Hoplite
The hoplite was a citizen-soldier of the City-States of Ancient Greece. His name (from Ancient Greek ὁπλίτης, hoplitēs) derives from hoplon (ὅπλον, plural hopla, ὅπλα), meaning 'weapon'. He was a heavy foot soldier, as opposed to the gymneta (Ancient Greek γυμνής, gymnếs, "naked") and the psilós (Ancient Greek ψιλός, psilós, also «naked»), soldiers of light infantry. They were mainly armed with spears and shields. They used the phalanx formation with the aim of being as effective as possible with the fewest number of men. This formation discouraged soldiers from acting alone, as this would compromise the formation and reduce their strength.
These soldiers appeared at the end of the VII century BCE. C. They were part of a citizen militia, normally free citizens, although in exceptional situations slaves could be used, which acted as auxiliary infantry. The citizens had to pay for themselves the weapons, equipment and training, so it was limited to citizens with minimal wealth; usually small landowners and artisans. They made up approximately one third of the total male population in the city of Athens. Nearly all known Greeks of classical antiquity fought as hoplites, including philosophers and playwrights.
Because hoplites were not professional soldiers, city-states maintained a small military elite. Known as epilektoi ("the chosen ones" in Spanish), they were regularly trained and maintained by the governments of the City-States. They were chosen from among the regular citizen infantry.
Hoplites were trained as militias, so they were designed to fight short campaigns and fast-paced battles. The exception were the Spartan warriors, who were specialized soldiers, and who had land in their states assigned to the lower classes who were in charge of them. The armies marched directly towards their objective. There, the defenders could hide behind the city walls; in that case the attackers had to be content with wreaking havoc on the field, although the former could also decide to meet them on the battlefield. Battles then tended to be decisive. They were short, bloody and brutal, requiring a high degree of discipline. The Athenian and Plataean hoplites were the first Greek army to defeat the Persian army in the open field, at the Battle of Marathon. The Persian army was defeated due to the ineffectiveness of its archers against the rapid attack of the Greeks, in addition to the revolutionary tactic of fattening the flanks, weakening the center of the formation, arranged by the Greek strategos Miltiades. In addition, this Greek unit participated in the Battle of Thermopylae and Plataea: both won by the Spartan hoplites.
Both forces lined up on a plain, in a roughly rectangular formation, around eight ranks, though this varied. Other forces were less important; such as the hippeis (cavalry), which were positioned on the flanks, and both light infantry and missile-throwing troops were insignificant. The most well-known hoplites were the Spartan hoplites, who were trained from childhood in combat and warfare to become a superior and exceptionally disciplined strike force.
Etymology
The word hoplita (ancient Greek: ὁπλίτης, hoplítēs; plural: ὁπλῖται hopĩtai) derives from the word Hoplon (ὅπλον: hempon; liver plural ὅπλα) that was referring to the Hoplite equipment. Modern Greek Army, the word hoplite (Modern Greek: oπλίτης: oplítîs) means foot soldier.
History
Hoplitic formation spread throughout Greece probably from 700 to 650 BCE. c. It is called the "hoplitic revolution." This dating is based on a passage from Aristotle's Politics, which evokes the replacement of combatants on horseback by the hoplitic phalanx. He relies on the absence of Homer's description of mass fighting. Now, the Iliad describes confrontations of a hoplitic nature: should these passages be considered interpolated? The evolution of weaponry took place at this time. The cuirass was modified, a second strap was added to the shield allowing a better grip. However, some improvements date back to the 8th century BC. C.: the tomb that enclosed the "Argos breastplate" is dated to 720 BC. c.
Graphic representations of warfare, for example on geometric ceramics, are not necessarily conclusive: the representation of duels is a convention that symbolizes both an entire battle and the confrontation of some hoplites. Conversely, the Vase of the warriors of Mycenae, dated in 1120 a. C., shows rows of heavy infantry soldiers armed with round, cut-out shields, and wearing leather and metal cuirasses.
The passage from Aristotle is revealing of the political evolution that intervened in the polis (cities) of the century. VII a. C. The incorporation of non-nobles into the ranks of the hoplites, and the regular training required to carry out maneuvers in formation gave the middle class a sense of cohesion that had important political consequences: the knights, hippeis (Ἱππείς), lost their prestige and henceforth the hoplites played a decisive role in the battles, demanding a greater participation in the government of the polis. Since this social class actively participated in the defense of the city, it logically had the word when it came to going to war. In addition, the solidarity born in the combats and campaigns endured in the political debates. The middle class also acquired decision-making power in other domains of political life in the democratic polis.
Sparta adopted the hoplite style of combat around 680-660 B.C. Hoplite armor spread in Etruria and Rome towards the end of the VII century BCE. c.
Equipment
The hoplites were generally armed shortly before the battle, as their weapons were very heavy: the total weight of the hoplite armor was between 22 and 27 kilograms. Each man got his own equipment that was not uniform in the army. As a result of the non-existence of a common team, friendly troops often did not recognize each other. Typically, a hoplite had a breastplate (θώραξ, thốrax) of bronze that reproduced the shape of the muscles of the torso, the cnemids (ancient Greek knêmis) for protection of the tibias., a bronze helmet (κράνος, krános) with cheek guards, plus a circular shield called aspis, measuring one meter in diameter. He may also be called hoplon. The aspis (ἀσπίς, aspís) was a shield made of wood, sometimes veneered with bronze. It was very heavy (8 to 12 kg) and covered from the chin to the knee. In Spartan military culture, for a soldier to throw the aspis was inadmissible. It was said "Come home with this shield or on it."
Each Greek hoplite had a different armor, made to measure, and on the shield he placed the symbols of his family. By contrast, the Spartans had the same uniform and the Greek letter lambda (Λ) on their shields, referring to their homeland of Lacedaemon (Sparta). Each Spartan wore a scarlet cloak, presenting himself as a Spartan, although this cloak was never worn in combat. Helmet design used to vary over time:
- The corinth helmet was the most popular helmet. Among the Spartans, this was reserved for the leaders and heads of ranks, while in other cities the opposite occurred.
- The helmet had a big visor on the front, which also protected the face. All the helmets were made of bronze.
The linothorax, used since Mycenaean times and by other peoples as well, was a lighter, more comfortable and flexible model than the bronze cuirass, although it offered less protection. It was made of several layers of linen, between fifteen or twenty, glued together and hardened by immersing them in vinegar and salt. They could be reinforced to give greater protection against stabbing attacks with bronze scales or non-overlapping square sheets sewn to the linothorax. These scales used to be arranged at the waist, but they were also placed on shoulder pads and even on the chest. At the nape of the neck there was a protrusion that was extended to provide greater protection to that part, and from the waist hung two layers of strips (pteryges) superimposed one on top of the other so that they did not leave gaps. each other, thus protecting the lower abdomen and thighs without reducing mobility.
The primary weapon was the about 2.7m long spear called the doru (δόρυ, dóry). Hoplites also carried a short sword called the xiphos (ξίφος, xíphos). The short sword was a secondary weapon, for after the spear broke. Also, if the enemy withdrew, they would drop the spear and shield, and then pursue him. They protected their legs with greaves, called cnemids (κνημῖδες, knêmĩdes). All weapons and armor were mainly made of bronze. The equipment was very expensive, so only the rich could afford to be hoplites. Soldiers sometimes inherited equipment from their parents or grandparents. If the soldier was wealthy enough, he could buy a horse and serve in the regular cavalry, called hippeis, or in the skirmish-ready cavalry, called Hippakontistai (launchers). of mounted javelins). In some city states, it was mandatory to serve for a few years as a soldier. But of course they had to buy their weapons and equipment. After the years of service, he could continue his military career or earn a living in another profession. But in Spartan culture, every citizen had to be a soldier, so the helots did their jobs and cultivated their fields. Each Spartan owned a farm worked by helots. Each soldier got a pension, as well as benefits and pay.
In contrast, it is worth noting other contemporary infantry, which tended to have lighter armor and shorter spears, javelins or bows. The hoplite's medium shield allowed it to be supported on the shoulder. In formation, the shields were superimposed in such a way that they defended the left side of their owner, and the right of the neighbor. It is a matter of contention for historians whether the hoplites used the spear underarm or overarm.
Tactics
The hoplite force was in surprise combat. The two armies clashed in the hope of breaking or encircling the enemy line. If this was not possible, the battle became a series of pushes, with the rear guard trying to force the vanguard to penetrate the enemy line. This maneuver was known as the othismos. Battles rarely lasted more than an hour. Once one of the lines was broken, the vanquished escaped from the field, followed by the cavalry or the peltasts. If a hoplite escaped, he was sometimes forced to leave behind his bulky aspis , and was disgraced to his family and friends. Casualties were light compared to modern battles and rarely exceeded five percent on the losing side, but these casualties often included the most important citizens and generals leading the vanguard.
Therefore, the entire war could be decided in a single battle; the victory was reinforced with the ransom paid to the victors by the vanquished, called "the Greek custom". The Spartans would never run from battle, on the contrary, they would fight to the death.
A hoplite in formation was protected by the right half of his shield (carried on his left arm) and by the left half of the shield of the man on his right. Therefore, the man on the far right of the phalanx was only half protected. In battle, the opposing phalanxes would exploit their weakness by heading for their enemy's right flank. The hoplite's formation was called the phalanx. The strongest soldiers were on the right. In a phalanx there were a series of rows, and the leaders of each of them were located on the right side. There was a veteran instructor at the rear keeping order. Up to the 8th century BC. C., the soldiers fought "for free", so the battles were based on heroism. The key to the battle was to hit them with the hoplite hoplon and stab the enemy in the face and torso. The main weakness of the tactics was the limited combined use of arms, with archers or light troops used sparingly. The helots normally accompanied the Spartans in battle, setting up camps or doing tasks for the Spartans. Formations and tactics varied over time and across cities.
One of the earliest problems with hoplite formation was the inability to march straight when engaged in combat. This was caused by the normal tendency of soldiers to get as close as possible to their neighbor (and therefore their shield) in order to be well protected. This is told by Epaminondas of Thebes at the beginning of the IV century BC. C.. The innovation was to train the hoplites to march diagonally. Before that, only the Spartans had managed to march in a straight line, but thanks to intense years of discipline and training.
Rise and fall
The rise and fall of the hoplites in warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city state. During the Medical Wars, hoplites were often forced to run towards the archers, to engage them in hand-to-hand combat, where they would win; furthermore, in the Peloponnesian War, missile-armed troops such as peltasts became progressively more dominant. As a result, they began to wear less armor, shorter swords, and generally became accustomed to greater mobility, which would lead to the development of the ekdromoi, the light hoplites. The hoplites went into decline anyway: there were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War and none were decisive. Instead, the walls, mercenaries, navy, siege machinery, etc. were increased.
These reforms made wars of attrition possible and increased casualties in battle. Many of these reforms were combined by the brilliant general Epaminondas, whose tactics were the basis of Philip II of Macedon's phalanx, used as a supplement to the cavalry. These forces defeated the last great hoplite army at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), after which Athens and her allies joined the Hellenistic empire. These improvements led to the rise of the more versatile Macedonian armies.
Legacy
The hoplite style of warfare was also practiced around the entire Mediterranean Sea. As a particular note, the Etruscans fought as militias, something borrowed from the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia. The Romans developed the hoplitic formation, from which the Roman legion was derived, which would dominate Western military history for hundreds of years.
Hoplitic system
The organization of the war in Ancient Greece derived from the new hop system was based on closed combat and compact formation.
Tirteo thus describes the combat of a closed formation of hoplitas:
Those who dare in a closed line to fight body to body and to advance in a vanguard, in fewer numbers die and save those who follow them. Those who tremble are left with no honor. No one would just relate one to one the damage a man is assaulted if he suffers infamy. For it is pleasing to strike the enemy behind a spear that escapes the fierce cold; and the dead body lying in the dust is despicable, crossed in the back by the tip of the rear spear. So the whole world is attached to its feet, and swells on the ground, biting the lip with its teeth, covering the thighs, chest and shoulders with the anchurous belly of the round shield. And in the right hand shake his tremendous spear, and move his fiery prick on top of the helmet. Add to battles in ferocious feats, and do not remain, for it has its shield, remote to the arrows. Go all body to body, with the long spear or sword hurt and end with the fierce enemy. Standing by foot, squeezing shield against shield, prick beside and helmet against helmet, approach chest to chest and fight against the opposite, driving the fist of the sword or the long spear. Frag. 11
The protection of the hoplita was ensured by a type of grebes (known as cnemide), a helmet and a brace of bronze, as well as by a circular shield of about 90 cm in diameter (the Aspis), made also of bronze or of a wooden frame or wicker and covered with skin.
The main originality of this hoplon, which will constitute the emblematic weapon of the hoplitas, was, however, not to hang from the neck on a leash, but to carry on the left forearm, formed by a central clamp and a peripheral strap as a handle. Two essential consequences were derived from this. On the one hand, the host only had the right arm to handle their offensive weapons: a wooden spear (Dory), of an approximate length of 2.50 m, provided with a tip and a counterweight of iron or bronze, as well as a short sword (xifos) for fighting body to body.
On the other hand, the protection of his right flank, relatively uncovered, had to be secured by a rowmate within a sufficiently compact phalange (also accounted for the limitation of visibility and agility of the combatants imposed by the helmet and the armour). We must admit that this double technical and tactical innovation coincides with an extension of recruitment to all those who were in a position to equip themselves with that armament (the zeugites in Athens) and, therefore, with a relative extension of the civic body beyond the limits of the traditional aristocracy.
The protohistory of this counterpart is still very controversial. On what date does it appear, in the middle of the seventh century a. C? Suddenly or after a period of tanteos? Do you represent a complete revolution in relation to the preceding forms of combat? Was it the cause or consequence of contemporary socio-political mutations and, in particular, the emergence of tyranny? What happened to the cavalry that, according to Aristotle, had been the favorite weapon of the first aristocratic cities?Contenido relacionado
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