Horatio nelson
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte (Burnham Thorpe, England, September 29, 1758 – Cape Trafalgar, October 21, 1805), was a vice-admiral of the British Royal Navy, known for its victories during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, particularly its victory at Trafalgar. His inspiring leadership, mastery of strategy and his unconventional tactics led to a series of decisive British naval victories, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was wounded in combat, losing sight in one eye in Córcega at the age of 35, and most of an arm in the failed attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife when he was 40 years old. He died after being shot during his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
Nelson was born into a relatively wealthy Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks, serving with the leading naval commanders of the day before gaining his own command at the age of 20 in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal courage and steadfast command of tactics, but suffered from periods of illness and unemployment. after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean. He fought in several conflicts in Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and in subsequent diplomatic affairs with the Italian states. In 1797, he excelled while commanding HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent.
Shortly after that battle, Nelson participated in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where his offensive failed and he was badly wounded, losing his right arm, and was forced to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile, remaining in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion. In 1801 he was sent to the Baltic and won another victory, this time over the Danes at the Battle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets in Toulon and, after their escape, he pursued them to the West Indies, having to withdraw without being able to engage in combat. After a brief return to England, he took charge of the blockade of Cádiz in 1805. On October 21, 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet left port and Nelson's fleet attacked them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle became one of Britain's greatest naval victories, but Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was mortally wounded by a French marksman. His body was returned to England, where he was granted a state funeral.
Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. The significance of victory and his death during battle led to the saying "England expects every man to do his duty"; ( England expects that every man will do his duty from him ), being regularly quoted, paraphrased and referenced to the present day. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have made his memory and legacy remain highly influential.
Early Years
Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 at a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England, the sixth of eleven children born to the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Suckling. He was named "Horatio" in honor of his godfather Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (1723–1809), his maternal grandmother's first cousin Anne Turner (1691–1768). Horatio Walpole was the youngest grandson of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the first de facto Prime Minister of Great Britain.
Nelson studied at Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until the age of 12, and also attended King Edward VI's Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate HMS Raisonnable as an ordinary seaman and coxswain under his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the ship. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was commissioned a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from dizziness, a chronic illness that haunted him for the rest of his life.
West Indies, 1771-1780
HMS Raisonnable had been posted in a period of tension with Spain, but when this happened, Suckling was transferred to the guard ship, HMS Triumph, and Nelson was sent to serve aboard West Indiamen Mary Ann of the merchant shipping company of Hibbert, Purrier and Horton, to gain experience at sea. He sailed from Medway, Kent, on July 25, 1771, for Jamaica and Tobago, returning to Plymouth on July 7, 1772. He crossed the Atlantic twice, before returning to serve under his uncle as commander of the launch of Suckling, which carried men and dispatches to and from the coast. Nelson then learned of a planned expedition under the command of Constantine Phipps, with the intention of surveying a passage in the Arctic through which it was hoped that India could be reached: the legendary North East Passage.
At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as Commander Lutwidge's helmsman aboard the converted bombardier, HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, but, unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. Around 1800, Lutwidge began circulating a story that while the ship had been trapped in the ice, Nelson had seen and chased a polar bear, before being ordered to return to the ship. Lutwidge's later version, in 1809, reported that Nelson and a companion had chased the bear, but when questioned why, he replied that he "wished, sir, to get the skin for my father."
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Nelson briefly returned to the Triumph after the expedition's return to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to HMS Seahorse, one of two ships about to sail. towards the East Indies.
Nelson sailed for the East Indies on November 19, 1773, arriving at the British outpost of Madras on May 25, 1774. Nelson and the Seahorse spent the remainder of the year sailing off to the coast and escorting the merchantmen. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of the East India Company and, early in 1775, the Seahorse was sent to carry a cargo of the money of the company to Bombay. On February 19, two of Hyder Ali's kechs attacked the Seahorse, causing them to withdraw after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first battle experience.
The remainder of the year was spent escorting convoys, during which time he continued to develop his skills in navigation and ship handling. Early in 1776 Nelson contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was sent from the Seahorse to England on 14 March and put on board HMS Dolphin. Nelson spent the six-month voyage recuperating, and was nearly recovered when he reached Britain in September 1776. His employer, Suckling, had risen to the post of Comptroller of the Navy in 1775 and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion. Nelson was appointed Acting Lieutenant aboard HMS Worcester, which was about to sail for Gibraltar.
The Worcester, under the command of Captain Mark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December and returned with another convoy in April 1777. Nelson then traveled to London to take his examination for lieutenant April 9th; His examination board consisted of Captains John Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle Maurice Suckling. Nelson approved, and the next day received his commission and an appointment to HMS Lowestoffe, which was preparing to sail for Jamaica under the command of Captain William Locker. He sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July and, after replenishing, made several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, the Lowestoffe captured several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service as the schooner Little Lucy. Nelson requested and was given command, taking her on two cruises of his own.
In addition to giving him his first proficiency test, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his budding interest in science. During his first cruise, Nelson led an expedition party to the Caicos Islands, where he took detailed notes of the wildlife, and in particular a bird, now believed to be the white-necked Jacobin. Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, he recommended him to the new Commander-in-Chief of Jamaica, Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson to his flagship, HMS Bristol. The entry of the French into the war, in support of the Americans, meant more targets for Parker's fleet and he took many prize money towards the end of 1778, making it which gave Nelson an estimated prize of £400. Parker appointed him captain and commanding officer of the brig HMS Badger on 8 December.
Nelson and the Badger spent most of 1779 sailing off the Central American coast, reaching as far as British settlements in British Honduras (now Belize) and Nicaragua, but without much success in intercepting of enemy prizes. Upon his return to Port Royal, he learned that Parker had promoted him to post-captain on 11 June and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over the Badger to Cuthbert Collingwood while awaiting the arrival of his new ship, the 28-gun frigate HMS Hinchinbrook, recently captured from the French. While Nelson waited, news reached Parker that a French fleet under the command of Charles Hector d'Estaing was approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organized his defenses, placing Nelson in command of Fort Charles, which covered the approaches to Kingston. D'Estaing instead headed north, and the anticipated invasion never materialized. Nelson duly took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September.
The Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October 1779 and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American ships. Upon his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson he began to worry about a recurring bout of malaria, but remained in the West Indies to take part in Major General John Dalling's attempt to capture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on the Castle of the Immaculate Conception, also called Castillo Viejo, on the San Juan River in Nicaragua.
The Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica in February 1780, as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson, with about a thousand men and four small four-pounders, won the surrender of Castillo Viejo and the 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege. The British blew up the fort when they evacuated it six months later after suffering many deaths due to disease. Nelson was praised for his efforts.
Parker called Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate HMS Janus. However, Nelson had fallen seriously ill in the jungles of Costa Rica, probably due to a recurrence of malaria, and was unable to assume the command. During his time of convalescence he was cared for by a "doctor"; black named Cubah Cornwallis, the mistress of a fellow captain, William Cornwallis. He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard HMS Lion, arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months and soon began to claim a command. He was commissioned to the frigate HMS Albemarle on August 15, 1781.
Commando, 1781-1796
Captain of the Albemarle
Nelson received orders on October 23, 1781 to put the newly refitted Albemarle out to sea. He was ordered to pick up an incoming Muscovy Company convoy at Elsinore and escorted back to Britain. For this operation, the Admiralty placed the frigates HMS Argo and HMS Enterprise under his command. Nelson successfully organized the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but was hampered by heavy storms. The gale nearly destroyed the Albemarle because she was a poorly designed ship and a previous accident had left her damaged, but Nelson finally brought her to Portsmouth in February 1782. There, the Admiralty ordered him to sea-ready the Albemarle and join to escort a convoy assembling at Cork in Ireland to sail to Quebec in Canada. Nelson arrived in Newfoundland with the convoy in late May and then embarked on a cruise to hunt down American privateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he only managed to recover several captured British merchant ships and capture several small fishing boats and assorted craft.
In August 1782, Nelson narrowly escaped a vastly superior French force under Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only eluding them after a prolonged pursuit. Nelson reached Quebec on 18 September. He sailed again as part of a convoy escort to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to Admiral Samuel Hood, commanding station New York. At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet, and the Albemarle sailed in Hood's company, bound for the West Indies. his arrival, the British fleet took up position off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and the Albemarle were ordered to scout the many passages for signs of the enemy, but by early 1783 it became clear that the French had eluded Hood.
During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to attack the French garrison in the Turks. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, he landed a force of 167 sailors and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment. The French were found to be heavily entrenched and, after several hours, Nelson called off the assault. Several of the officers involved criticized Nelson, but Hood did not appear to have reprimanded him. Nelson spent the remainder of the war sailing in the West Indies, where he captured several French and Spanish ships. After the news of peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain at the end of June 1783.
Isla de Nieves and marriage
Nelson visited France in late 1783, staying with acquaintances in Saint-Omer and making a brief attempt to learn French. He returned to England in January 1784 and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage.Influenced by the factional politics of the day, he contemplated running for Parliament as a supporter of William Pitt, but was unable to secure a seat.
In 1784, Nelson was given command of the frigate HMS Boreas to enforce the Navigation Acts in the vicinity of Antigua. The laws were unpopular with both Americans and the colonies. Nelson served in the station under the command of Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, and often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Acts. The captains of the American ships Nelson had seized sued him for illegal seizure. Because merchants from nearby Nevis Island supported the American claim, Nelson was in danger of imprisonment; he remained kidnapped in Boreas for eight months, until the courts ruled in his favor.
Meanwhile, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family. Nelson developed an affection for her and her uncle, John Herbert, offered her a huge dowry and both uncle and niece concealed the fact that the famous riches were a fiction and that Fanny was no longer fertile due to an infection in the womb. Once engaged, Herbert offered nowhere near the money he had promised. To break an engagement was dishonorable, so Nelson and Nisbet were married at the Montpellier Estate on the island of Nevis on March 11, 1787, shortly before the end of their tour of duty in the Caribbean. The marriage was registered in the church Fig Tree in the parish of Saint John in Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, followed by Fanny later.
While Nelson was in the Caribbean, he developed friendships with various plantation owners and came to believe that the islands' economies were heavily dependent on the Atlantic slave trade. Grindal (2016) says that he tried to use his influence to thwart the abolitionist movement in Britain. One of these friends was Simon Taylor, the wealthy slave-employing sugar plantation owner in Jamaica, to whose request to intervene in public debate Nelson replied in 1805 that "as long as I had a tongue", "I would launch my voice against the damnable and accursed (sic) doctrine of Wilberforce and his hypocritical allies ".
The letter was published in 1807 by the anti-abolitionist faction, some eighteen months after Nelson's death and thus completely out of context, in an apparent attempt to bolster their cause. The wording of the letter, as published in 1807, seems rather out of character for Nelson, whose many other surviving letters never express racist or pro-slavery sentiments. Many of Nelson's actions indicate his position on the issue of slavery, in particular:
- Any slave from the West Indies who escaped a ship from the Navy (including Nelson's) was hired, paid and treated in the same way as other crew members. At the end of their service they were dismissed as free men. In fact, the bronze relief at the base of Nelson's column clearly shows the 23-year-old Black George Ryan, with the musket shooting the French along with the dying admiral.
- In 1799 Nelson intervened to ensure the release of 24 slaves held in Portuguese galleys in front of Palermo.
- In 1802, when it was proposed that the slaves of the anti-Land plantations be replaced by laborious and free Chinese workers, Nelson supported the idea.
- In 1805 Nelson rescued Black Haitian general Joseph Chretien and his servant from the French. They asked if they could serve Nelson, and Nelson recommended that the Admiralty be paid until they could be discharged and the passage was granted to Jamaica. The general's mission was to end slavery, a fact that Nelson was very aware of. The general and his servant were well treated and paid.
- The Nelson family used to have a free black servant named Price. Nelson said he was "a man as good as the best they've ever lived" and suggested to Emma to invite the old Price to live with them, even though Price declined the offer.
During Peace
Nelson remained with the Boreas until it was liquidated in November 1787. He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relatives in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled in Nelson's boyhood home at Burnham Thorpe.Now in reserve at half pay, he tried to persuade the Admiralty and other high-ranking figures he knew, such as Hood, to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful because there were very few ships in the navy in peacetime and the Hood did not intercede on his behalf.
Nelson spent time trying to find employment for former crew members, tending to family matters and wheedling contacts in the navy for a position. In 1792, the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which had traditionally remained a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon in January 1793. On 1 February, France declared war.
Service in the Mediterranean
In May 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division under Vice-Admiral William Hotham, joined later in the month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet. The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and, Intending to establish naval superiority in the Mediterranean, he headed for Toulon, anchoring in the port in July. Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans and royalists, but was threatened by National Convention forces, who marched on the city. Short of supplies and doubting his ability to defend himself, the city authorities requested that the Hood take him under his protection. Hood immediately agreed and sent Nelson to take dispatches to Sardinia and Naples requesting reinforcements.
After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, the Agamemnon arrived in Naples in early September. There, Nelson met with King Ferdinand IV of Naples, followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton. At some point during the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson met Hamilton's new wife, Emma Hamilton, the ex-lover. Hamilton's nephew, Charles Greville. The negotiations were successful, and by mid-September 2,000 men and several ships were assembled. Nelson put to sea in search of a French frigate, but unable to catch it, he sailed for Livorno and then for Corsica. He reached Toulon on 5 October, where he discovered that a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city. city and was bombing it. Hood still hoped that the city could hold if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari.
Corsica
Early on the morning of October 22, 1793, Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson approached and discovered that they were a French squadron. He immediately gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene. Realizing that he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued on to Cagliari, arriving on October 24. After making repairs, Nelson and the Agamemnon set sail again on October 26, bound for Tunis with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee.
On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of the Agamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockad the French garrison on Corsica. The fall of Toulon to The end of December 1793 seriously damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provisions for a withdrawal, and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into Republican hands. Nelson's mission in Corsica took on additional significance, as it could provide the British with a naval base near the French coast. Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with additional ships during January 1794.
A British assault force arrived on the island on February 7, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off Bastia. During the rest of the month he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By the end of February, San Fiorenzo had fallen and British troops under Lieutenant General David Dundas entered the outskirts of Bastia. However, Dundas simply assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing that the French were too entrenched to fight. risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant that Nelson was not given permission to proceed until the end of March. Nelson began landing cannon from his ships and placing them on the hills surrounding the city. On 11 April, the British squadron entered the port and opened fire, while Nelson took command of the land forces and began the bombardment. After 45 days, the town surrendered. Nelson prepared for an assault on Calvi, working in the company of Lieutenant General Charles Stuart.
British forces landed at Calvi on June 19 and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. As Nelson led a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's men began to advance. On 12 July Nelson was in one of the forward batteries in the early morning when a shot hit one of the sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and was forced to withdraw from the position, though his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action. By 18 July, most of the enemy positions had been disabled, and that That night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British subjected Calvi to constant bombardment and the town surrendered on 10 August. Nelson partially regained sight in his right eye after the siege, but, according to his testimony, only to the point of distinguish light from darkness.
Genoa and the battle of Ça Ira
After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state of Genoa, a potentially strategically important ally. Hood returned to England soon after and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson arrived in Livorno, and while the Agamemnon underwent repairs, he met other naval officers in port and had a brief relationship with a local woman, Adelaide Correglia. Hotham arrived with the rest of his crew. the fleet in December; Nelson and the Agamemnon sailed with them on several cruises in late 1794 and early 1795.
On March 8, news reached Hotham that the French fleet was at sea and headed for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage, and the two fleets followed each other throughout the entirety of 12 March. The next day, two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger Ça Ira, equipped with 84 guns. This engagement lasted for two and a half hours until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to divert, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.
The fleets continued to keep watch on each other before coming into contact again, on March 14, at the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now towed by the Censeur. Badly damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender and Nelson took possession of the Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.
Skirmishes and withdrawal from Italy
Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean through the summer of 1795. On July 4, the Agamemnon sailed from San Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several much larger ships of the line. He withdrew to San Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who were cut off when Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbor. Hotham pursued the French as far as the Hyères islands, but was unsuccessful. lead them to decisive action. Several small skirmishes were fought but, to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action.
Nelson returned to operate from Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchant shipping and cutting off suspect vessels in both enemy and neutral ports. Nelson formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to thwart the progress of Italy's French navy which now was advancing on Genoa, but could arouse little interest in Hotham. In November, Hotham was succeeded by Sir Hyde Parker, but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating: the French were attacking Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment reigned within the city.
A major French assault in late November broke the Allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the retreating army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and men to materially alter the strategic situation, and the British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on November 30, angry and depressed at the British failure and questioning his future in the navy.
Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean
In January 1796, the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean fleet passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast in the capacity of Commodore. Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to thwart French advances and reinforce Britain's Italian allies. Despite some minor successes in intercepting small French warships (for example, in the action of May 31, 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small ships), Nelson began to feel that the presence In June, Agamemnon was sent back to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed captain of the 74-gun HMS Captain.
In the same month, the French rushed towards Livorno and were sure to capture the city. Nelson hastened to oversee the evacuation of the British citizens and transported them to Corsica, whereupon Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port. In July he oversaw the occupation of the island of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare themselves in favor of the French. In October, the Genoese position and continued French advances led the British to decide that the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied; they ordered their evacuation to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and in December 1796 he was aboard the frigate Minerve, covering the evacuation of the Elba garrison. He then sailed for Gibraltar.
During the voyage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina and put Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse and Thomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel, taking the Spanish captain aboard Minerve. The Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the next morning two Spanish ships of the line and a frigate were sighted rapidly approaching. Unable to outrun them, Nelson initially decided to fight, but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colors and sailed northeast, dragging the Spanish ships after them until they were captured, giving Nelson a chance to escape. Nelson rejoined the fleet. British at Elba, where he spent Christmas. He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and after learning that the Spanish fleet had sailed from Cartagena, stopped long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse and the rest of the captured crew. with the Santa Sabina, before pressing on through the strait to join Sir John Jervis off Cádiz.
Admiral, 1797-1801
Battle of Cape St. Vincent
Nelson joined Jervis's fleet off Cape St. Vincent and reported the Spanish movements. Jervis decided to give battle and the two fleets met on February 14, 1797. Nelson found himself in the rear of the British line and realized that it would be a long time before he could bring Captain into action. Rather than remain to the line, Nelson disobeyed orders and dressed a ship, breaking the line and heading to engage the Spanish vanguard., which consisted of the San Josef, with 112 guns; the San Nicolás, with 80 guns; and the Santísima Trinidad, with 130 guns. The captain engaged the three, assisted by HMS Culloden, which had come to Nelson's aid.
After an hour of exchanging broadsides that left both Captain and Culloden badly damaged, Nelson found himself alongside the San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, shouting "Westminster Abbey or glorious victory!" and forced her to surrender. The San Josef tried to come to the aid of the San Nicholas, but he got tangled up with her compatriot and froze. Nelson led his party from the deck of the San Nicolás to the San Josef and captured her as well. As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke up and set sail for Cádiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were from Nelson.
Nelson was victorious, but he had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and therefore did not officially reprimand him, but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle. He wrote a private letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, stating that Nelson & "added much to the fortunes of the day". Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory, reporting that his action was being referred to among the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge to tackle early types" 34;.
Nelson's account was later disputed by Rear Admiral William Parker, who had been aboard HMS Prince George. Parker claimed that Nelson had been supported by several more ships than he acknowledged, and that the San Josef had already lowered her flag when Nelson boarded her. Nelson's account of his role prevailed, and the victory was welcomed in Great Britain: Jervis was created Earl of St Vincent and Nelson, on 17 May he was made a Knight of the Bath. On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority and unrelated to battle, he was promoted Rear Admiral of the Blue.
Action in Cádiz
Nelson was given HMS Theseus as his flagship, and on 27 May 1797 was ordered to rest off Cádiz, monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies. carried out a bombardment raid and personally led an amphibious assault on 3 July. During the action, Nelson's barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and hand-to-hand fighting ensued between the two crews. Twice Nelson was nearly killed and both times his life was saved by a sailor named John Sykes who took the blows and was badly injured. The British raiding force captured the Spanish ship and towed it back to Theseus. During this period, Nelson developed a plan to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, with the aim of seizing a large number of species from the treasure ship Príncipe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.
Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife
The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardment and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost. Nelson immediately ordered another assault, but this was repulsed. He prepared for a third attempt, which would take place overnight. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure: the Spanish were better prepared than expected and had secured strong defensive positions.
Several of the ships failed to land in the correct positions amid the confusion, while those that did were ravaged by gunfire and shrapnel. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point, but as she came ashore he was struck in the right arm by a musket ball, fracturing his humerus in several places. They rowed him back to the Theseus to be attended to by the surgeon Thomas Eshelby.Arriving on his ship, he refused to be helped aboard, declaring: "Leave me alone! I still have my legs and one arm. Tell the surgeon to hurry to get his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm, and the sooner it is removed, the better."
Most of his right arm was amputated, and within half an hour Nelson was back issuing orders to his captains. Years later he would apologize to Commodore John Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters because he did not he was left-handed by nature. He later developed the sensation of a phantom limb in his missing arm and declared that he had "found direct evidence of the existence of the soul".
Meanwhile, a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square, but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because his ships had been sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander and the British were allowed to withdraw. The expedition had achieved none of its objectives and had left a quarter of its landing force killed or wounded.
The squadron remained off Tenerife for three more days and by 16 August had rejoined Jervis's fleet off Cádiz. Disheartened, Nelson wrote to Jervis: "A left-handed admiral will never again be considered useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble country house the better, and leave room for a better man to serve the state.".
He returned to England aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was greeted with a hero's welcome: the British public had extolled Nelson after Cape St. Vincent and his wound endeared them to sympathy. They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St. Vincent, the Secretary of War, or even William Pitt.
Return to England
Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October to seek expert medical attention in relation to his amputated arm. While in London, news reached him that Admiral Duncan had defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown. Nelson exclaimed that he would have given the other arm to be present. He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which he was granted the Freedom of the City of London and an annual pension of £1,000 (equivalent to £110,200 in London). the present). He used the money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny.Despite his plans, Nelson would never live there.
Although surgeons were unable to remove the powerplant from his severed arm, which had caused considerable inflammation and infection, by early December it had come out on its own and Nelson began to make a rapid recovery. Eager to get back to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant. As the ship was not yet seaworthy, Nelson was given command of the 74-gun HMS Vanguard, appointing Edward Berry as her flag captain.
French activities in the Mediterranean theater were causing concern among the Admiralty: Napoleon was gathering forces in southern France, but the fate of his army was unknown. Nelson and the Vanguard were to be sent to Cádiz to reinforce the fleet. On March 28, 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Viscount St Vincent. Saint Vincent sent him to Toulon with a small force to reconnoitre French activities.
The Mediterranean
Persecution of the French
Nelson crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and took up a position off Toulon on 17 May, but his squadron was scattered and blown south by a strong gale which struck the area on 20 May. As the British fought the storm, Napoleon had sailed with his invasion fleet under the command of Vice Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. Nelson, who had been reinforced with several ships from St. Vincent, went out in pursuit of him, he began to search the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already reached Malta and, after a show of force, secured the surrender of the island. Nelson followed him there, but the French had already left. After a conference with his captains, he decided that Egypt was Napoleon's most likely destination and headed for Alexandria. However, upon his arrival on June 28, he found no trace of the French; dismayed, he withdrew and began searching east of the port. While he was away, Napoleon's fleet arrived on 1 July and landed his forces unopposed, Brueys then anchored his fleet in Aboukir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if necessary.
Meanwhile, Nelson had recrossed the Mediterranean in an unsuccessful attempt to locate the French and had returned to Naples to resupply. He sailed again, intending to search the seas off Cyprus, but decided to pass back through Alexandria for one last check. In doing so, his force captured a French merchant ship, which provided the first news of the French fleet: they had passed south-east of Crete a month earlier, bound for Alexandria. Nelson hurried to port, but again found no presence. French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on August 1, 1798.
Battle of the Nile
Nelson immediately prepared for battle, echoing a sentiment he had expressed at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent that "By this time tomorrow, I shall have won a peerage or Westminster Abbey." It was too late. when the British arrived and the French, anchored in a strong position with a combined firepower greater than that of Nelson's fleet, did not expect them to attack. Nelson, however, immediately ordered his ships forward. The French line was anchored near a line of shoals, in the belief that this would protect their port side from attack; Brueys had assumed that the British would follow convention and attacked his center from the starboard side. However, Captain Thomas Foley aboard HMS Goliath discovered a gap between the shoals and the French ships and brought Goliath into the channel. The unsuspecting French found themselves attacked from both sides, the British fleet split up, some following Foley and others passing the starboard side of the French line.
The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, breaking through the French line and attacking their ships one by one. Nelson in Vanguard personally engaged HMS Spartiate, also under fire from the ship of the line Aquilon. At about eight o'clock he was with Edward Berry on the quarterdeck when a French shot struck him in the forehead. He fell to the deck, a torn piece of skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half dazed, he felt certain that he was going to die and he shouted: "I am dead. Remember my wife." They took him downstairs for the surgeon to see. After examining Nelson, the surgeon declared the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage.
The French van, hit by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, and the victorious British ships continued to advance down the line, bringing Brueys' 118-gun flagship Orient under constant heavy fire. The Orient caught fire under this bombardment and then exploded. Nelson briefly went on deck to lead the battle, but returned with the surgeon after seeing the destruction of the Orient.
The Battle of the Nile dealt a severe blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. The fleet had been destroyed: Orient, another ship, and two frigates had been burned, seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships had been captured, and only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped. The forces Napoleon had led to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but the Turkish defenders supported by Captain William Sidney Smith defeated his army at the siege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by the British ships. Given his strategic importance, some historians, such as Ernle Bradford, regard Nelson's achievement on the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than Trafalgar's seven years later.
Rewards
Nelson wrote dispatches to the Admiralty and supervised temporary repairs to the Vanguard, before sailing to Naples, where he was greeted with enthusiastic celebrations. King Ferdinand IV of Naples, in company with the Hamiltons, received him in person when he arrived at the port and William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at his home. Celebrations were held in honor of Nelson's birthday in September 1798, and he attended a banquet at the Hamilton home, where other officers had begun to notice his Pay attention to Emma.
Jervis himself had become concerned by reports of Nelson's behaviour, but by early October news of Nelson's victory had reached London, overshadowing the matter. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Earl George Spencer, fainted on hearing the news. Celebratory scenes broke out across the country, victory balls and banquets were held, and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains swords, while the King ordered special medals to be presented to them. Tsar Paul I of Russia sent Nelson a gift, and Sultan Selim III of the Ottoman Empire awarded him the Order of the Crescent Moon, as well as the diamond chelengk from his own turban, for his role in the restoration of Ottoman rule in Egypt.
Samuel Hood, after a conversation with the Prime Minister, told Fanny that Nelson would probably be given a viscountcy, similar to the Earldom of Jervis after the Battle of Cape St Vincent and the Viscountcy of Duncan after the Battle of Camperdown. However, Earl Spencer demurred, arguing that as Nelson had only been commissioned to command one squadron, rather than being commander-in-chief of the fleet, such an award would create an unwelcome precedent. Instead, Nelson was given the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile.
Neapolitan campaign
Nelson was appalled by Spencer's decision, stating that he would rather have received no title than a mere baronetcy. However, he was pleased by the attention paid to him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige bestowed on him by the elite of the kingdom and the comforts he received at the Hamilton residence. He made frequent visits to attend functions in his honor or to tour nearby attractions with Emma, whom he had already fallen deeply in love with, almost constantly at his side.
Orders came from the Admiralty to blockade French forces at Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captains, Samuel Hood and Alexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples, Nelson began to think about returning to England, but King Ferdinand IV of Naples, after a long period of pressure from his wife Maria Carolina of Austria and Sir William Hamilton, eventually agreed to declare war on France.
The Neapolitan army, led by the Austrian General Mack and supported by Nelson's fleet, retook Rome from the French in late November, but the French regrouped outside the city and, after being reinforced, defeated the Neapolitans. In disarray, the Neapolitan army fled to Naples, closely followed by the pursuing French. Nelson hastily arranged for the evacuation of the royal family, several nobles, and British citizens, including the Hamiltons. The evacuation began on December 23 and went through strong gales before reaching the safety of Palermo on December 26.
With the departure of the royal family, Naples fell into anarchy and news reached Palermo in January that the French had entered the city under General Championnet and proclaimed the Parthenopean Republic. Nelson was promoted He became Rear Admiral of the Red on 14 February 1799, and was occupied for several months blockading Naples, while a popular counter-revolutionary force under Cardinal Ruffo known as the sanfedisti marched to retake the city.. In late June, Ruffo's army entered Naples, forcing the French and their supporters to retreat to the city's fortifications when riots and looting broke out among the undisciplined Neapolitan troops.
Distraught by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed to a capitulation with the Jacobin forces that allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson arrived in Naples on June 24 to verify the entry into force of the treaty. The subsequent role of him remains controversial. Nelson, aboard the Foudroyant, was outraged and, backed by King Ferdinand, insisted that the rebels surrender unconditionally. They refused, Nelson appears to have relented, and marched to the waiting transports. Nelson then had the transports impounded.
He took those who had surrendered under the treaty under armed guard, as well as former Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, who had commanded the Neapolitan navy under King Ferdinand but had switched sides during the brief Jacobin rule. Nelson ordered his trial by court martial and refused Caracciolo's request that he be carried out by British officers. Caracciolo was also not allowed to call witnesses in his defense. The former admiral was tried by royalist Neapolitan officers and sentenced to death. He asked to be shot instead of hanged, but Nelson, following the wishes of Queen Maria Carolina (a close friend of his mistress Lady Hamilton) also refused this request and even ignored the court's request to allow 24 hours for Caracciolo to prepare. Caracciolo was hanged aboard the Neapolitan frigate Minerva at 5:00 p.m.
Nelson kept most of the Jacobins in the transports and now began turning over hundreds to be tried and executed, refusing to intervene despite pleas for mercy from the Hamiltons and the Queen of Naples. transports were allowed to take the Jacobins to France, less than a third still alive. On 13 August 1799, as a reward for his support of the monarchy, King Ferdinand granted Nelson the newly created title of Duke of Bronte in the nobility of the kingdom of Sicily, as perpetual property, together with the property of the former Benedictine abbey of Santa Maria di Maniace, situated between the communes of Bronte and Maniace, later known as the Duchy of Nelson, which he transformed into the Nelson Castle.
In 1799, Nelson opposed the mistreatment of slaves being held on Portuguese galleys off Palermo and intervened to secure their release. Nelson asked the Portuguese commander Marquis de Niza, "as a friend, as an English admiral, as a favor to me, as a favor to my country, to give me the slaves." The marquess agreed to the unusual request, allowing twenty-four slaves to be taken to HMS Bonne Citoyenne, his blessings for their English savior ringing through the harbor as their names were added to the sloop's already crowded guest book.
Malta Site
Nelson returned to Palermo in August and in September became senior officer in the Mediterranean after Jervis's successor, Lord George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, set out to pursue the French and Spanish fleets into the Atlantic Nelson spent most of 1799 at the Neapolitan court, but put to sea again in February 1800 after Lord Keith's return. On 18 February the ship of the line Généreux, a survivor of the Nile, was sighted and Nelson pursued it, capturing it after a short battle and gaining Keith's approval. Nelson and the Hamiltons sailed aboard the Foudroyant from Naples on a short cruise. around Malta in April 1800 and dropped anchor at Marsa Sirocco. Here Nelson and Emma lived openly together and were hosted by Thomas Troubridge and Thomas Graham. It is likely during this period that the illegitimate daughter of Horatio Nelson and Emma Hamilton, Horatia Nelson, was conceived.
Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer: he was gaining a reputation as insubordinate, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested them, and at times returning to Palermo without orders, citing ill health. Keith and rumors of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton were also circulating in London, and Earl Spencer wrote a letter suggesting that he return home:
It will be more likely to recover your health and strength in England than in any situation of inactivity in a foreign court, as pleasant as the respect and gratitude you have shown for your services.
Return to England
Sir William Hamilton's return to Britain was further incentive for Nelson to return. In June Nelson left Malta and transported the Queen from Naples and her suite to Livorno. Upon his arrival, Nelson changed the flag from him to HMS Alexander, but again disobeyed Keith's orders by refusing to join the main fleet. Keith went to Livorno in person to demand an explanation, refusing to be swayed by the Queen's pleas to allow her to be transported on a British ship. At Keith's demands, Nelson reluctantly lowered his flag and bowed to the request. of Emma Hamilton to return to England by land.
Nelson, the Hamiltons, and several other British travelers left Livorno for Florence on July 13. They made stops in Trieste and Vienna, spending three weeks in the latter, where they were entertained by local nobility and heard Haydn's Missa in Angustiis, now named after Nelson. In September they were in Prague and later called at Dresden, Dessau and Hamburg, from where they took a cargo ship to Great Yarmouth, arriving on 6 November. Nelson received a hero's welcome and, after being sworn in as a freeman of the borough, received applause from the crowd. He then proceeded to London, arriving on November 9.
He attended court and was a guest of honor at various banquets and balls. During this period, Fanny Nelson and Emma Hamilton met for the first time; Nelson was reported to be cold and distant towards his wife and his attention to Emma became the subject of gossip.With the breakdown of the marriage, Nelson began to hate even being in the same room as Fanny. Events came to a head at Christmas, when, according to Nelson's lawyer, Fanny issued an ultimatum as to whether she should choose her or Emma. Nelson replied, "I love you sincerely, but I cannot forget my obligations to Lady Hamilton or speak of her in any other way than with affection and admiration." The two never lived together again.
Parker and the Baltics
Shortly after his arrival in England, Nelson was appointed second in command of the Channel Fleet under John Jervis. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801 and sailed to Plymouth, where on 22 of January the freedom of the city was granted to him. On January 29, 1801, Emma gave birth to her daughter, Horatia. Nelson was delighted but subsequently disappointed when ordered to move his flag from HMS San Josef to HMS St George in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic.
Tired of British ships imposing a blockade on French trade and stopping and frisking their merchantmen, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. Upon his arrival, Parker was inclined to blockade Denmark and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a preemptive strike against the Danish fleet in Copenhagen harbor, he convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault and received reinforcements. significant. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in the event of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets.
Sea Battle of Copenhagen
On the morning of April 2, 1801, Nelson began moving toward the harbor of Copenhagen. The battle started poorly for the British, with HMS Agamemnon, HMS Bellona and HMS Russell running aground, and the rest of the fleet met with heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than had been anticipated. Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw, reasoning:
I'll make the signal for Nelson's sake. If he is in a position to continue the action, he will ignore it; if not, it will be an excuse for his withdrawal and no fault can be attributed to him.
Nelson, who was directing the action aboard HMS Elephant, was informed of the signal by Signal Lieutenant, Frederick Langford, but replied angrily: 'I told you to keep an eye on the Danish Commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes on him." He then turned to his flag captain, Thomas Foley, and said, "You know, Foley, I only have one eye. Sometimes I have the right to be blind." He held the telescope up to his blind eye and said "I really don't see the signal."
The battle lasted three hours, leaving the Danish and British fleets badly damaged. Finally, Nelson sent a letter to the Danish commander, Crown Prince Frederick asking for a truce, which the prince accepted. Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson had the honor of going to Copenhagen the next day to start formal negotiations. At a banquet that evening, he told Prince Frederick that the battle had been the most severe he had ever been in. The result of the battle and several weeks of subsequent negotiations was a 14-week armistice. and following Parker's withdrawal in May, Nelson became commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea.
As a reward for the victory, he was created Viscount Nelson of Nile and Burnham Thorpe in Norfolk County on May 19, 1801. In addition, on August 4, 1801, he was created Baron Nelson of Nile and Hilborough in Norfolk County, this time with a special rest for his father and sisters. Nelson had sailed to the Russian naval base at Reval (present-day Tallinn) in May, and there he learned that the armed neutrality pact was going to dissolve. Satisfied with the result of the expedition, he returned to England, arriving on July 1.
Leave England 1801-1803
In France, Napoleon was amassing forces to invade Britain. After a brief period in London, where he again visited the Hamiltons, Nelson was put in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent invasion. He spent the summer reconnoitering the French coast, but apart from a failed attack on Boulogne in August, he saw little action. On October 22, 1801, the Peace of Amiens was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson, again in poor health, retired to Britain, where he stayed with Sir William and Lady Hamilton. On October 30, Nelson spoke in support of the Addington government in the House of Lords, making regular visits thereafter to attend sessions. The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, visiting Birmingham, Warwick, Gloucester, Swansea, Monmouth, and many other cities and towns. Nelson was often greeted as a hero and was the focus of celebrations and events held in his honor. In 1802 Nelson bought Merton Place, an estate in Merton, Surrey (now South West London) where he lived briefly with the Hamiltons until William's death in April 1803. The following month war broke out again and Nelson prepared to return Sea.
Witness in Edward Despard Treason Trial
In January 1803, Nelson appeared as a character witness in the treason trial of a former comrade-in-arms, Colonel Edward Despard. Despard, who had moved in radical circles in London - a member of both the London Corresponding Society and the United Irishmen - was the alleged ringleader of the conspiracy to assassinate the king and seize the Tower of London, the so-called Despard Plot. In court, Nelson recalled his service with Despard in the Caribbean during the American War: 'We went to the Spanish Main together; we slept together many nights on the floor in our clothes; we have measured together the height of the enemy walls. that period of time no man could have shown a more zealous attachment to his Sovereign and his Country. However, under questioning, Nelson had to admit to having "lost sight of Despard for the last twenty years."
Nelson addressed a further plea for clemency to the Prime Minister, Henry Addington, who would later tell him that "he and his family had sat up after dinner, weeping over the letter." Following Despard's execution in February, Lady Nelson is said to have taken under her "protection of her" protection. to the colonel's Jamaican wife, Catherine Despard.
Return to the Sea, 1803
Nelson was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet and was awarded the top-rate HMS Victory as his flagship. He joined her at Portsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade of Toulon. Nelson reached Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blanche while still at sea on April 23, 1804. In January 1805 the French fleet, commanded by Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, escaped Toulon and evaded the British blockade. Nelson set out in pursuit, but after searching the eastern Mediterranean he learned that the French had been returned to Toulon. Villeneuve managed to escape a second time in April, this time making it through the Strait of Gibraltar and out into the Atlantic, bound for the West Indies.
Nelson gave chase, but after reaching the Caribbean, he spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet. Villeneuve had briefly toured the islands before returning to Europe, in contravention of Napoleon's orders. The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder and took part in the Battle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses. Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July and traveled from there to England, dismayed by his failure to lead the French into battle and expecting to be censured. To his surprise, the crowd that had gathered to see his arrival greeted him enthusiastically, while senior British officials congratulated him on keeping up the pursuit and credited him with saving the West Indies from a French invasion. Nelson stayed briefly in London, where he was greeted with applause wherever he went, before visiting Merton to see Emma, who arrived at the end of August. He entertained several of his friends and relatives there over the next month, and began plans for a major engagement with the enemy fleet, one that would surprise his enemies and force them into a headlong battle.
Captain Henry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on September 2, bringing news that the French and Spanish fleets had combined and were anchored at Cádiz. Nelson hurried to London, where he met with cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz. It was while attending one of these meetings on September 12, with Lord Castlereagh, the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, that Nelson and Major General Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, met briefly in a conference room. wait. Wellington was waiting to be briefed on his operations in India and Nelson on his pursuit and his future plans. Wellington later recalled: 'He (Nelson) immediately got into a conversation with me, if I may call it a conversation, because almost everything was on his side and everything about him and, really, as vain and silly a style as I was shocked and almost disgusted'. However, after a few minutes Nelson left the room, and learning who his companion was, he returned and entered into a serious and intelligent conversation with young Wellesley which lasted for a quarter of an hour. about the war, the state of the colonies and the geopolitical situation, which left a marked impression on Wellesley. This was the only meeting between the two men.
Nelson briefly returned to Merton to put his affairs in order and say goodbye to Emma, before traveling back to London and then Portsmouth, arriving there early on the morning of 14 September. He had breakfast at the George Inn with his friends George Rose, Vice President of the Board of Trade, and George Canning, Treasurer of the Navy. Word of Nelson's presence at the inn spread during breakfast, and a large crowd of supporters gathered. They escorted Nelson to his barge and cheered him on, which Nelson acknowledged by raising his hat. Nelson was recorded as turning to his colleague and saying, "Before I had his huzzas: now I have his hearts." Robert Southey reported onlookers on Nelson's walk to the pier: 'Many were weeping and many knelt before him and blessed him as he passed'.
The Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September, with Nelson replacing Rear Admiral Collingwood. He spent the next few weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions. Nelson had devised a plan of attack that anticipated that the Allied fleet would form up in a traditional battle line. Based on his own experience of the Nile and Copenhagen, and the examples of Duncan at Camperdown and Rodney at Saintes, Nelson decided to divide his fleet into squadrons rather than form a similar line parallel to the enemy. These squadrons would cut the enemy line in several places, allowing a run-down battle to unfold in which the British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents' formation, before unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid.
Battle of Trafalgar, 1805
Preparation
The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon Bonaparte had intended for Villeneuve to sail across the English Channel and cover the planned invasion of Britain, but the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off the planned invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk a clash with the British, and this reluctance led Napoleon to order Vice Admiral François Rosily to go to Cádiz and take command of the fleet, sail across the Mediterranean to land troops at Naples, before make port at Toulon. Villeneuve decided to set sail with the fleet before his successor arrived. On 20 October 1805, the fleet was sighted leaving harbor patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be heading west.
At four o'clock in the morning on October 21, Nelson ordered Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet and signaled the remainder of his force to battle stations. He then went down and made his will, before returning to the quarterdeck for an inspection. Despite having 27 boats to Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success and declared that he would not settle for less than 20 prizes. He briefly returned to his cabin to write a final sentence, after which he joined Victory's signal lieutenant, John Pasco.
Mr. Pasco, I want to say to the fleet 'England trusts every man to do his duty.' It must be fast, because I have one more signal to make, which is for a close action. You can't do anything for me. I have little time to live. My back is crossed.
Pasco suggested changing the confidences to expectations that, being in the Book of Signs, could be indicated by the use of a single code (using three flags), while the confidences would have to be written letter by letter. Nelson agreed and the signal was hoisted.
As the fleets converged, Victory's captain, Thomas Hardy, suggested that Nelson remove the decorations from his coat, so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy snipers. Nelson replied that it was too late "to change his coat," adding that they were "military orders and he was not afraid to show them to the enemy." Captain Henry Blackwood, of the frigate HMS Euryalus, suggested that Nelson go aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also rejected Hardy's suggestion to let Eliab Harvey's HMS Temeraire ride ahead of Victory and lead the line in battle.
The battle begins
The Victory engaged, initially passing by, but then with greater precision as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretary, John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's secretary took over, but he too died almost immediately. The Victory's rudder wheel was thrown off and another cannonball felled eight Marines. Hardy, standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, had his shoe buckle shattered by a splinter. Nelson observed, "This is too hot a job to last long." The Victory had already reached the enemy line, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to attack first. Nelson told him to take his pick, and Hardy moved Victory around the stern of Bucentaure, the 80-gun French flagship. The Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable, which was on Bucentaure's stern, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As snipers from the enemy ships fired on Victory's deck from her rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued to walk, leading and issuing orders.
Wounded and killed
Shortly after 1:00, Hardy realized that Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with one hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy ran towards him, at which point Nelson smiled:
Hardy, I think they've finally made it... my spine is broken.
He had been hit by a Redoutable sniper, shooting at a range of 50 feet. The bullet had entered his left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches (5 cm) below his right shoulder blade in the muscles of his back. Nelson was carried below by Marine Sergeant Major Robert Adair and two sailors. As they lowered it, he asked them to pause while he gave a midshipman some advice on handling the tiller [232]. He then covered his face with a handkerchief to avoid causing alarm among the crew. He was taken to the surgeon William Beatty, telling him that:
You can't do anything for me. I have little time to live. My back is broken.
Nelson was settled, stoked, and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He several times asked to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remind Emma, his daughter, and his friends.
Hardy came down on deck to see Nelson shortly after two-thirty, informing him that several enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told her that he was surely going to die and begged her to pass on his possessions to Emma. With Nelson at this point were chaplain Alexander Scott, purser Walter Burke, Nelson's butler, Chevalier, and Beatty. Nelson, fearing a gale might break, ordered Hardy to make sure to anchor. After reminding him to "look after poor Lady Hamilton," Nelson said "Kiss me, Hardy." Beatty recorded that Hardy knelt down and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood up for a minute or two before kissing him on the forehead. Nelson asked, "Who's that?," and upon hearing it was Hardy, he replied, "God bless you, Hardy." Already very weak, Nelson continued murmuring instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan... rub, rub... drink, drink. Beatty heard Nelson mutter, "Thank God I've done my duty," and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak [234]. He looked up as Beatty felt his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who stayed with Nelson when he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country." Nelson died at half past four, three hours after he was shot.
Tour of England
Nelson's body was placed in a barrel of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh, which was then tied to the mainmast of the Victory and placed under guard. Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on her arrival the body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled with wine brandy. Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were brought to England aboard HMS Pickle, and when the news reached London a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton. She later recalled:
I've been warned, Mr. Whitby of the Admiralty. "Show it directly," I said. He entered, and with a pale and weak voice, he said, "We have obtained a great victory." - "No matter your victory," I said. "My letters, give me my letters" - Captain Whitby could not speak - tears in his eyes and a mortal paleness on his face made me understand. I think I screamed and went back, and for ten hours I could not speak or shed a tear.
King George III, upon receiving the news, reportedly said through tears: "We have lost more than we have gained." The Times reported:
We don't know if we should regret or rejoice. The country has obtained the most splendid and decisive victory that has never appeared in the naval annals of England; but it has been bought expensive.
Funeral
Nelson's body was transferred from the Victory to the Nore. It was carried upriver in Commander Gray's yacht Chatham to Greenwich and placed in a lead coffin, and another of wood, made from the L'Orient mast which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile. the Painted Hall in Greenwich for three days, before being taken upriver aboard a barge, accompanied by Samuel Lord Hood, the chief mourner Sir Peter Parker, and the Prince of Wales. The Prince of Wales originally announced his intention to attend the funeral as chief mourner, but later attended in a private capacity with his brothers when his father George III reminded him that it was against protocol for the heir to the throne to attend funerals. from anyone except members of the royal family. The coffin was brought to the Admiralty in the evening, attended by Nelson's chaplain, Alexander Scott. The next day, January 9, a funeral procession made up of 32 admirals, more than a hundred captains, and an escort of 10,000 soldiers carried the coffin from the Admiralty to St. Paul's Cathedral. After a four-hour service, he was entombed in the crypt inside a sarcophagus originally carved for Cardinal Wolsey; the sarcophagus and its base had previously been taken for Henry VIII's tomb which was never completed. The sailors tasked with folding the flag draping Nelson's coffin and placing it in the grave instead tore it to pieces, each taking a piece as a keepsake. It is said that his sailors drank the liquor in which they embalmed him.
Legacy
Nelson's influence continued long after his death and saw periodic revivals of interest, especially during times of crisis in Britain. In the 1860s, poet laureate Alfred Tennyson drew on Nelson's image and tradition to oppose defense cuts being made by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher was a keen exponent of Nelson during the early years of the 20th century, often emphasizing his legacy during his period of naval reform. [260] Winston Churchill also found Nelson a source of inspiration during World War II. Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature; he appeared in paintings by Benjamin West and Arthur William Devis, and in books and biographies by John McArthur, James Stanier Clarke, and Robert Southey. Nelson is also celebrated and commemorated in numerous songs, written both during his lifetime and after his death. Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile is commemorated in 'The Battle of the Nile: A Favorite Patriotic Song'. "Nelsons Grave: A Favorite Song" by Thomas Attwood commemorates the death of Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar.
Various monuments and memorials were built throughout the country and abroad to honor his memory and achievements. Dublin's monument to Nelson, Nelson's Pillar, completed in 1809, was destroyed by Irish Republicans in 1966. In Montreal, a statue was begun in 1808 and completed in 1809. Others followed around the world, with London's Trafalgar Square which was created in his memory in 1835 and the centerpiece, Nelson's Column, completed in 1843. A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque to commemorate Nelson was unveiled in 1876 at 147 New Bond Street.