Lotus sutra

The Lotus Sutra (Sanskrit, Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, lit. Sutra on the White Lotus of True Dharma&# 34;)is one of the most influential and revered Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtras. It is the main scripture on which the Tiantai, Tendai, Cheontae and Nichiren Buddhist schools were established. It is also influential for other East Asian Buddhist schools, such as Zen. American Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez Jr. writes that the Lotus Sutra "is possibly the most famous of all Buddhist texts," since it presents "a radical revision of both the Buddhist path and the person of the Buddha.

Two central teachings of the Lotus Sutra have been very influential for Mahāyāna Buddhism. The first is the doctrine of the one vehicle, which says that all Buddhist paths and practices lead to Buddhahood and therefore all are simply "skillful means" (upayā) to achieve Buddhahood. The second is the idea that the Buddha's lifespan is immeasurable and that, therefore, he did not actually pass into final nirvana (he only seemed to do so), but that he is still active in the world teaching the Dharma.

Title

The oldest known Sanskrit title for the sūtra is Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, which can be translated as "the Lotus Flower Scripture of Fine Dharma" or "The Discourse on the White Lotus of the True Doctrine. The abbreviated form "Lotus Sutra" it is common.

In Chinese, the title of the sutra in Kumarajiva's translation is 妙法蓮華經 (Miàofǎ Liánhuá jīng). The characters mean: Subtle (妙) Dharma (法) Lotus (蓮) Flower (華) Sutra (經). In Japanese it is 妙法蓮華経 (Myōhō Renge Kyō). Gene Reeves writes that "the usual abbreviated title is 法華経, pronounced Fa-hua jingin in Chinese and Hoke-kyō in Japanese." This would be translated as "Dharma Flower Sutra". Meanwhile, the title of the Chinese translation of Dharmaraksha is 正法華經 (Zheng-fa-hua jing), "True Dharma Flower Sutra.

According to Donald S. López, the "puṇḍarīka" (the white lotus) is a symbol "of particular purity in Indian literature", while the term "saddharma" ("true doctrine") is "used to distinguish the Lotus Sutra from all other previous teachings of the Buddha." The lotus flower images are also said to point to the earthly connection of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earth and yet blooms above the water in the open air, just as the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains untainted by it.

Main themes

One vehicle, many skillful means

The Lotus Sutra is known for its extensive instruction on "skillful means" (Sanskrit: upāyakauśalya or upāya, Ch.: fangbian, Jp.: hōben), which refers to how the Buddhas teach in many ways adapted to the needs of their disciples. This concept of pedagogical strategies is often explained through parables or allegories. In the Lotus Sutra, the numerous "skillful" or "convenient" taught by the Buddha (including the "three vehicles" toward awakening) are revealed as part of the "one vehicle" (Skt.: ekayāna, ch.: 一乘; yīchéng), the supreme and all-encompassing path that leads to Buddhahood. Furthermore, this unique vehicle is none other than the myriad of skillful means that are its expressions and modes. As the Buddha says in the sutra 'Seek as you wish in the ten directions, there is no other vehicle apart from the upāyas of the Buddhas.'

The single vehicle is associated with mahāyāna ("great vehicle"), which is a path that rejects the interruption of rebirth (the individual nirvana or the "extinction" of the Buddhist saint) and seeks to heroically remain in the world of suffering to help other beings and achieve Buddhahood. In the Lotus Sutra, the single vehicle encompasses many different and seemingly contradictory teachings because of the Buddha's great compassion and desire to save everyone. beings (bodhicitta) led him to adapt the teaching to fit many different types of people and contexts. As the Buddha states in the Lotus Sutra: "Since I became In Buddha, I have used a variety of causal explanations and a variety of parables to teach and preach, and countless skillful means to guide living beings."

The Lotus Sutra also considers all other teachings to be subordinate to the ultimate truth of the "one Buddha vehicle", a goal that is within everyone's reach. This can be, and has been been, interpreted by some figures in an exclusive and hierarchical sense, in the sense that all other Buddhist teachings must be dispensed with. However, Reeves and other interpreters understand the single vehicle in a more pluralistic and inclusive sense that encompasses and reconciles all Buddhist teachings and practices. Some have even applied this universalism to non-Buddhist teachings.

Reeves also points out that the theme of unity and difference also includes ideas other than the single vehicle. According to Reeves, in the Lotus Sutra, "on more than one occasion, for example, the many worlds of the universe are brought together into a unity." Likewise, although there are said to be many Buddhas, they are all closely related to Shakyamuni and all teach the same thing.

All beings have the potential to become Buddhas

Another important teaching of the Lotus Sutra is that all beings can become Buddhas. The sutra considers the awakening of a Buddha to be the only and ultimate goal and boldly states that "anyone who hears the dharma, none will fail to attain Buddhahood." Numerous figures in the sutra receive predictions of future Buddhahood, including the quintessential Buddhist villain, Devadatta. In chapter 10, the Buddha notes that all types of people They will become Buddhas, including monks, nuns, lay people, along with numerous non-human beings such as nagas. Even those who only practice simple forms of devotion, such as paying respect to the Buddha or drawing a picture of him, are assured of their future status. of buddha.

According to Gene Reeves, this teaching also encourages us to see this potential for Buddhahood in all beings, even enemies, as well as to "realize our own capacity to be a Buddha." According to Reeves, the story of the dragon girl promotes the idea that women can also become Buddhas just like monks. Reeves believes that this is an inclusive message that "affirms the equality of all and tries to offer an understanding of Buddha-dharma that excludes no one.

Although the term buddha nature (buddhadhatu) is not mentioned in the Lotus Sutra, Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Akira Hirakawa suggest that the concept is implicitly present in the text. A Indian commentary (attributed to Vasubandhu), interprets the Lotus Sutra as a teaching of Buddha nature, and later East Asian commentaries tended to adopt this view. Chinese commentators pointed to the story of the Never Disrespectful Bodhisattva in chapter 20 as proof that the Lotus Sutra implicitly teaches Buddha nature.

The nature of Buddhas and bodhisattvas

Another key concept introduced by the Lotus Sūtra is the idea that the Buddha's lifespan is immeasurable and that he is still present in the world. The text states that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood countless eons ago (kalpas), but he remains in the world to help teach beings the Dharma again and again. It is said that the Buddha's life is incalculable, beyond imagination, and that he is "ever lasting, never perishes." Biography and apparent death (paranirvana, "final nirvana") of Sakyamuni Buddha (Gautama) are described as an illusory manifestation, a skillful means intended to teach others.

The idea that the physical death of a Buddha is the termination of his life is graphically refuted by the appearance of another Buddha, Prabhūtaratna, who has taught the Lotus Sutra countless eons ago. The Lotus Sutra indicates that not only can multiple Buddhas exist at the same time and place (which contrasts with earlier Indian views), but that there are countless Buddhas extending throughout space and across unquantifiable eons of time.. The Lotus Sutra illustrates a sense of inconceivable timelessness, often using large numbers and measurements of space and time.

Jacqueline Stone writes that the Lotus Sutra affirms the view that the Buddha constantly remains in our present world. As the Sutra states in chapter 16, the Buddha remains 'constantly dwelling in this sphere of the Sahā world, preaching the dharma, teaching and converting.' According to Stone, the sutra has also been interpreted as promoting idea that the Buddhafield (buddhakṣetra) "is in some sense immanent in the present world, although radically different from our ordinary experience of being free from decay, danger and suffering.&# 3. 4; According to this view, highly influential in Tiantai and Japanese Buddhism, "this world and the Pure Land are not ultimately separate places, but are, in fact, not dual."

According to Gene Reeves, the Lotus Sutra also teaches that the Buddha has many incarnations and that these are the countless bodhisattva disciples. These bodhisattvas choose to remain in the world to save all beings and keep the teaching alive. For Reeves, the Buddha's fantastically long life, in other words, is, at least in part, a function of and dependent on the embodiment of him in others.

Summary

The sutra is presented in the form of a drama composed of several fantastic scenes filled with symbolic images and stories. According to Gene Reeves, the first part of the sutra 'elucidates a unifying truth of the universe (the One Vehicle of the Wonderful Dharma)", the second part "sheds light on the eternal personal life of Buddha (the Eternal Original Buddha); and the third part emphasizes the real activities of human beings (the path of the bodhisattva)"

The following chapter summary is based on the expanded Chinese version of the Kumārajīva, the version most translated into other languages. Other versions have different chapter divisions.

Chapter 1

During a meeting at Vulture Peak, Shakyamuni Buddha enters a state of deep meditative absorption (samadhi). The earth trembles in six ways and the Buddha sends out a ray of light from the lock of hair between his eyebrows (ūrṇākośa) that illuminates thousands of Buddha fields in the east. Maitreya wonders what means this, and the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī claims that he has seen this miracle a long time ago, when he was a student of the Buddha Candrasūryapradīpa. He then says that the Buddha is about to expound his latest teaching, The White Lotus of Good Dharmaa. In fact, Mañjuśrī says that this sutra was taught by other Buddhas countless times in the world. past.

Chapters 2-9

Modern scholars suggest that chapters 2-9 contain the original form of the text. Chapter 2 explains that ultimately there is only one path, one vehicle, the Buddha vehicle (buddhayāna). This concept is explained in detail in chapters 3-9, using parables, narratives of previous existences and prophecies of awakening.

Chapter 2: Skillful Means

Shakyamuni explains his use of skillful means to adapt his teachings according to the capabilities of his audience. He also says that his ways are inconceivable. Śāriputra asks the Buddha to explain it and five thousand monks leave because they do not want to listen to this teaching. The Buddha then reveals that the three vehicles (yānas) are only skillful means, and that they are actually the unique vehicle (ekayāna). It says that the ultimate purpose of the Buddhas is to make sentient beings "obtain the vision of the Buddha" and "enter the path of the Buddha's vision..."

The Buddha also states the various benefits for those who preserve the sutra, and that those who perform even the simplest forms of devotion will eventually attain Buddhahood. The Buddha also states that those who reject and insult the Lotus Sutra will be reborn in hell.

Chapter 3: The House on Fire

The Buddha prophesies that in a future eon Śāriputra will become a Buddha called Padmaprabha. Śāriputra is glad to have heard this new teaching, but says that some in the assembly are confused. The Buddha responds with the parable of the burning house, in which a father (symbolizing the Buddha) uses the promise of several chariots toy to get his children (sentient beings) out of a burning house (symbolizing samsara). Once outside, he gives everyone a large car to travel in. This symbolizes how the Buddha uses all three vehicles as skillful means to liberate all beings - although there is only one vehicle for Buddhahood, namely the Mahāyāna. The sutra emphasizes that this is not a lie, but a compassionate act.

Chapter 4: Belief and understanding

Four senior disciples, including Mahākāśyapa, address the Buddha. They tell the parable of the poor son and his rich father (sometimes called the parable of the 'prodigal son'). This man left home and became a beggar for 50 years while his father became incredibly rich. One day the son arrives at his father's farm, but the son does not recognize his father and is afraid of such a powerful man. Therefore, the father sends lower class people to offer menial work cleaning garbage. For more than 20 years, the father guides his son towards bigger and better jobs, such as being the accountant of all the father's wealth. Then one day he announces his identity and the son is overjoyed. The older disciples say that they are like the son, because at first they did not have the confidence to accept full Buddhahood, but today they are happy to accept their future Buddhahood.

Chapter 5: Medicinal herbs

This parable says that the Dharma is like a great monsoon rain that nourishes many different kinds of plants according to their needs. The plants represent the Śrāvakas, Pratyekabudas and Bodhisattvas, and all beings who receive and respond to the teachings according to their respective capacities. Some versions of the sutra also contain other parables, such as the one that compares the Dharma with the light of the Sun and the Moon, which shine equally on everyone. Thus, Buddha's wisdom shines on everyone equally. Another parable found in some versions says that, just as a potter makes different types of vessels from the same clay, the Buddha teaches the same One Vehicle in different forms.

Chapter 6: Predictions

The Buddha prophesies the future Buddhahood of Mahākāśyapa, Mahāmaudgalyāyana, Subhūti and Mahākātyāyana.

Chapter 7: A Buddha from the past and the illusory city

The Buddha tells a story about a past Buddha named Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū, who achieved awakening after eons under the bodhi tree and then taught the four noble truths and conditioned arising. At the request of his sixteen sons, he then taught the Lotus Sutra for one hundred thousand aeons. His children proceeded to teach the sutra. The Buddha then says that all these sons became Buddhas and that he is one of them.

The Buddha also teaches a parable about a group of people searching for a great treasure who are tired of their journey and wish to abandon it. Their guide creates an illusory magical city for them to rest in and then makes it disappear. The Buddha explains that the magical city represents the 'nirvana of hinayana', created simply as a rest stop by the Buddha, and that the true treasure and the ultimate goal is Buddhahood.

Chapter 8: Predictions for the disciples

Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra is declared by the Buddha as the supreme teacher in his saṅgha and is given a prediction of future Buddhahood (his name will be Dharmaprabhāsa). The Buddha then gives prophecies of future Buddhahood to twelve hundred arhats. The five hundred arhats who had left earlier confess that they were ignorant in the past and attached themselves to lower nirvana, but now they are very happy as they have faith in their future Buddhahood.

The arhats tell the parable of a man who has fallen asleep after drinking and whose friend sews a jewel into his dress. When he wakes up, he continues a life of poverty without realizing that he is truly rich, only discovering the jewel after meeting his old friend again. The hidden jewel has been interpreted as a symbol of Buddha nature. This parable has been compared to the parables found in the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra (Buddha Fountain Sutra).

Chapter 9: Predictions for the Bhikṣus

Ānanda, Rāhula, and two thousand bhikṣus aspire to obtain a prophecy, and the Buddha predicts their future Buddhahood.

Chapters 10-22

Chapters ten to twenty-two set forth the role of the bodhisattva, the omnipresence of the Buddha, and the immeasurable and inconceivable length of his life. The theme of the propagation of the Lotus Sutra that begins in chapter 10 continues in the remaining chapters.

Chapter 10: The Dharma Teachers

The Buddha states that whoever hears a single line of the sūtra will attain Buddhahood. This chapter presents the teaching practices of the sutra, which include accepting, embracing, reading, reciting, copying, explaining, propagating, and living according to its teachings. Dharma teachers (dharmabhāṇaka) are praised as messengers of the Buddha. The Buddha states that they should be honored as if they were Buddhas and that stupas should be built where the sutra is taught, recited or written. The Buddha also says that he will send emanations to protect the sutra masters.

Chapter 11: The Jeweled Stupa

A huge jeweled stupa (a stylized reliquary burial mound) rises from the earth and floats in the air. Then a voice is heard from within praising the Lotus Sūtra. The Buddha claims that another Buddha, called Prabhūtaratna, resides in the stupa, who achieved awakening through the Lotus Sūtra. Prabhūtaratna vowed to appear to verify the truth of the Lotus Sūtra every time it was preached.

Countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha in the ten directions are now summoned by the Buddha into this world, transforming it into a Pure Land. The Buddha then opens the stupa. Prabhūtaratna then invites Shakyamuni to sit next to him in the jeweled stupa. This chapter reveals the existence of multiple Buddhas at the same time, as well as the idea that Buddhas can live for as long as possible. countless eoness. According to Donald López "among the doctrinal revelations that this scene hints at is that a Buddha does not die after passing into nirvāna.

Chapter 12: Devadatta

The Buddha tells a story about how in a previous life he was a king who became a slave to a rishi just so he could hear the Lotus Sutra. This rishi was none other than Devadata, who is destined for Buddhahood in the future as Devarāja Buddha.

In another story, Mañjuśrī praises the daughter of the Nāga king Sāgara and says that she can attain Buddhahood. The bodhisattva Prajñākūṭa is skeptical about this, and then the nāga princess appears. Śāriputra says that women cannot attain Buddhahood. The nāga princess makes an offering to Buddha of a precious jewel and then says that she can attain Buddhahood faster than she made that offering. She then transforms into a male bodhisattva and becomes Buddha. Through these stories, Buddha teaches that everyone can become enlightened: men, women, animals and even the most sinful murderers.

Chapter 13: Devotion

The Buddha encourages all beings to accept the teachings of the sutra at all times, even in the most difficult times to come. The bodhisattvas Bhaiṣajyarāja, Mahāpratibhāna, and two hundred thousand others promise to teach the sutra in the future. The Buddha prophesies that the six thousand nuns who are also present, including Mahāprajāpatī and Yaśodharā, will all become Buddhas.

Chapter 14: Peaceful Practices

Mañjuśrī asks how a bodhisattva should spread the teaching. The Buddha explains the four qualities that must be cultivated to teach the sutra. First of all, they must have self-control and correctly see the characteristics of phenomena and must stay away from worldly life. Secondly, you must see the emptiness of phenomena. Thirdly, you should be happy and never criticize or discourage people from enlightenment. Lastly, they must have compassion for people and desire to attain Buddhahood in order to help liberate others. Virtues such as patience, gentleness, a calm mind, wisdom and compassion must be cultivated.

Chapter 15: Leaving Earth

Bodhisattvas from other world systems say they will help the Buddha teach this sutra here, but the Buddha says their help is not necessary: he has many bodhisattvas here. Then the ground opens and countless bodhisattvas emerge from the earth (led by Viśiṣṭacāritra, Anantacāritra, Viśuddhacāritra and Supratiṣṭhitacāritra). Maitreya asks who these bodhisattvas are since no one has heard of them. The Buddha claims that he himself has taught all these bodhisattvas in the remote past. Maitreya then asks how this is possible, since these bodhisattvas have been training for eons.

Chapter 16: The Life of the Tathagatha

The Buddha (tathagatha) claims that he actually attained Buddhahood countless quintillions of eons ago. He has only appeared to become awakened recently as a skillful means of teaching others. The Buddha also says that he only appears to pass into final nirvāṇa, but in reality he does not. This is only an expeditious teaching so that beings do not become complacent. The Buddha then teaches the parable of the excellent doctor who induces his poisoned children to take an antidote by faking his death. Hearing it, they are surprised and take the medicine. The doctor then reveals to them that he is still alive. Since the Buddha uses skillful means in this way, he should not be seen as a liar, but as an intelligent teacher.

Chapter 17: Merit

The Buddha explains the merit (punya) or benefits that come from hearing and believing this teaching about the life of the Buddha. He says that this teaching has brought countless bodhisattvas, as many as the sands of the Ganges, to various levels of spiritual realization. He also says that it is more beneficial to hear and believe in the Lotus Sutra than to practice the first five perfections for eons. The Buddha claims that those who have faith in this teaching will see this world as a pure land filled with bodhisattvas. Those who have faith in the sutra have already made offerings to the Buddhas of the past and do not need to build stupas or temples. These beings will develop excellent qualities and achieve Buddhahood. This chapter also says that stupas should be built to honor Buddha.

Chapter 18: Rejoicing

The Buddha claims that the merit generated by rejoicing in this sutra (or a single line of it) is far greater than that of helping thousands of beings become arhats. The merits of listening to the sutra, even for a moment, are widely praised in this chapter.

Chapter 19: Benefits of the Dharma Teacher

The Buddha praises the merits of those who dedicate themselves to the Lotus Sutra. He claims that his six sensory bases (ayatanas) will become purified and develop the ability to experience the senses of billions of worlds, as well as other supernatural powers.

Chapter 20: The Bodhisattva Never Despises

The Buddha tells a story about a previous life when he was a bodhisattva named Sadāparibhūta ('Never Despises' or 'Never Disrespectful') and how he treated everyone he met., good or bad, with respect, always remembering that they will become Buddhas. Never-Contempt experienced much ridicule and condemnation from other monastics and laymen, but always responded by saying "I do not despise you, because you will become a Buddha. buddha". He continued to teach this sutra for many lifetimes until he attained Buddhahood.

Chapter 21: The Powers of the Tathagatha

This chapter reveals that the sutra contains all of the Buddha's secret spiritual powers. Bodhisattvas arising from the earth (in chapter 15) are entrusted with the task of disseminating and propagating the sutra and promise to do so. Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna extend their tongues towards the realm of Brahmā, emitting numerous rays of light along with countless bodhisattvas. This miracle lasts one hundred thousand years. Then they clear their throats and snap their fingers, which is heard in all the worlds and all the worlds tremble. All beings in the universe then receive a vision of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. All the Buddhas praise Śākyamuni for teaching the Lotus. The Buddha says that the merits of teaching the sutra are immeasurable and that any place where it is being taught or copied is a sacred place.

Chapter 22: Order

The Buddha transmits the Lotus Sutra to all the bodhisattvas in his congregation and entrusts them with its safekeeping and its propagation everywhere. Prabhūtaratna Buddha in his jeweled stupa and the innumerable manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha return to their respective worlds. According to Donald López, the Lotus Sutra "seems to end with chapter twenty-two, when the Buddha exhorts his disciples to spread the teaching, after which they return to their abodes... scholars speculate that this was the final chapter of an earlier version of the Lotus." This is the final chapter in the Sanskrit versions and in the alternative Chinese translation. Shioiri suggests that an earlier version of the sutra ended with this chapter and that chapters 23-28 were later inserted into the Sanskrit version.

Chapters 23-28

These chapters focus on various bodhisattvas and their actions.

Chapter 23: The Bodhisattva Medicine King

The Buddha tells the story of the bodhisattva "King of Medicine" (Bhaiṣajyarāja), who, in a previous life as the bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, set fire to his body, illuminating many world systems for twelve years, as a supreme offering to a Buddha. This chapter teaches the practice of "offering of the 'body', which consists of burning a part of one's body (such as a toe, a finger, or a limb) as an offering. It is also said that listening to and chanting the 'Lotus Sutra' 3. 4; cures diseases. The Buddha uses nine similes to declare that the Lotus Sutra is the king of all sutras.

Chapter 24: The Bodhisattva Gadgadasvara

Gadgadasvara ("Wonderful Voice"), a bodhisattva from a distant world, visits Vulture Peak to worship Buddha. Gadgadasvara once made offerings of various types of music to Meghadundubhisvararāja Buddha. His accumulated merits allow him to adopt many different forms to propagate the Lotus Sutra.

Chapter 25: The Universal Gate of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva

This chapter is dedicated to the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Skt. "Lord Who Looks Down", Chinese: Guanyin, "Caretaker of the Cries of the World"), and describes him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings and rescues those who call on his name.

Chapter 26: Dhāraṇī

Hariti and several bodhisattvas offer sacred dhāraṇī (magical formulas) to protect those who keep and recite the Lotus Sutra.

Chapter 27: The Wonderful Ornament King

This chapter tells the story of the conversion of King "Maravillas" for his two children.

Chapter 28: Samantabhadra

A bodhisattva called "Universal Virtue" or "All Good" (Samantabhadra) asks Buddha how to preserve the sutra in the future. Samantabhadra promises to protect and guard all those who keep this sutra in the future. He says that those who keep the sutra will be reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa and Tuṣita heavens. He also says that those who uphold this sutra will have many good qualities and should be seen and respected as Buddhas.

History and reception

According to López, the Lotus Sutra "is clearly a work of great literary quality. Its authors are unknown, but it is likely that they were highly educated Buddhist monks, who moved with total ease among the doctrines and tropes of Buddhism as it existed in India at that time. According to Peter Alan Roberts, the The Lotus Sutra may have originated among the Mahāsāṃghika school and may have been written in a Middle Indo-Aryan language (a Prakrit) that was later Sanskritized. The idea that the sutra was originally in Prakrit remains a controversial claim among historians. both secular and religious.

Early development

According to Donald López, "the general consensus of scholars is that the Lotus Sutra took shape in four phases." López and Yuichi Karashima outline these phases as follows:

1. The composition of chapters 2-9. According to Yuichi Karashima, this first stratum includes the tristubh-style verses of these chapters, which may have been orally transmitted in an average indorian dialect.
2. The composition of the prose sections of chapters 2-9. According to Karashima, this stratum consists of the verses shloka and the prose of chapters 2-9.
3. The third phase, according to López, added chapter one, as well as chapters ten to twenty-two (with the exception of chapter twelve). However, according to Karashima, this stratum is composed of chapters 1, 10-20, 27 and a part of chapter 5 missing in the translation of Kumarajiva.
4. The fourth and final phase. López writes that this includes " Chapters 23 to 27, as well as Chapter 12, the chapter of Devadatta, with Chapter 28 added at some later date." Karashima maintains that this includes chapters 21-26 and the section on Devadatta in chapter 11 of the Sanskrit version.

Professors Stephen F. Teiser and Jacqueline Stone believe that there is consensus on the stages of composition but not on the dating of these strata.

Reception in India

According to López, "the number of surviving manuscripts and fragments of the Lotus Sutra suggests that the text was frequently copied." The Lotus Sutra is also cited in numerous scholarly treatises and compendiums., as in the Compendium of Sūtras (Sūtrasamuccaya, which cites four passages), in the Compendium of Formation (Śiksāsamuccaya, three passages), in the Dazhidu lun (23 citations) and in the Great Compendium of Sūtras (Mahāsūtrasamuccaya) of Atiśa. It is cited by Indian Buddhists such as Vasubandhu (in his commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha), Candrakīrti (in his Madhyamakāvatāra-bhāṣya), Śāntideva, Kamalaśīla and Abhayākaragupta.

According to Paramārtha (499-569 CE), there were more than fifty Indian commentaries on the Lotus Sutra. However, only one Indian commentary survives (which only survives in Chinese). It is attributed to Vasubandhu (but this has been disputed by modern scholars). This commentary asserts the superiority of the Lotus Sutra over all other sutras.

The doctrine of the one vehicle was not received equally by all Indian Buddhist traditions. While the Madhyamaka school fully adopted this doctrine, the Yogācāra school considered the Lotus Sutra as a provisional text. Thus, for Indian yogācāra thinkers, the doctrine of the one vehicle should not be taken literally, since it is merely provisional (neyārtha). According to Donald López "yogācāra commentators in turn maintain that the statement that there is only one vehicle is not definitive, but provisional, requiring interpretation. This should not be taken to mean that there are not, in fact, three vehicles. When the Buddha said that the Buddha vehicle was the only vehicle, he was exaggerating. What he meant was that it was the supreme vehicle. For yogācāra scholars, this sutra was taught as an expeditious means for the benefit of those people who have entered the lesser śrāvaka vehicle but who have the ability to embrace the mahāyāna.

An Indian version of the Lotus Sutra was translated into Tibetan by Yeshé Dé and the Indian translator Surendrabodhi during the reign of King Ralpachen (r. 815-38). This version is the closest to the Chinese version of Jñānagupta and Dharmagupta, as well as the Sanskrit version of Nepal.

The Sutra in China

Jacqueline Stone and Stephen F. Teiser, for their part, write that "it may not be an exaggeration to say that the Lotus Sutra has been the most influential Buddhist scripture in East Asia." The sutra has greater prominence in the Tiantai (sometimes called 'The Lotus School') and in Nichiren Buddhism.

Translations

There are three translations of the Lotus Sutra into Chinese. It was first translated into Chinese by the Dharmarakṣa team in the year 286 of the Chang'an era, during the Western Jin Dynasty (265-317). Initially it was held that the source text was in Sanskrit, but the view that the source text was actually in a Prakrit language has gained wide acceptance.

This first translation of Dharmarakṣa was replaced by a seven-part translation by Kumārajīva's team in 406 CE, which became the standard translation in East Asian Buddhism. According to Jean -Noël Robert, Kumārajīva relied heavily on the previous version. Kumārajīva's version is missing the Devadatta chapter, present in Dharmaraksa's version.

The third extant version, The Wonderful Dharma Supplemented Lotus Sutra (Chinese: Tiān Pǐn Miào Fǎ Lián Huá Jīng), in 7 volumes and 27 chapters, is a revised version of Kumārajīva's text, translated by Jñānagupta and Dharmagupta in 601. This version included elements that were absent in Kumārajīva's text, including the Devadatta chapter, several verses, and the final part of chapter 25. These elements were later added back to the text by Kumārajīva.

The Chinese Sutra has been translated into other Asian languages, such as Uyghur, Tangut and, more recently, colloquial Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean.

Comments

One of Kumārajīva's great disciples, Daosheng (355-434), wrote the oldest Chinese commentary on the Lotus Sutra. For Daosheng, the central teaching of the sutra is the single vehicle. According to Lopez, Daosheng divided the sutra into three parts (omitting the Devadatta chapter): "The first thirteen chapters demonstrate that the cause of the three vehicles is becomes the cause of the single vehicle. The following eight chapters demonstrate that the three-vehicle effect is also the single-vehicle effect. The last six chapters demonstrate that the followers of the three vehicles are the same as those of the one vehicle. Daosheng was also known for promoting the concept of Buddha nature.

Kuiji (632-82), a disciple of Xuanzang, also wrote a commentary on the Lotus Sutra. This commentary was translated into Tibetan and survives in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. Numerous other commentators from different Chinese Buddhist traditions wrote commentaries on the Lotus Sutra."

A topic of debate among Chinese commentators was the "three cars or four cars" which focused on whether the single vehicle was the same as the bodhisattva vehicle or a different vehicle that transcends the Mahāyāna. Chinese exegetes also disagreed over whether the Buddha of the Lotus Sutra had an infinite life or a finite life (length immeasurable), as well as on the question of whether the ultimate and primordial Lotus Buddha was referring to the Dharma body (dharmakaya), the reward body (sambhogakaya) or to the manifest physical body (nirmanakaya).

Tiantai

The most influential Chinese commentator on the Lotus Sutra was Zhiyi (538-597), patriarch of the Tiantai school, who is said to have experienced awakening while reading the Lotus Sutra. Zhiyi He was a student of Nanyue Huisi, who was the leading authority of his time on the Lotus Sutra.

Zhiyi adopted Daosheng's division of the sutra into three parts. For Zhiyi, the first fourteen chapters are "the teaching of the trace" (Ch. jimen; shakumon in Japanese) and the second fourteen chapters are the "fundamental" u "original" (benmen; Jp. honmon). For Zhiyi, the key message of the first half is the unique vehicle, while the key message of the second half (the fundamental teaching of the entire text) is the immeasurable length of the Buddha's life. According to López, "Zhiyi compares the fundamental teaching to the moon shining in the sky and the teaching of the trace to a moon reflected in a lake; the first is the source of the second.' Zhiyi adopted the Chinese practice of developing doctrinal classification systems (panjiao), which he interpreted through the doctrine of the single vehicle. For Zhiyi, while other sutras provide different messages for their recipients, the Lotus Sutra is uniquely comprehensive and holistic.

Zhiyi's philosophical synthesis considered the Lotus Sutra to be the Buddha's last and highest teaching. There are two main commentaries by Zhiyi on the sutra, the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra (Fahua xuanyi), which explains the main principles of the text, and the Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra (Fahua Wenzhu), which comments on specific passages. These two works were compiled by Zhiyi's disciple Guanding (561-632). For Zhiyi, the central tenet of the Sutra's unique vehicle is the "triple truth", a doctrine he developed from the Nagarjuna's madhyamaka philosophy, which posed a double truth. For Zhiyi, this was the unifying principle that included all of the Buddha's teachings and practices. According to Lopez and Stone, Zhiyi's vision was an inclusive vision that accommodated all Buddhist sutras, teachings and practices.

Zhiyi also linked the teachings of the Lotus Sutra with the teachings on Buddha nature of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. Zhiyi also understood that the Buddha of the Lotus Sutra referred to the three Buddha bodies of the trikaya. According to Stone and Teiser, for Zhiyi "the dharma body is the truth that is realized; the body of the reward is the wisdom that realizes it; and the manifest body, a compassionate expression of that wisdom like the human Buddha who lived and taught in this world. Zhiyi also wrote texts describing various spiritual practices that made use of the Lotus Sutra. For example, chanting the sutra is an element of one of the "four samādhis" (sizhǒng sānmèi) in Zhiyi's magnum opus, the Mohe Zhiguan. He also composed the Samādhi Lotus Rite of Repentance ( Fahua sanmei chanyi) based on the sutra.

The later scholar Tiantai Zhanran (711-778) wrote subcommentaries on Zhiyi's works on the Lotus. Based on his analysis in chapter 5, Zhanran would develop a new theory that held that even insentient beings, such as rocks, Trees and dust particles have Buddha nature. This doctrine would be adopted and developed by Japanese Buddhists such as Saichō and Nichiren.

The "Triple Lotus Sutra"

Due to the religious and sacred emphasis of the Buddhist text, some East Asian traditions have compiled the Lotus Sutra along with two other sutras that serve as a prologue and epilogue:

• The Sutra of the innumerable meanings (in Chinese, מה;; pinyin, Wúliángyì jīng)
• The Sutra of Samantabhadra Meditations (in Chinese, 한;; pinyin, Pίxián jīng)

The combination of these three sutras is often called Triple Lotus Sutra or Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra (in Chinese, 法華三部経; pinyin, Fǎhuá Sānbù jīng).

Japan

The Lotus Sutra has also been a very influential text in Japanese Buddhism. One of the oldest Japanese texts is the Hokke Gisho, a commentary on the Lotus Sutra based on the Chinese commentary of Fayun (467-529 CE). In the 8th century, the sūtra was important enough for the emperor to establish a network of nunneries called " Temples for the Eradication of Sins through the Lotus" (hokke metsuzai no tera), in each province, as a way to protect the royal family and the state. There were also various sutra rituals that were celebrated throughout Japan, both in temples and in the homes of the aristocracy. They were believed to help the dead and grant long life to the living. These rituals are mentioned in The Tale of Genji.

Tendai

The Tiantai school was brought to Japan by Saichō (767-822), who founded the Japanese Tendai tradition and wrote a commentary on the Lotus Sutra, which would remain fundamental to the Tendai school. Saichō attempted to create a grand synthesis of the various Chinese Buddhist traditions in his new Tendai school (including esoteric, pure land, Zen, and other elements), all of which would be united under the doctrine of the lotus vehicle. Saichō also understood the Lotus Sutra as a & #34;great direct path" towards Buddhahood that could be achieved in this very life and in this very body. Saichō taught that the story of the dragon king's daughter was proof of this direct path (jikidō) towards Buddhahood that did not It required three incalculable eons.

Tendai leaders after Saichō, such as Ennin and Enchin, also adopted other teachings of esoteric Buddhism (mikkyō) in their interpretation and practice of the Lotus Sutra. These figures interpreted the Lotus Sutra as an esoteric text, and the Buddha of the Lotus Sutra came to be seen as a timeless and omnipresent cosmic reality that is immanent in all things. By reciting mantras, performing mudras, and using mandalas in esoteric rituals, Tendai monks sought to unite their body, speech, and mind with that of the Buddha and achieve 'Buddhahood in this very body.' 3. 4; (sokushin jōbutsu). According to Jacqueline Stone, in tendai esotericism, "the cosmic Buddha is identified with the primordially enlightened Sakyamuni of the chapter "Life Span" [16], and his realm - that is, the entire universe - is conceived in mandalic terms as an ever-present assembly of the Lotus Sutra."

As a result of this interpretation, all the provisional Buddhas (such as Amida, Dainichi, and Yakushi) were integrated into the Primordial Buddha of immeasurable life of the latter half of the Lotus Sutra. These esoteric influences also led to the development of the concept Tendai of original enlightenment (hongaku hōmon). According to this theory, Buddhahood is not a distant goal, but is always present as the true inherent nature of all things. Buddhist practice is a way of realizing this nature.

Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of Buddhism in Japan for many years and the influential founders of the most popular Japanese Buddhist sects, such as Nichiren, Honen, Shinran and Dogen, trained as tendai monks.

Nichiren

The Japanese monk Nichiren (1222-1282) founded a new Buddhist school based on his belief that the Lotus Sutra is "the last teaching of the Buddha", and that the title of the sutra is its essence, 'the seed of Buddhahood'. He was originally a Tendai monk, but came to believe that Tendai had become corrupted and turned away from the Lotus Sutra, focusing on all sorts of useless practices, such as esoteric Buddhism. and devotionalism to Amida Buddha. Nichiren taught that chanting the title of the Lotus Sutra (Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō) – was the only effective Buddhist practice in what he believed to be the current era of decadence. of the Dharma (Jp. mappo). This was to be recited in front of a gohonzon ('object of veneration'). According to Stone, Nichiren believed that 'the immanent kingdom of Buddha is an ever-present reality'; which could be accessed through this practice.

Nichiren maintained that all other Buddhist sects were gravely mistaken and condemned to avīci hell because they "slandered the true Dharma" (Jp. hōbō) by considering other teachings to be above or equal to the Lotus Sutra. He also maintained that the current social and political chaos in Japan was caused by this behavior. Therefore, he set himself and his followers the task of rescuing as many people as possible by causing them to abandon their heretical forms of Buddhism through direct confrontation (shakubuku). He believed that establishing the True lotus dharma in Japan would lead to lasting peace and was identified with the bodhisattva Viśiṣṭacāritra, leader of the earth bodhisattvas who appear in chapter 15.

Thus, Nichiren vehemently attacked the teachings of all other Japanese Buddhist sects in person and in writing. This behavior often led to the persecution of Nichiren and his followers. Nichiren saw this persecution as a compassionate act of self-sacrifice, which must be endured. For Nichiren, these trials and tribulations were called shikidoku ("reading [the Lotus Sutra] with the body" 34;) and were believed to burn off negative karma. Nichiren Buddhism went through several developments and schisms after Nichiren's death.

Zen

According to Taigen Dan Leighton, the Lotus Sutra is a key source for the worldview and style of Dōgen (1200-1263), the Japanese founder of Sōtō Zen. Dōgen writes in his Shōbōgenzō that " Compared with this sūtra, all the other sūtras are nothing more than his servants, his relatives, for he alone expounds the truth." In his Shōbōgenzō, Dogen speaks directly of the Lotus Sūtra in the essay Hokke-Ten-Hokke, 'The flower of Dharma turns the flower of Dharma.' During his last days, Dogen spent his time reciting and writing the Lotus Sutra in his room which he called 'The Hermitage of the Lotus Sutra.' Lotus. The monk Ryōkan also studied the Lotus Sūtra extensively and this sutra was the greatest inspiration for his poetry and calligraphy.

The Rinzai master Hakuin Ekaku (1687-1768) achieved enlightenment while reading the third chapter of the Lotus Sutra. Hakuin writes that when he first read the sutra at age sixteen, he was disappointed with it. However, sixteen years later, after experiencing an awakening, he wrote,

"One night, after some time, I took the Lotus Sutra. Suddenly, I penetrated into the perfect, true and ultimate meaning of the Lotus. The doubts he had initially kept were destroyed and I realized that the understanding he had obtained until then was very wrong. I unconsciously threw a big cry and broke to cry."

Modern developments

According to Shields, modernist interpretations of the Lotus Sūtra begin with early 20th century nationalist applications of Chigaku Tanaka., Nissho Honda, Seno'o and Nisshō Inoue. The new Japanese religions began to form in the 19th century and the trend accelerated after World War II. Some of these groups have promoted the study and practice of the Lotus Sutra on a global scale. The largest new religious movements are lay groups based on the Lotus Sutra, such as Reiyukai, Soka Gakkai, Risshō Kōsei Kai.

According to Jacqueline Stone, these new groups based on the Lotus Sutra are also known for their social activism, international aid work, and peace work. According to Stone, Sokka Gakkai generally follows an exclusivist approach, believing that only Nichiren Buddhism can bring world peace. For its part, the Risshō Kōsei Kai follows an ecumenical and inclusive approach and is known for its interfaith efforts and focus on world peace. According to its co-founder Niwano Nikkyō (1906-1999), "the Lotus Sutra is not a proper name, but the fundamental truth - God, Allah, or the One Vehicle - at the heart of all great religions."

According to López, "the most famous and successful of the new Japanese religions, "was the Sōka Gakkai." Sōka Gakkai ('The Value Creation Society') was a secular organization founded by Nichirenists Tsunesaburō Makiguchi (1871-1944) and Toda Jōsei (1900-1958). conversion based on confrontational shakubuku, as well as its emphasis on the "benefits of this world" (genze riyaku), such as the good health and financial prosperity that would come to those who helped spread the Lotus message. The Sōka Gakkai was originally affiliated with Taisekiji, a Nichiren Shōshū temple, but was excommunicated of Nichiren Shōshū in the 1990s.

The Lotus Sutra in the West

One of the first mentions of the Lotus Sutra by a Westerner is found in the work of the Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci. In his Chinese work, The True Doctrine of the Lord of the Heavens (Tianzhu shiyi), published in 1603, Ricci mentions the Lotus Sutra and denounces the teaching of he.

Eugene Burnouf's work Introduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme indien (1844) marks the beginning of modern academic studies of Buddhism in the West. According to López, this tome "seems to have been originally conceived to help readers understand the Lotus Sutra," the translation of which Burnouf had completed in 1839. Burnouf decided to delay the publication of this translation so that he could write an introduction to it, that is, his Introduction of 1844. Burnouf's French translation of a Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript of the Lotus Sutra, titled "Le Lotus de la bonne loi transladuit du Sanscrit accompagné d'un commentaire et de vingt et un mémoires relatifs au Buddhisme", was published posthumously in 1852.

Burnouf appreciated "parables" (Sanskrit: aupamya, 'comparisons', 'analogies', more accurately described as allegories) found in the Lotus Sutra, which reminded him of the parables of the New Testament. He would write & # 34; I don't know anything so Christian in all of Asia & # 34; and he saw in the Lotus Sutra a 'moral Christianity, full of compassion for all creatures.' He also understood the Lotus Sutra (as well as other Mahayana works) as later texts, more'; developed & # 34; that the "simple" earlier sutras, which contained more historical content and fewer metaphysical ideas.

In the 20th century, numerous translations of the Lotus Sutra were made into English, French, Spanish, and other Western languages..

Lotus Sutra Practice

According to Gene Reeves, "the Lotus Sutra frequently advocates specific practices, which are usually related to the sutra itself. They are often given as sets of four to six practices, but include receiving and embracing the sutra, listening to it, reading and reciting it, remembering it correctly, copying it, explaining it, understanding its meaning, pondering it, proclaiming it, practicing as it teaches, honoring it, protecting it, doing offerings to it, preaching it and teaching it to others, and leading others to do any of these things." The Sutra also promotes the construction of stupas wherever the Lotus Sūtra is preached.

The Lotus Sūtra also mentions the six paramitas and the noble eightfold path. Other passages in the Sutra have been considered to promote certain ways of life. For example, the story of the never disrespectful bodhisattva in chapter 20 has been regarded by some as a teaching that we should view all beings as potential Buddhas and treat them accordingly. Likewise, other parts of the sutra have been interpreted as exhortations. to share the Lotus Dharma with other people.

In East Asia

The sūtra became an extremely important text for religious practice in East Asian Buddhism, especially through ritualized devotional practice. A particularly important set of practices are the 'five practices of the preacher of the dharma" (found in chapter 19), which are holding, reading, reciting, explaining, and copying the sūtra.

According to Daniel Stevenson, 'holding the sutra', 'does not connote a specific regime of practice, but rather functions as a generic designation for devotion to the Lotus Sutra in all its forms, especially all focused and sustained devotion. Therefore, it is a general term for the enthusiastic embrace of the sutra. The term derives from the Sanskrit root dhr, related to dharani and could refer to the memorization and retention of the teaching, as well as the "apprehension" most abstract of the Dharma in meditative states of samadhi. It could also refer to the storage, consecration and custody of physical copies of the sutra.

These practices were said to be very meritorious and could lead to miracles. Stories dealing with the miracles of the Lotus Sutra, such as Huixiang's Accounts of the Propagation of the Lotus Sutra (c. transform:lowercase">VII) became a popular genre in China and Japan. The popularity of these practices stems from the fact that a thousand copies of the text were sealed in the Dunhuang caves in the 11th century. The Lotus Sutra was also one of the most memorized Buddhist texts, a practice that became a requirement for Buddhist monastic ordination at various times in Chinese history.

These practices were often sponsored by Asian states as a way to protect the nation, but they were also carried out by people of all social classes. Ritualized recitation, text copying, and lectures explaining the Lotus Sutra took place in temples, shrines, and private residences. These practices were believed to generate many benefits. Spiritual benefits could include visions of Buddhas, rebirth in a pure land, awakening, and helping deceased relatives. Worldly benefits included peace, healing, and protection from harm. Similarly, the creation of different forms of visual, plastic, calligraphic, and performing arts based on the Lotus Sutra also came to be considered a form of spiritual practice. and a skillful means. The production of these works, which included the Lotus Sutra manuscripts themselves, could become highly ritualized processes. Likewise, the telling of miraculous stories and the composition of literature based on the Lotus Sutra were also considered another way of practicing their works. teachings.

In China, the practice taken from chapter 20 of seeing all beings as Buddhas or "universal veneration" (pujing) was adopted as the main practice of the "Three Stage Movement" of Xinxing (540-594). Meanwhile, the self-immolation of the Medicine King bodhisattva inspired a controversial tradition of cremating parts of one's body as a kind of devotion. Chapter 25 has also been very influential in Asian Guanyin devotionalism.

The chanting of the Lotus Sutra was and continues to be widely practiced in Chinese Buddhism. It is often accompanied by the wooden fish instrument and is preceded by various ritual acts, invocations, offerings and visualizations. Master Tiantai Zhiyi's works include several practices based on the Lotus Sutra, such as "Lotus Samādhi" and the 'Rite of Repentance for Lotus Samādhi'. Zhiyi is also said to have memorized the entire Triple Lotus Sutra. Zongxiao (1151-1214) mentions a practice that consisted of performing one or three prostrations for each character of the sutra.

In the Japanese Tendai school, the Lotus Sutra is an important part of taimitsu ("Tendai esotericism") where it is part of certain rituals, such as " Lotus rite" (hokke ho), "done to eradicate sin, build merit and realize awakening." According to Stone and Teiser, "the mandala used in this ritual represents the two Buddhas Sakyamuni and Many Jewels seated together in its central courtyard, just as they appeared in the jeweled stupa of the Lotus Sutra."

In Nichiren Buddhism, the central practice is the recitation of the title of the Lotus Sutra, called daimoku. This formula is Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō. Nichiren Buddhists believe that this phrase contains the meaning of the entire sutra and contains and replaces all other Buddhist practices (which are considered provisional and no longer effective). By chanting this phrase with faith, it is said that one can achieve Buddhahood in this life. Nichiren Buddhists often chant this phrase while standing in front of a "great mandala" (daimandara), or a "venerated cult object" (gohonzon), a practice that was promoted by Nichiren himself. Nichiren believed that chanting while contemplating the gohonzon allowed one to enter the mandala of the Lotus assembly.

Translations

• Masiá Clavel, Juan; Ikuko Tani; Koichiro Yoshida; Masiá, Emilio (2009). The Lotus Sutra. Direct Japanese translation; Salamanca. ISBN 978-84-301-1669-0
• Tizzano, Paula (2015). The lotus sutra. Herder Editorial. ASIN B010Q44U3M
• Tola, Fernando; Dragonetti, Carmen (2017). Sūtra del Loto de la True Doctrine: Saddharmapundarika Sūtra. ASIN B078KMXSFQ

Sources