Korea
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Korea (written in North Korea as Chosŏn [in chosŏn'gŭl, 조선; in Hancha, 朝鮮, revised romanization, Joseon] and in South Korea as Hanguk [in hangul, 한국; in hanja, 韓國; McCune-Reischauer, Han'kuk; literally, "People of the Han]) is a region of East Asia. In modern history, it refers to Korea DPR (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). In modern and contemporary history, it is applied to the Korean Empire established by Gojong in 1897. In a sense Broadly, Korea is a collective term for many Korean nations established on the peninsula after the Joseon dynasty. Names for the nation or people Chosŏnminjok, Chosŏnin, Chosŏnsaram are derived from this word (조선민족/조선인/조선사람?, 朝鮮民族/朝鮮人/朝鮮사람?, Joseonminjok/Joseonin/Joseonsaram RR) or Hanminjok, Hanguk-in, Hanguksaram (한민족/한국인 /한국사람?, 韓民族/韓國人/韓國사람?), the language Chosŏnmal (조선말?, 朝鮮말?, JoseonmalRR) or Hangugeo (한국어?, 韓國語? ) and the geographic feature Chosŏnbando (조선반도?, 朝鮮半島 ?, JoseonbandoRR) or Hanbando (한반도?, 韓半島?).
The territory includes the Korean Peninsula, which stretches for 1,000 km from north to south. The peninsula is bordered to the north by China and Russia. To the east is the Sea of Japan, after which is neighboring Japan. In addition to the mainland, Korea has about 3,200 islands, the largest being Jeju. The Taebaeksan mountain range runs along the eastern coast, where the great waves of the Sea of Japan have carved huge cliffs and rocky islets. The southern and western slopes present a smooth relief, which forms plains and a multitude of small islands with coves. The highest peak is Baekdusan Mountain, or Mount Paektu, in North Korea, which rises to 2,744 meters above sea level. no. m., on the northern border that adjoins China.
History
The Republic of Korea (South Korea) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) have maintained a rather fragile relationship since they separated in 1948, maintaining a relationship of war and constant discussions for control and the stability of Korea. Since that year, 1948, they have been separated by their border at Parallel 38, an agreement that put an end to the state of war, but in 2013 this truce was broken, starting a new crisis.
Seoul has been the capital of Korea for 600 years, dating back to the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). At that time Seoul had the name "Han Yang", but after the liberation of Japan in 1945, the new Republic of Korea adopted the name Seoul for its capital city. Seoul rapidly developed into a metropolis, fulfilling the role of a center for political, economic, social, and cultural issues.
- Surface: 605,52 km2
- Population: 25,000.000 inhabitants (statistics of 2020).
Go-Joseon (2333 BCE-37 BCE)
According to the Samguk Yusa (written in the 13th century AD), the first dynasty of Korea was the Hwarang. The second dynasty was Gojoseon (between the 4th and 2nd century BC) was created by Tangun or Dangun in southern Manchuria and northern Korea. Recent studies indicate that the Go-Joseon people belonged to the Tungus linguistic family.[citation needed]
Era of the Three Kingdoms (37 BC-AD 668) and Balhae (713-926)
Scholars generally believe that the first kingdoms or states on the Korean peninsula began to form during the Bronze Age (1000-300 BC). Of these, the kingdom supposedly founded by Zu-a, generally known as Gojoseon or Old Joseon, soon emerged as the most powerful and consolidated its power at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE. c.
Faced with the emerging power of Old Joseon, China became more and more concerned. The Han Chinese emperor Wuti launched an invasion in 109 BC. c. He destroyed the kingdom the following year and established four military colonies to administer the northern half of the peninsula. However, after a century, a new kingdom called Goguryeo (37 BC-AD 668) emerged in the northern part of the Goguryeo peninsula. It was a nation of warriors led by aggressive and brave kings like King Gwanggaeto (reigned 391-410). He conquered neighboring tribes one after another, and practically expanded his kingdom in all directions. He finally drove the Chinese out of his last military colony, Nangnang (Lo-lang in Chinese) in 313. At its height, his territory stretched as far inland as Manchuria, and as far south as the southern half of the Korean peninsula.
A new kingdom called Baekje (18 BC-AD 660) developed south of the Hanggang River (part of present-day Seoul). The Baekje were more peaceful than the fierce warriors of Goguryeo and migrated south to flee the threat of their northern rival. In the 1st century, Baekje established itself as a prosperous and civilized state, trading heavily with its overseas neighbors. In reality, Baekje served as an important bridge for the transmission of mainland culture to Japan: Buddhism, Chinese writing, and its political and social systems were passed on to them. Doctor Wang In was a teacher of the prince of Japan.
Silla (57 BC-AD 668), furthest from China, was initially the weakest and least developed kingdom of the three. He was the last to accept foreign ideas and creeds, and his society was sharply divided into social classes. However, Silla grew rapidly thanks to the resources of his unique Hwarang ('flower of youth') Corps and Buddhist teachings.
In the mid-VII century century, Silla consolidated its power and territory, formed a military alliance with T'ang of China to subdue Goguryeo and Baekje. The allied forces of Silla and Tang were successful, and the peninsula was first unified in 668. After that, the surviving Goguryeo kingdom drove Tang forces out of Manchuria and the northern part of the peninsula, and founded the kingdom of Balhae there in the year 698.
Though politically separate, the three kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla were related ethnically and linguistically. Each of them developed a sophisticated political structure and embraced Confucian ethics and Buddhist faith.
Unified Chair (668-935) and Balhae
For two and a half centuries, Silla enjoyed peace and stability. Freed from the worries of internal strife and invasion from without, it led to the rapid flowering of art, religion, commerce, education, and other disciplines. Silla's capital, present-day Gyeongju, had a population of over a million and boasted magnificent royal palaces and Buddhist temples.
Buddhism flourished under the protection of the nobility and court, and exerted great influence on state affairs, art, and morals. Some of Korea's most outstanding historical monuments are attributed to the creative genius and religious fervor of the artists of that time. Among them we can mention the Bulguksa temple and the Seokguram grotto, both in the vicinity of Gyeongju.
Silla reached the height of its prosperity and power in the mid-¥• century, then slowly declined. Conflicts between the nobles intensified; the rebel leaders claimed the right to succession to the overthrown kingdoms, Goguryeo and Baekje. In the year 935 the king left the reins of the state in the hands of Wang Geon (King Taejo, his later name), founder of the Goryeo dynasty.
After the fall of Goguryeo, Dae Jayeong, a former Goguryeo general, formed an army of Goguryeo and Malgal people (a Tungus tribe), and immigrated to Chinese-controlled territory. They finally settled near Jilin in Manchuria, where Dae Joyeong founded a state that was at first called Chin, but in 713 it was renamed Balhae (Bolhai, in Chinese). Balhae soon regained the former territory of Goguryeo. Most of Balhae's ruling class were Goguryeo people. Balhae declared itself as the successor of Goguryeo, and was sometimes called by Goryeoguk (Goryeo State).
Balhae's political system was similar to that of the Tang, and its capital Sanggyeong was modeled on the Tang capital Chan-an. Its distinctive culture was influenced by Tang and Goguryeo. When Balhae was invaded by the Khitan in the early years of the ¥¹ century, its ruling class took refuge in the new state of Goryeo.
Goryeo (918-1392)
The founding monarch of Goryeo (918-1392), Wang Geon, was a general who had served a rebellious Silla prince. Choosing his hometown of Song-do, present-day Gaeseong, located about 60° north of Seoul, as the seat of the kingdom, he announced a policy of reclaiming the lost territory of Goguryeo in Manchuria. For this reason, he named his kingdom Goryeo, from which the present name of Korea derives.
From the beginning, the royal court of Goryeo adopted Buddhism as the official state religion. Buddhism reached great splendor and stimulated the construction of temples and the carving of Buddha images, as well as iconographic-style paintings. However, the temples and the monks came to hold excessive power, and during the last years of this kingdom, conflicts between learned officials and warriors weakened the country. Mongol raids, beginning in 1231, ended in the occupation of Goryeo for nearly a century.
Joseon (1392-1910)
Confucianism arrives in Korea around the beginning of the Christian era, around the same time as the arrival of the first written documents from China. However, it did not become so influential in Korean society until the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910).
The founder of the Joseon dynasty, Yi Seong-gye (his posthumous name was King Taejo), used the influence of Confucian intellectuals to overthrow the Goryeo dynasty. In 1394 he moved the capital from Kaesong, where Buddhist influence was still strong, to Seoul. Thus Seoul became one of the oldest capitals in the world. Confucianism penetrated the entire life of Koreans.
The rulers of Joseon ruled using a sophisticated and balanced political system based on Confucian principles. To become a government official, one had to sit for gwageo, an exam that measured knowledge of Chinese king classics.
Confucianism also determined the rigid social structure. Society, in general, placed a high value on academic studies; instead he disdained commerce and manufacturing. At the top was the yangban class or studious and aristocratic class that dominated the administration, the army and society. After them came the middle class called junjin, which consisted of professionals such as lower government officials, doctors, lawyers, and artists. Below this class was the sangmin, a commoner class made up of the majority of the population. Generally they were farmers, merchants and artisans. At the bottom of society was the cheonmin class made up of serfs, slaves, the lowest class or the marginalized.
The Joseon dynasty is said to have had its heyday under Sejong (r. 1418-1450), the fourth monarch of Joseon. During his reign, Korea enjoyed great cultural and artistic flourishing.
In 1593, the Spanish priest Gregorio Céspedes was the first Westerner to land in this country; four letters that he wrote attest to this.
At the turn of the 16th century, Japanese troops under Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded the peninsula, razing most of Joseon, on the way to China. Most of the peninsula was devastated.
The Korean patriots put up a spiritual resistance and, thanks to heroes like Admiral Yi Sun-sin, were able to cut off the Japanese supply lines. They began to withdraw on Hideyoshi's death, and the war ended in 1598, having done terrible damage to Korea.
Korea was invaded again in 1627 and 1636 by the Manchus, who had previously defeated China's Ming dynasty, and established the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Around this time, a movement known as the Silhak or School of Practical Studies began to gain considerable strength among the liberal civil servant literati. The Silhaks wanted to transform the state into a modern nation. They placed great emphasis on agricultural and industrial modernization and land distribution reforms. Unfortunately, as these intellectuals did not hold power, the Conservative government did not embrace their ideas for politics.
Thus Korea was left a hermit kingdom, firmly opposed to the West and its ideas, technology, diplomacy and trade. For this reason, Korea was not prepared to deal with the rapid turn of events at the turn of the century when Japan defeated China, which was Korea's protector. Japan, which had emerged as a new industrial power in Asia, annexed Korea in 1905 and made it a colony in 1910. Thus the Joseon dynasty came to an end.
Occupation of Japan and the Movement for Korean Independence (1910-1945)
The Japanese general invasion of Korea was economically motivated. Seoul was mainly oriented towards the economic exploitation of the country, giving land free or at very low prices to Japanese farmers and fishermen. Large quantities of rice were shipped to Japan, while the Koreans suffered from severe food shortages. The code of the samurai or bushido warrior was misinterpreted and reused by the Japanese leaders to legitimize the ethnic inferiority of the new colony and the possibility that the most diverse cruelties were allowed to the invading army. A parallel event to what happened in China, when Manchuria became Manchukuo. A paradigmatic example of this position towards the defeated is the Nanjing genocide (see in "Nanjing Massacre") in China. The Korean people's standard of living deteriorated drastically; thousands of Korean farmers were forced to move to Manchuria or Japan in search of a better life. However, life there was not better for the newcomers either, since they were also discriminated against due to their origin.
Japanese colonial law stimulated the rise of repressed Korean nationalism. On March 1, 1919, thirty-three Korean patriots gathered in Seoul's Pagoda Park to proclaim the Declaration of Independence. This reignited the movement across the country calling for an end to Japanese colonialism, but this movement was brutally suppressed by the Japanese military forces with the loss of thousands of Korean lives.
This event, later known as the Samil Independence Movement (March 1), was a milestone in the Korean struggle for freedom. Although it could not defeat Japan, it strengthened the Korean people's sense of national identity and patriotism, and led to the establishment of a Provisional Government from Shanghai in China, and the organization of armed struggle in Manchuria against the Japanese colonialists.
The government of Japan at the time imposed a policy of assimilation of Koreans into Japanese culture in schools, and they were forcibly forced to adopt Japanese-style language, customs, clothing, names, and even the instruction of some of the colonizer's martial arts such as karate, judo and kendo. However, Koreans managed to maintain their cultural identity despite the difficulties, borrowing and refining movements from traditional Japanese martial arts, along with classical Korean martial arts such as sibpalki, hwa rang do, su bak do, and kung fu. taekkyon, from which later emerged the modern martial arts of tang soo do, taekwondo, hapkido, and kumdo/hankumdo.
The Northern and Southern States
Politically, Korea is divided between the Republic of Korea (SC) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (NC). The split actually occurred at the time of the Japanese capitulation that ended World War II in 1945. After that date, Soviet forces entered North Korea through Manchuria and seized control of the Japanese provinces. The greatest fear of the United States during this period was that the Korean peninsula would be dominated by Soviet forces or by communist forces. US officials supported the nationalist influence of leader Syngman Rhee, who favored separation rather than a united communist Korea.
Elections in South Korea took place in May 1948. Those elected proceeded to draft a new constitution and created the Republic of Korea in the south (38th parallel). The north became the Democratic People's Republic of Korea under the regime of Kim Il-sung. These two countries organized independently adopting different institutions. The north followed the socialist Soviet model and the Chinese revolution to abolish private property. The South maintained a system of private property and government, especially after the onset of Park Chung-hee's dictatorial regime in 1961, relying on markets and private incentives to develop the economy.
North Korea occupies the northern half of the Korean peninsula, starting from the 38th parallel line to the south and bordering China and Russia along the Aprok River. Its capital is Pyongyang and the state maintains a socialist-type ideology, initially very close to the Soviet one, later turning to a rapprochement with Maoism, to finally develop its own independent version of socialism known as Juche.
South Korea occupies the southern half of the Korean peninsula, starting from the 38th parallel line, bordering North Korea to the north and ending in the Pacific Ocean to the south. Its capital is Seoul and the State maintains a capitalist ideology, which was initially governed by President Syngman Rhee, who was followed by other similar governments such as the authoritarian regime of General Park Chung-hee. Subsequently, the national economic development model took a free market direction under President-elect Kim Dae-jung. South Korea is currently ruled by President Yoon Suk-yeol. In both dictatorship and democracy, the South Korean government maintained its political alignment with the United States.
In the recent history of the peninsula, tensions have worsened due to North Korea's ballistic missile tests, which eventually led to a nuclear test on February 12, 2017. Pyongyang annulled the armistice agreement reached by North Korea. South Korea in 1953 after the war that divided the peninsula; For his part, UN Secretary Ban Ki-moon announced the approval of sanctions as a message that the search for nuclear weapons will not be tolerated. Pyongyang with nuclear threats assures that its missiles are aimed at South Korea and some territories of the United States, since this North American country contributes to increasing the tension between the two Koreas by carrying out military exercises with South Korea, where it also maintains a series of military bases with tens of thousands of soldiers.
Reunification
In the 1990s, the governments of the two states took a stance of cordiality, in order to end the historic hostilities of the Koreans on both sides of the border. At various sporting events, such as the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, the 2006 Turin Winter Games, and the 2018 Pieon Chang Winter Games, South and North Korea have paraded under the name of Korea and a single flag with the silhouette of the peninsula in blue on a white background.
Although the participation in such events was ultimately separate, these are gestures that were unthinkable several decades ago and that open up hope for a future unification.
In 2007, North and South Korea were joined by a railway line, in their next step towards unification.
The two countries cover a total of 222,154 km², almost the same area as the United Kingdom or Romania. 45% of this surface, or 99,617 km², is considered as cultivation area, except for reclaimed land. The mountainous terrain occupies two thirds of the territory, equivalent to the area of countries such as Portugal, Hungary or Ireland.
In the 1991 Portugal Under-20 Soccer World Cup there was a team called the Korea soccer team, it was the only time that both teams participated as one, and since that day they have not joined again.
The nation and the people
Etymological origin
The name Korea originates from the reign of the Goryeo dynasty, which controlled most of the Korean peninsula between the 10th and 15th centuries AD. C. It is known by this name because it was during the 13th century when Marco Polo, the Italian merchant, recognized this region through his maritime explorations along the coasts of China, constituting the first direct contact between the European world and the korean nation. The derivation of Gorieó, Korea, spread in Europe to refer to that area.
Self-denomination and the geopolitical context
Koreans call their country "our country", a phenomenon rarely seen in others and related to the strong sense of ethnic nationalism in Korea. Koreans from the former Soviet Union region call themselves "Goryeo people" (고려인), without referring to themselves as North (조선인) or South (한국인) Koreans.
Koreans from both Koreas do not refer to their country as "Korea" (고려/高麗), although North Korea has in the past had a proposed unification in the form of a federation to be called the Federation of Korea (Koryŏ yŏnbang-guk 고려연방국). Other terms are 동국 Don-Guk (東國), 해동 Hae-Dong (海東), 동이 Dong-i (東夷), all of which mean more or less 'country to the east' because it is located in the east of China. There are poetic versions like 청구 Cheong-gu (靑丘) for being a blue-green country (possibly because of the vegetation, from Manchuria's perspective).
The nomenclature
Hanguk (한국 in Hangul and 韓國 in Hanja) or Joseon (조선 in Korean alphabet and 韓鲜 in Chinese characters) is the name given to the Korean nation. In North Korea it is called Chosŏn (North Korea's full official name is 조선민주주의인민공화국 Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmingonghwaguk) and in South Korea it is Hanguk (South Korea's full official name is 대한민국/大韓民國 Daehanminguk).
Each state in Korea calls the peninsula, themselves, and the other Korea differently:
South Korea calls the entire peninsula Hanguk, and Namhan (남한, 南韓, 'South Han') to refer to South Korea; North Korea is called Bukhan (북한, 北韓, 'Northern Han').
For its part, North Korea uses Chosŏn to refer to the Korean peninsula, and Namjosŏn/Namchosôn (남조선, 南朝鮮 'South Chosôn') for South Korea. To themselves, North Korea is called Bukchosŏn (북조선, 北朝鮮, 'Chosôn of the North').
The Korean nation is made up almost exclusively of ethnic Koreans, although there is a modest minority of ethnic Chinese (approximately 20,000) in South Korea.
The Han people (한민족 in Korean) are the ethnic-racial group that constitutes what is now officially known as the Korean nation. The Korean nation in popular discourse in the Koreas is made up of the following aspects:
- Racialthrough phenotypic kinship and attributes. These are identified through two socially semantized elements: the blood or pi ()) and the lineage board or jokbo (ŭ).
- Cultural, which includes the ability to speak the Korean language: the chosonmal (pacifico) or hangugeo (한국어), and at the same time refers to a shared understanding of a series of codes of conduct primarily confusing but also unique to the Korean nation.
- Spiritualthat symbolizes in the have (한) (),), which is described as a feeling of sadness, nostalgia and frustration that is a concept with roots in traditional Korean shamanism.
- Nationalwhich lends allegiance to the Korean State, or to the Korean nation as imagined in the above points. In particular it is considered a feature of such loyalty, the active resistance to the invasion or intermission of those peoples considered non-Korean - historically China and peoples of Manchuria, Japan and the United States.
- Territorial, which has as a group in the geographical region called the Korean peninsula or Hanbando (fifty reproof).
Geography
Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. To the northwest, the Amnok River separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the Duman River separates Korea from China and Russia. The peninsula is surrounded by the Yellow Sea to the west, the East China Sea and the Korea Strait to the south, and the Sea of Japan.) The major islands are Jeju Island, Ulleung Island, and Dokdo Island.
The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mount Paektu (2,744 m), through which the border with China runs. The southern extension of Mount Paektu is a high plateau called Gaema Heights. This mountainous region was uplifted mainly during the Cenozoic orogeny and is partially covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, towering mountains lie along the east coast of the peninsula. This mountain range is called Baekdudaegan. Some important mountains include Mount Sobaek or Sobaeksan (1,439 m), Mount Kumgang (1,638 m), Mount Seorak (1,708 m), Mount Taebaek (1,567 m), and Mount Jiri (1,915 m). There are several series of lower secondary mountains whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They develop along the tectonic line of the Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are basically northwest.
Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many major islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju Island, located off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain, Mount Halla or Hallasan (1,950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung Island is a volcanic island in the Sea of Japan, whose composition is more felsic than Jeju-do. Volcanic islands tend to be younger, the farther to the west.
Because the mountainous region is located mainly in the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westward. Two exceptions are the south-flowing Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running west include the Amnok River, Chongchon River, Taedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast floodplains and provide an ideal humid environment for growing rice.
The southern and southwestern coasts of Korea form a well-developed ria coastline, known as Dadohae-jin in Korean. Its jagged coastline gives rise to mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe boating, fishing, and kelp farming. In addition to the jagged coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal range (in Incheon it can reach 9 m). Huge tidal flats have been developing on the southern and western coasts.
Recommended reading
- Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community." Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177.
- Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984.
- Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide". No. 1, Fall 1986.
- Gi-Wook Shin/Michael Robinson (Ed.). Colonial modernity in Korea, Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: Harvard University, Asia Center; Distributed by Harvard Univ. Press 1999. ISBN 0-674-14255-1.
- Joe, W.J. & Choe, H.A. Traditional Korea: A Cultural HistorySeoul: Hollym, 1997.
- Joungwon, A.K. Divided Korea: The Politics of DevelopmentHarvard University Press, 1975.
- Lee Ki-baik. A New History of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984.
- Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea." The Social Studies 79 (July–August 1988): 153–60. EJ 376 894.
- Tae-Jin, Y. "The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire", In the Korean National Commission for UNESCOVol. 36, No. 4, 1996.
- Taekwon-Do ITF Encyclopedia - Gral. Choi Hong Hi
- Dennis Hart, From Tradition to Consumption: Construction of a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. Seoul: Jimoondang Pub., 2003.
- The Gloucestershire Regiment and The Battle of the Imjin River Korean War