, that is, the entire northwest of the peninsula, would speak languages related to Lusitanian. In fact, most of the inscriptions found in present-day Galicia (all of them theonyms) are identical or similar to those of the Lusitanian territory itself.

History

Presumably, like all other Indo-European peoples, the Lusitanians entered the Iberian Peninsula sometime before the century. II a. C., and may even date from before the Celtic expansion of the VIII century and the VII a. C. and with a probable date in the VI century B.C. C. Some authors consider them to come from the Alps and others instead prefer to consider them an autochthonous people.

Lusitania was conquered by Rome around 150 B.C. C. Like most peninsular languages, Lusitanian finally succumbed to the pressure and prestige of Latin.

Classification

Anthroponymic opposition in Celtiberia-Lusitania and areas of influence.

Lusitanian as an Indo-European language

As already mentioned, it is an Indo-European language as determined by the following words: porcom 'pig' ~ Latin 'porcus', taurom 'bull' ~ Latin 'taurum', oila < *owilā 'sheep' ~ Latin 'ovis', trebo 'house, villa' *treb- 'build' ~ Oscan 'tribud' 'house', Irish 'treb' 'home'. Although its exact affiliation continues to be disputed, and given its special characteristics, Ulrich Schmoll considered that it was an independent branch within the already known Western Indo-European languages, which he called Galician-Lusitanian .

Lusitanian as a Celtic or Proto-Celtic language

The position of Indo-European linguistics is that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language. To this end, most authors maintain that the preservation of *p IE in some Lusitanian inscriptions, as seen in porcom is a substantial problem, as Proto-Celtic lost said consonant, moving towards /h/ or Ø: compare athir / orc (Irish) and pater / porcus (Latin) meaning "father" and "pig" respectively. The existence of aspirated sounds /h/ and the presence of /f/, unknown in Celtic languages, is also argued.

These features would make Lusitanian incapable of being strictly considered a Celtic language, and so Schmidt, and Witczak consider that the preservation of *p completely excludes the possibility of the Celtic origin of Lusitanian, and that its incorporation into this branch "would violate the most elementary principles of linguistic reconstruction".

On the contrary, the defenders of the affiliation with the Celtic branch see in the *p an archaism that should not be used to classify a language, with the addition that there is no sure etymology for the words with /f/ nor for the aspirates /h/. For these authors, Lusitanian would be a sister language to Proto-Celtic rather than a language descending from it, that is, a branch apart from Celtic although closely related to it, justifying the presence of this /p/ for being a very primitive Celtic language, prior to the loss, since from the point of view of historical phonetics the Celtic languages almost certainly lost the *p Initial and intervocalic at a late time.

Among them are Anderson, Búa and Jurgen Untermann who have isolated radicals present in toponymy and anthroponyms and which they consider to be related to Celtic materials: briga 'hill, fortified place', bormano 'thermal', karno 'heap of stones', krouk 'knoll', crougia 'monument, ara ', etc.

Lusitanian as an Italic language

This second hypothesis is the one defended by Francisco Villar, Rosa Pedrero, Joaquín Gorrochategui and Blanca María Prosper, who relate it to the Italic languages. The theory is based on parallelisms of god names: Lusitanian Aquiaio, Latin aqua, Sabino Poimunien, Umbrian Puemune, Lusitanian Pemaneeco < *Poi-mn̥o-y-aiko, the Lusitanian divinity Collouesei versus the Latin Colluuies, or the 'God-river' Revo (dat. Reve) vs. Latin rivus 'river', (both from *HreyH-uos), Munidie 'Iuno Moneta'. In addition to other common lexicon concordances:
Lusitanian praidtom, praisom 'set before, exposed' ~ Latin praeditum
Lusitanian vea ~ Latin via, Umbrian vea
Lusitanian radom ~ Latin ratus
Lusitanian rurseaic ~ Latin rursus
Lusitanian enetom ~ Umbrian enetu, Latin initum
Lusitanian lamaticom ~ Latin lama
Lusitanian comaiam ~ Umbrian kumiaf 'pregnant'
Lusitanian Peidurta ~ Latin Peturtius 'fourth'
Lusitanian Ocrimira 'monte del rio Mira' ~ Latin ocris 'stony hill', Umbrian ocar.

Michelena already observed that "to the extent that the Lusitanian language is known, it would seem Italic rather than Celtic" and Villar is much more explicit when, referring to the Lusitanian language, he states that "with great probability it is a new variety of the Italic language, with specific features that differentiate it on the one hand from Latin and on the other from Oscan and Umbrian”.

Finally, and after the appearance of the new Arronches inscription, which affects the presence of /p/, aspirated sounds and /f/, José Mª. Vallejo concludes that there are no longer any great doubts that Lusitanian does not belong to the group of Celtic languages.

Linguistic description

Consonants

1. IE ♪ ▪ p: In front of the Celtic, conservation ♪ indoeuropea: porco-Latin porcusOld Irish orc. Oipaengia (Castelo Branco) 'godly protective of the sheep' ♪ owi-peh2n-ika. Coropotio (Cáceres) 'sir of war' *koro-poh2ty-o (former Icelandic herföðr). Pagenda "small" (Coria, Braga and Viseu) *peh2uk-entāLatin paucus. *peh2uk-o-o-. Poemana 'protectora' (Lugo) Pomana, Lituano piemuo 'pastor' ≤2i-men.
2. IE ♪ ▪ b: Common to Latin and Celtic. climb 'habitation, settlement' *treb-ā. Common Celtic climb.
3. IE ♪bh ▪ b: In Latin, in some cases, and in accordance with the Celtic. Albo-ocelo (♪ albhu-okelo-). 'white province' (Viseu, Vila Real). Plural lens -bow.: deibobo "for the gods" (Viseu) ♪ deiwo-bho.
4. IE ♪ ▪ b: Bovana, Bovecius. *gwou-i-k-y-os. Match the Celtic (bou) but not with the Latin (bos, bovis it is considered loan of the sabin because in Latin it would be hoped ♪ you, you ♪.
5. IE ♪ ▪ h-  0-: Front to the Celtic and in accordance with the Latin result (h-(c): oilam erbam 'Weed sheep, already raised', ♪. *gher-wā. Latin herba. *gher-dhā. Etymology is seriously debatable.
6. IE ♪ ▪ b: Bormano 'termal'♪ghworma-no-## Formio. ♪ghworm-y-o.
7. IE ♪ dh ▪ d: Roudeaeco 'De Rouda = de la Roja' (Cáceres) ♪roudh-y-aik-o-o-. Match with the solution of the Celtic (Old Irish) ruad) and differs from Latin, which (at least after u-) -b: rubeus ► ♪roudh-y-os.
8. IE ♪ ▪ ss/s: Assaeco. *Ansaeco. *n-s-aik-o-o- 'favorable, favorable', Asseconia (top.) ♪n-s-ek-on-y-ā (these toponyms are in relation to the drone aissicunia and the ogamic assiconia: cf. Bernardo Stempel, 2002). Cosoe. ♪ Consuei. *kom-dh-t-wei (between the astures Cossue). The phonetic result proposed by B.M. Prosper presents doubts, since the loss of the larynx is abnormal. The form *kom-dhH-t-u could give rise to the numerous toponyms Northwest County, related to the galo-britonics Condatus and Stay (cf. also the anthropoms of the peninsular NW: Condisa (Chaves) and Ancondei (Xinzo de Limia, Orense). The Teonimo Sabino could depart in a way *kom-sew-yo-s ▪ *kom-su-yo-s ▪ *kom-su(u)-s after equating to the topic paradigm - Wow. in the formation of Latin theosomes (cf. COZEVIOD, CONSEVIO, CONSUVIUS in Sabine Inscriptions.
9. IE *kw ▪ p: Evolution similar to the Celtic-P (gift and possibly asturic) and osco-umbro: Peidurta ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü Puppid. *kwodkwid 'Interrogative particle identical to the Sanskrit káścit *Kwodkwid and parallel to the osco pitpit *kwidkwid, which presents the same assimilation *dp /2005 pp as the Latin *quidpe  quippe. Petravioi. ♪kwetur-- 'fourth'. Note the relationship Pumpi. *kwinkwe. *penkwe "five" with modern Welsh pump "five" and osco-umbro pompe 'five'. So, pumpi-canti (registration of Arronches) would be literally 'five hundred' according to B.M. Prosper and Fco. Villar. Ampilua 'sirvienta'.₂mb^hi-k^wel-uā, Latin anculus 'sirviente'.₂mb^hi-k^wol-o (EDL:41), former Irish Caile 'sirvienta' ▼^wl_or-ia.
10. IE *k'w ▪ kk: Iccona. *ek ́w-onā (Galician) Epona).
11. IE *p...kw ▪ p...kw: Unlike the Latin, galaxy and Celtic, the lusitano did not know the assimilation *p...kw  *kw...kw: *penkwe, Latin quinque, Irish coic. Like the asturic, he retained the numeral *penkw-to  pen. / pine and both languages developed innovative analogue ordinales without equivalents in any other indo-European language: *oktō-wó '8o' δ asturico Pintavius (cf. Octavius) and *sept-m-ó '7o'  lusitano Pintamus.

Vowels

1. IE * ▪ or: As in Latin and in front of the Celtic, ō in the support vocal for *eh3//*oH/* (in common Celtic -ā-.)

   doenti 'dan' *deh3-ent-i (latin) dōnum). Compete these with the forms -ā- airl. 'dan' and celtibérico zaunom 'donado' ♪ dā-mn-om ♪. Poemana ≤2i-mn--a 'protector', Bag (Save, Indanha and Cáceres) 'flower'. *blosa. *bhleh3-sā (latin) flora, osco fluffin front of the asturico Blaeso / Balaeso "Bhleh3-syo 'flowered'.

2. IE *-ō ▪ -: As in Latin and in front of the Celtic in /u(Celtibic implantation) datuz 'will give.'₃-tōd), bell - in the final vowel for *eh3/ō. The imperative singeieto 'will have to come together' *sem-kih-eye-tōd,
3. IE ♪ ▪ ai: Conservation of indo-European diptongo ♪-ai-: praiso participle 'possessed before, offered' Δ *praisso₂i-d^hh₁-to, cfr. Latin. praeditum *preh₂i-d^hUh...₁-to, Aecandus 'that throws, thrower' (Condeixa-a-Velha, Alburquerque and Trujillo) ≤₂eik-n_ort-o.
4. IE ♪ ▪ ei: In front of Latin (which reduces to /ī/: dīva. *deiwā) and Celtic (which reduces to /ē/: dēva. *deiwāConservation of the indo-European diptongo *-ei- at least in tonic position: Deiba, Deibo "gods, goddess." However in atonous position the diptongo seems to be reduced It's okay. participle 'initiated' Δ*eneito ≤1₁in-h₁ei-to, cfr. umbro enetu 3o p. pl. imp. 'they'll start'₁in-h₁ei-tōd, Latin initium *₁in-h₁ei-t-y-o.
5. IE ♪ ▪ ui: In front of Latin (which reduces to /u/: uva. ♪ oiwā), conservation of the indoeuropeo diptongo ♪-oi-, sometimes with secondary closure -ui-: muitio 'exchanged, donated' *h2moi-ty-o-o-Latin mutuus ≤2moi-ty-o.
6. IE *CHC ▪ a: As in Latin and Celtic, vocalization in a of interconsonant larynx radom (ac) 'legal, favorable, measured' *Hrh₁-to, identical to the Latin ratus *Hrh₁-to (EDL:519).
7. IE ♪ ▪ an and ♪ ▪ am: As in Celtic and in front of Latin, vocálica realization of the nasals in grade zero an / am:

   Canti 'cien' ♪k'm-t-i / Celtic cantomLatin centum. *km-t-om.

   Bandu 'Marte' ♪ bhn-dh-u 'who binds or gathers'.

   Arantonio. *h2ergn-ton-y-o-o-Latin argentum. *h2ergn-t-om.

8. Front of the Celtic (ri / ar) and close to the Latin (or), vocálica realization of the liquid probe to grade zero *r̥ ▪ ur:

   Rurseaico. *ro-wurssaiko- Δ *re-wurtty-aik-o- Δ *re-wr-t-t-y-aik-o-.

   Nurim. *nuryom ≤30.00 *nowuryom ≤2 *newuryom ≤2 *newr--y-om.

   This solution defended by Prosper is not peaceful. The author herself maintains a Celtic result ar for the epithet found in Castelo Branco Bandi Arbariaico. *h2erh3-wr--y-aik-o- (old Irish arbar 'campo') in addition to the known cases of formations in - Blind.. *bhr-g-ā.

9. Front of the Celtic (li/) and close to the Latin (ol), vocálica realization of the liquid probe to grade zero ♪ ▪ ul. Possibly, same result for the long probe *l *H:

   E "ullaica '(city) of the land of horses' *ek ́w-o-tuln-aik-ā ك *ek ́w-o-tl-n-aik-āLatin. medí-tullium 'inner land'. However, the segment tullium could be attributed to the Celtic, if we cater to the celebrity tullonium and gloss tullinus.

   Corobulto 'voluntad of the army' *koro-wulto- Δ *koro-wl-H-to-. Véneto volti, Celtic vlati. This example contradicts the anthroponymous lusitano vlatico. ♪wl-H-ti-ko- of the gene of the Taporos (Villa del Rey, Cáceres) in a votive ara dedicated to the goddess Nabia.

Other developments

Fall of -g-: Oppositions Magilo-Mailo and Medugeno-Medueno.

Extension of the Betakist phenomenon and lention of -v- in Talavus and Navia.

1. As in Latin (Iūlius ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü rusticus *rou,estiku, clue *Klovo-yo, *kleu,o-yo, pluo ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü ius ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü₂Ieu--o, Ru ¢Ü₃and against the Celtic (Verclovius *uper-kleu-o-yo) and asturico (Zoela ¢Ü ¢Ü ¢Ü Ioviono 'leal'.₂ieu--y-h₃on-o), evolution of groups -eu-o- ▪ -ou-o- ▪ ū and -eu-e- ▪ -ou-e- ▪ ū. Cosu (Viseu and Porto) Cosiovo, Villablino (dat Cosiovi) and among the callaicos CosivoNogueira.
2. Dental Fall in the Group *dyeu-/dyou--, trait that shares only with Latin. Lusitano Ioveai. *dyeu--(i)yaiLatin Iouis. *dieu--is, osco Dive.

   This trait is an isogloss that separates it from the language of the astures, whose realization with a fricative result is the very one of the Celtibérico: Zoela. *Dio(u-)-elaLatin Iūlius. *Dio(u-)-elo.

   However if we stick to EWC 2009:159 we observe iovernoi is an ethnic in Ireland, ioviaco (oc. 34, 37) theonymous in Gaul, ioviaco(IA 24.3) toponymous in Austria, ioviacum (Eugippius, Vita Severini 24.1) name of place in Galia; iovia was the name of one of the seven islands of Avalon and similar to the place name iovia (IA: Ludbreg, Croatia); iuvavum (IA 235.4, 256.7, 258.6) or iovavi (Tab Peut.) is today Salzburg as well as pointing out a pagus iovista in Pannonia, etc., putting it in relation to IE ♪yew-ya- (IEW 138-39): scr. Yavya 'god, stream, channel', a.persa yauviyä 'canal'.

3. Occlusive Fall /g/ in postnuclear position of the group -rg-:

   Beriso, Berisamo (current Beresmo ” *bher livedh-y-so- (between the astures Bergidum)

   Aranta, Arantonio (Guard, Cáceres, Castelo Branco) *h2ergn-ton-y-o-o- (between the astures Arganticaeniand between the Celtic Beturia Argantoni)

4. Generalized fall -g- in contact with -I-at least in the galaxy area:

   Sesmo ()) and Sesmaka. *sesam-akā. *segh-ism--akā. In Vadinia SegisamoCeltiberia Segisama. Among the astures Segisamo and Segidiaeco 'from Segidia'. Among the Celtics of Beturia ♪ (Badajoz)..

   Beriso. *bher livedh-y-so- (Surely the current Birizo. Among the astures Bergidumand Bergiso (current Berdicio, Berzizo in medieval documentation).

   Seilio (Bee and Caceres) *se(g)-ilo-. (Segilia and segilo in celtiberia).

   Mailo (Evora, Cáceres) *mh2e(g)-ilo-. (between the astures Magicand between the Celtic Beturia Magilancum.). Maelgeino 'Son of Mailo' *mailgeno. *magilogen.

   -Bye.. *-bhr-(g)-y-aik-o-.

5. Other cases of occlusive fall -g- in intervocálica position:

   Brialeacui *Brialia (Castelo Branco) *bhr-(g)-al-y-aku-ei. However among the Celtic Coruña Brigantium.

   Meidueno (Orense, Castelo Branco, Cáceres) *medhu-gen-o-s, Matueno (Badajoz), Catueno (Cáceres, Castelo Branco, Guarda). Among the astures Matugenoand Celtic Beturia Medugen.

6. Betacism or confusion of the occlusive lipstick [b] with the lip cold [β]. Deiba, Deibo Debarono"gods, goddess" (cf. Latin diva and Celtic deva). Also onomastic Dobitero, Talabus and teonimo Nabia instead of Dovitero, Talavus and Navia. Phenomenon also observed in Renania: cf. naviae/nabiaeScotland navarus/nabarus and Britania navio/nabione (cf. EWC 2009: 623-24).

   However, it is sometimes appreciated loss of the semivocal w δ Ø ante vocal. Wherever I could wait ♪ Gorilla ♪, it is noted oila. *owilā, 'oveja', a change that shares with the astures and cloaks (Na(w)ilo, No(w)anius, Pinta(w)ius, Tala(w)us, etc.) but we don't find it in Celtibérico. This lention is equally common in late gálic (No.. boyfriend, doiro. dowiroand Irish I heard 'oveja'.

Syntax

Unlike Latin, Celtiberian and Lepontic (Subject Object Verb or SOV), and Insular Celtic (Verb Subject Object or VSO), Lusitanian would present a Subject Verb Object (SVO) order like Gaulish: Veamnicori doenti angom lamatigom Crougeai: 'The veamnicores give (in sacrifice) an ango(?) of Lamatis for Cróugea'.

Declinations proposal

Author José Cardim Ribeiro has proposed a declension for Lusitano:

TEXTS

Only five very late lusitan inscriptions are known on stone all in Latin alphabet. Prior to the Roman period there had been no own lusitan epigraphy. The two main inscriptions were in Portuguese territory in Lamas de Moledo, Cabeço Das Fraguas, the third registration comes from Arroyo de la Luz (Spain). Recently, a new registration has been found in Ribeira da Vanda, north of the Villa de Arroches (District of Portalegre, Alto Alentejo), in Portugal.

To all of them should be added a recently found in viso written in the mixed language, where the expression of divinities is in the Lusitanian language and that of the dedicator and votive form in Latin. This possibility of accepting the existence of mixed epigraphs, which show clear brands of indigenous flexive detencies not assimilable to Latinas, has led some authors to propose the same category of indigenous epigraphs (or better mixed) some other inscriptions such as water Frías, Arroyomolinos de la Vera and Santa María da Ribeira (Ginzo de Limia, Orense).

Next the known texts: