Greater Colombia

The Gran Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, was an American State, created by the Congress of Angostura of 1819, through the Fundamental Law of the Republic, and later ratified by its counterpart Congress of 1821, which united Venezuela and New Granada into a single nation, to which Panama (1821), Quito and Guayaquil (1822) later joined. The name Gran Colombia is used by historiography to differentiate it from the current Republic of Colombia.

This republic existed legally between 1821 and 1831 and was formed from the union of the administrative entities corresponding to the previous Viceroyalty of New Granada, the Captaincy General of Venezuela, the Royal Court of Quito and the Government of Guayaquil. Its surface corresponded to the territories of the current republics of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela, in addition to Guayana Esequiba (part of Guyana, currently under Venezuelan claim) and other territories in dispute with the Federal Republic of Central America, the Empire of the Brazil and Peru, which after the Grancolombian dissolution each former member country inherited as border conflicts.

Although Gran Colombia was created by the Fundamental Law of the Republic of Colombia, issued during the Congress of Angostura (1819), the State as a result of the union of said territories did not see the light until the Congress of Colombia (1821), where the national Constitution was drafted with which its creation was implemented and regulated, as well as the political and institutional life of the new country. The political-administrative system adopted by the republic was unitary centralism.

On the other hand, the international recognition of the legitimate existence of Greater Colombia, as an independent, sovereign and delimited territory, was part of a diplomatic context that in Europe was adverse to the formal recognition of the independence of the American countries.. Thus, Austria, France and Russia only recognized independence in America if the new States submitted to a monarchical system, naming members of European dynasties as sovereigns.

At the time of its creation, Gran Colombia was the Hispanic American country with the greatest international prestige, so much so that several politicians from Europe and America, including John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State and future president of the United States, They were seen as one of the most powerful nations on the planet. This prestige, added to the figure of Bolívar, attracted unionist ideas from independence movements from Cuba, Spanish Haiti and Puerto Rico to the nation, which sought to form a State associated with the republic..

The country was dissolved in the late 1820s and early 1830s, due to the political differences that existed between supporters of federalism and centralism, as well as regional tensions between the towns that made up the republic. There are still people who cry out for the reunification of Greater Colombia.^{[according to whom?]}

Toponymy

The name Colombia is given to the ideal of integration of all of South America proposed by Simón Bolívar. In 1815, on the island of Jamaica, Bolívar proposed Francisco de Miranda's idea of designating the name Colombia for a great Spanish-American nation, and the latter had been inspired by the Italian surname of the discoverer of the new continent "Colombo" to invent the name.

Francisco de Miranda's idea of a great Spanish-American nation arose in his decision to call Colombia, in homage to Christopher Columbus, in the plans developed since 1790, which he presented to Latin American public opinion and to the British and American governments, collected in his work Colombeia, likewise, at the beginning of 1808 he founded a newspaper in London called El Colombiano. By 1810 Bolívar moved to London and became a disciple of Miranda, as well as San Martín, O'Higgins, Nariño, Madariaga and other great Spanish-American men who left there to realize Miranda's dreams and plans. For this reason, the Congress that created the Republic in 1819 acquired the name invented by Miranda.

Background

La Gran Colombia was the first step for the total unification of free peoples devised by Francisco de Miranda, who conceived the creation of a single independent Spanish-American State, which would replace the set of possessions that made up the Spanish Empire in this part. of the hemisphere. In other words, the idea of American integration for Miranda was inseparable from the idea of the independence of the Spanish American colonies.

By July 1809, the independence of the American colonies had become an inevitable fact for Miranda and he therefore saw the time had come to convene a Congress of deputies from towns and provinces of America on American territory itself. No other place, in his opinion, seemed more appropriate than Panama to hold this congress. Due to its geographical location, the Isthmus embodied the image of the union between the north and south of Spanish-speaking America. For the same reason, Miranda had suggested, in his government plan of 1801, that Colombo, the capital city of Colombia, be built on the isthmus of Panama.

Miranda's project was not carried out, but the idea was taken up by Simón Bolívar, who, in 1815, in his "Letter from Jamaica", suggested the meeting in Panama of a Congress of independent American Republics, which It did not materialize until 1826. Although the objectives of this Congress convened by Bolívar tended more towards the establishment of alliances between independent republics and not the constitution of a single republic, as Miranda proposed.

After the failure of the Second Republic of Venezuela and his short stay in New Granada as a military commander, Bolívar was forced to reflect on the cause of previous failures, the international situation and the way to achieve lasting independence.. His reflections led him to the conclusion that to achieve definitive independence, the Spanish had to be completely defeated to prevent them from carrying out reconquest actions. To achieve this, the uncoordinated and dispersed efforts of regional leaders throughout America had to be unified under a single mandate, and as a guarantee of permanent independence, a large and strong republic had to be created that could challenge the pretensions of any imperial power. This project was inspired by the idea of a continental union that would extend from the territory of New Spain to the south of Chile, after independence was achieved.

In the context of the Spanish American wars of independence, revolutionary forces led by Simón Bolívar laid the foundations for a regular government in a constitutional convention. Previously, the government had been military and highly centralized with direct executive power exercised by vice presidents or governors, while President Bolívar was in the New Granada Liberation Campaign and the Venezuelan War of Independence. Bolívar concluded that it was necessary to create a centralized government capable of coordinating the necessary actions to protect the borders and bring together the different peoples of Hispanic America as a guarantee of independence.

To guarantee the freedom of Colombia, he considered it vital to gain control over Venezuela as soon as possible to prevent the Spanish from using it as an outpost on Tierra Firme for their reconquest campaigns, so he decided to undertake this task as a priority. Thus, he landed on the island of Margarita in mid-1816 determined to achieve recognition of his leadership from the beginning and, after obtaining initial success with the local chief Juan Bautista Arismendi, he prepared the campaign to liberate the continent.

The consolidation of the supreme leadership facilitated the control of eastern Venezuela, and the installation of Bolívar in Angostura brought with it the inevitable and long confrontation with the expeditionary forces of the Spanish general Pablo Morillo and the organization of the mechanisms so that the Government could function. By then the Spanish Army was already very worn out after the reconquest campaign carried out throughout America, and General Morillo could not prevent his troops from beginning a slow decline due to the lack of resources and reinforcements to cover the casualties. that they suffered.

Already in 1818, the situation of the Spanish Army in Venezuela became unsustainable and Morillo was forced to withdraw some of his forces from New Granada to try to contain Bolívar. By then, the political and military situation was good enough to think about the organization of a State, and that is how Bolívar installed the Supreme Congress of the Republic in Angostura on February 15, 1819.

History

In 1816, Simón Bolívar, with the help of generals Urdaneta, Piar, Páez, Mariño, Nariño, Monagas, among others, achieved a series of victories over the royalists. After liberating Guayana and New Granada, he proclaimed its foundation on December 17, 1819 in Angostura (current Ciudad Bolívar). The last royalist contingents in Venezuela were defeated in the historic Battle of Carabobo on June 24, 1821. On November 28, 1821, Panama became independent and voluntarily joined Bolívar's dream by signing a non-aggression pact with Spain.

Spain's resistance on the continent ended in Peru with the battle of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824, in which Antonio José de Sucre (1795-1830) was definitively established as a hero. All Spanish power in the Viceroyalty of New Granada and in Peru was sunk under the blows of three men: Bolívar, Miranda and Sucre; died in different circumstances: Bolívar on December 17, 1830, in Santa Marta, Colombia; Francisco de Miranda in the Carraca prison, in Cádiz, in 1816; Antonio José de Sucre, murdered in Berruecos, New Granada (present-day Colombia), on June 4, 1830.

However, the political union of the territories of the former Viceroyalties of New Granada, Quito and the Captaincy of Venezuela did not last due to regional tensions. Opponents of Bolívar's government came to consider the secessionist option. In 1830, Venezuela and Ecuador declared their independence from the Republic of Colombia, and Gran Colombia was finally dissolved in 1831, giving birth to three different state entities: New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela. The Venezuelan secession was led by General José Antonio Páez (1790-1875), who had already fought under the orders of Bolívar and since then had virtual control of the Venezuelan part of the republic. Páez became the first president of the new Venezuelan State and governed intermittently until 1863. In Ecuador, the Venezuelan general Juan José Flores took office. Reduced to New Granada, presided over by Rafael Urdaneta, who had originally staged a coup d'état thinking of returning power to Bolívar, Gran Colombia dissolved after Urdaneta's overthrow. In New Granada, after a time when a new structure and laws were given during a provisional government, José María Obando was elected as interim vice president. A year later Francisco de Paula Santander assumed office as president and outlined the structure of the new State.

In Venezuela, a group of patriotic officers rose up in 1835 against President José María Vargas, in what is known as the Revolution of the Reforms, to demand the reconstitution of Gran Colombia, political reforms and the end of economic power of the oligarchy, strengthened by import and export trade. They obtained a short-lived victory, but then General José Antonio Páez returned to power, making the dissolution of Gran Colombia definitive.

Congresses of Angostura and Villa del Rosario de Cúcuta, Convention of Ocaña, Constitution of 1821

In 1819, despite still being under Spanish control, the independence impetus continued and constitutional spirits were reactivated. On February 15, 1819, six months before the battle of Boyacá, representatives from Venezuela, New Granada (now Colombia) and Quito (now Ecuador) met in Angostura, Venezuela, where the Congress of Angostura was installed to work on the development of a Fundamental Law of Colombia (constitution), in which, by means of a decree, «the Republics of Venezuela and New Granada are from this day united into one under the glorious title of the Republic of Colombia». Representatives from Quito were few, since it was still under Spanish rule.

The decisions initially made were the following:

• The Republics of Venezuela and New Grenada were assembled under the title of the Republic of Colombia. Its territory included those of the former General Office of Venezuela and the Viceroy of the New Kingdom of Granada.
• The New Granada was renowned Cundinamarca and its capital Santa Fe renamed Bogotá. It would also be the capital city of the Republic.
• The Republic of Colombia will be divided into three major departments: Venezuela, Quito and Cundinamarca. The capitals of these departments would be the cities of Caracas, Quito and Bogotá, respectively.
• It would be ruled by a president. There would be a vice president who would replace the president in his absence.
• The governors of the three departments would also be called Vice-Presidents.
• The president and vice president would be elected with indirect vote, but for the purpose of starting, the Congress elected them as follows: Simón Bolívar as president of the republic and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. In August, Bolivar continued his liberating task, left for Ecuador and Peru and left Santander in charge of the presidency.
• Bolivar was granted the title of "liberator" and he was stipulated that his portrait would be exhibited in the meeting room of the Congress with the motto "Bolívar, Libertador de Colombia and father de la Patria".

After the battles of Pantano de Vargas and Boyacá, on December 17, 1819, the Congress of Angostura formally declared the Republic of Colombia created. Simón Bolívar's initiative was approved, although this liberation did not reach Pasto, Santa Marta or Panama.

At the end of the sessions, the congress agreed that it would meet again in Cúcuta, in January 1821, to issue the new constitution. On March 23, 1820, Antonio Nariño, The Precursor, was released in Spain. After six years of captivity, he was named vice president of Colombia, replacing Juan Germán Roscio, who recently died, and as such, he installed the Constituent Congress on May 6, 1821, where he prepared a draft constitution that he presented for consideration, without achieving attention.

The Ocaña convention was basically a confrontation between the ideas of heroes. The projects that were discussed were controversial: centralism and federalism, among others. Santander had to give in - to maintain the unity of the nation - on the point concerning the need to change the Constitution of Cúcuta, since it could not be reformed within ten years, it sought reforms to limit absolutism and abuses by the government, while that Bolivarians presented the proposal to impose the Lifetime Constitution in La Gran Colombia.

José María del Castillo y Rada was chosen as president and Andrés Narvarte as vice president of the convention. Finally this could not end as planned because Bolívar's followers withdrew, the Ocaña convention was terminated on June 10, 1828, Bolívar assumed the dictatorship on August 27, 1828 in a desperate effort to maintain a unity by not reaching agreements with leaders from other regions.

Panama joins Greater Colombia

The fact that the Spanish military forces were confined to the South American provinces allowed Panama to achieve independence from Spain on its own on November 28, 1821. The wealthy Panamanian merchants pecuniarily rewarded the Spanish officers. This procedure was favored because at the head of the government of the isthmus was the Panamanian Creole colonel José de Fábrega, who joined the emancipation movement.

A few days before Panama's independence was proclaimed, a mission sent by General Agustín de Iturbide arrived to the isthmus to ensure that Panama joined the nascent Mexican State, as the Central American countries had already done. Likewise, when emancipation was achieved, some heroes, such as the bishop of the city, advocated for union with Peru; However, the opinion of joining Gran Colombia prevailed. In the same act of independence, Panama indicates its sovereign and voluntary intention to adhere to Colombia.

When Bolívar learned of the independence of Panama, he sent Colonel de Fábrega the well-known message that reads as follows: «The Act of Independence of Panama is the most glorious monument that any American province can offer to history. Everything is consulted there, justice, generosity, politics and general interest.».

At the date of Panama's independence, the constitution of 1821 had been promulgated for two months and three weeks. This Magna Carta was not pleasing to the heroes and leaders of Panama, who were businessmen linked to transit and international traffic. Anglophiles for commercial reasons, they professed Manchester liberalism and were, therefore, supporters of state abstentionism, free trade and an essentially commercial economy. They believed that the isthmus predicted a great future that would manifest itself as soon as a trans-isthmus railway was built. That is why the Panamanian promoters of independence from Spain opted for union with the Colombian State, but under the understanding that, within it, Panama would maintain economic and political autonomy. That understanding would not be extended to the ideologues of central Bogotá, which would result in the Panamanian movements for the establishment of federalism and the countless attempts to separate Gran Colombia and its successor states.

Spanish Haiti tries to join Greater Colombia

On November 30, 1821, some enlightened Dominicans led by José Núñez de Cáceres peacefully proclaimed the independence of the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo with the name Independent State of Spanish Haiti. Núñez, who was a supporter of Bolívar's cause and was fearful of a possible Haitian invasion, stipulated in the constitutive act of the newly created State that it would form part of the Republic of Colombia.

Núñez then decided to send Antonio María Pineda Ayala to the continent as a delegate in order to meet with the Gran Colombian president Simón Bolívar, in order to plan future integration and support for the Dominican independence cause, both from Spain and Haiti. However, the commission did not manage to arrive in time to meet with the Prócer, since he had already undertaken a trip to the south to consummate the independence campaigns, which kept Bolívar away from Colombia and the government, which is why it was not achieved. for the Dominican Republic to integrate into the Bolivarian project.

Due to little international support and the internal struggle to unify with Haiti or remain a completely independent State, just nine weeks after Núñez declared independence, the Haitian military forces led by Jean Pierre Boyer occupied the country, decreeing its formal annexation on February 9, 1822.

Cuba and Puerto Rico intend to join Greater Colombia

The Cubans, for their part, in the same year of 1821 created the secret society "Suns and Rays of Bolívar", whose objective was primarily to achieve the country's independence and create a state associated with the mainland, either with Colombia or Mexico. The initiative took on greater importance when in 1823 José Francisco Lemus, one of the leaders of the secret society, proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Cubanacán as a consequence and rejection of an alleged sale of the island to the British Empire. However, the project failed on August 18, 1823, when an official at the printing press where the revolutionary proclamations were printed denounced them to the Spanish authorities, after which all its members were tried and exiled.

Puerto Ricans, meanwhile, also created their independence movement with a view to an associative union with Colombia. General Antonio Valero de Bernabé had become friends with the conspirators of "Soles y Rayos de Bolívar" and around the year 1823 he developed with them a plan for the independence of Puerto Rico and its subsequent accession to Gran Colombia under the name of Independent State of Borinquén.

In order to obtain the support of Simón Bolívar, Valero left for the Venezuelan coasts along with other Antillean patriots. When they reached their destination, Santander informed them of Bolívar's plans with respect to Peru. Valero, who also shared emancipatory ideas with Bolívar, enlisted in the Gran-Colombian army with the rank of brigadier general and participated in the battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, after which he revived the Puerto Rican plan for independence. However, the US defense of the status of Cuba and Puerto Rico as Spanish colonies in order to guarantee Spanish-American independence (which greatly displeased Gran Colombians and Mexicans, who had plans to combine forces to make the islands independent), the absence of organized forces within of the island, the difficulties that Gran Colombia was experiencing at that time and the subsequent death of Bolívar in 1830, prevented the execution of the plan from being carried out and Valero gave up on it.

Santanderism against Bolivarianism

After the Congress of Cúcuta, Simón Bolívar was named president of the Republic and Francisco de Paula Santander vice president. Santander advocated robust legislation and a constitutional and legislative framework to guide the new republic. Bolívar's priority was to continue his project of liberating Spanish America. During the southern campaign, directed directly by Bolívar, Vice President Santander was in charge of the government in Bogotá.

The crisis between Bolívar and Santander (and their respective followers) deepened with the differences between Santander, José Antonio Páez and with the promulgation of the constitution of the Republic of Bolivia of 1826, written by Bolívar for the nascent republic of Bolivia and that the Santanderistas feared that he would try to impose in Colombia. The main suspicion against the Bolivarian constitution arose from the broad power given to the presidential figure, which was for life and, in this way, comparable to a monarchy.

On April 9, 1828, the Ocaña Convention was established. The differences between Santanderistas and Bolivarians were evident: the former favored federalism, while the latter preferred strong central and presidential power. The Convention, which aimed to reform the Constitution of Cúcuta, was a failure, and the Bolivarians left the premises supporting Bolívar's idea of governing as a dictator.

The crisis culminated with the attack on Bolívar on September 25, 1828, in what is known as the September Conspiracy. Santander's participation is not clear; However, he was convicted along with many of his followers, who were executed for treason. By order of Bolívar, Santander's own sentence was commuted to banishment.

After the events, Bolívar continued to govern in a rarefied environment, cornered by factional disputes and suffering from tuberculosis. The riots continued. Peru declared itself against Bolívar and Venezuela proclaimed itself independent. Páez occupied the presidency of that country and made Congress accept Bolívar's resignation in mid-1830 and expel him from the country, granting him a pension of 3,000 pesos per year.

Attempt to separate from Panama in 1826

As far as Panama is concerned, its ruling class tenaciously opposed the adoption of the Bolivarian constitution (a Lifetime Constitution in Greater Colombia), despite all the efforts of the special envoy for Bolívar and the pressure they exerted the mayor and military chief in the isthmus.

In 1826, the same year that Panama rejected the Bolivarian constitution, the famous International Bolivarian Congress was held in the Isthmus capital. But this notable event did not prevent the first attempt to separate Colombia from taking place that year. It turns out that the Colombian Congress ignored requests for commercial franchises for the isthmus, which frustrated Panamanian aspirations. Consequently, a separatist movement arose to turn Panama into a Hanseatic country, under the protection of the United Kingdom and the United States. The movement was, however, repressed by the Colombian military stationed in the isthmus.

The war with Peru

After the end of Peru's independence struggle and the Spanish threat that led the Peruvians to request Colombia's intervention, relations between Colombia and Peru gradually became more tense due to territorial disputes, the Peruvian desire to annex Guayaquil, the displeasure of the Peruvians to Bolívar's intervention in the internal affairs of Peru and his claim to Tumbes, Jaén and Maynas as Peruvian territories. The origins and first manifestations of the conflict occurred six years earlier with the problem of who had the sovereignty of the rich province of Guayaquil. The issue was a thorn in the relations of both republics, Colombia and Peru, since the Guayaquil region joined Gran Colombia on July 31, 1822.

Peru had intervened in Bolivia at the beginning of 1828 and refused to allow Colombia's intervention in the affairs of the Alto-Peruvian republic. On June 3, 1828, Gran Colombia, through Bolívar, declared war on the Peruvian Republic. In the course of this conflict, Peruvian soldiers advanced into the interior of the Southern Department of Colombia, until near the city of Cuenca, obtaining some victories. Meanwhile, in New Granada, a state of civil war was experienced with the uprising of the generals José María Obando and José Hilario López. After being pacified by Bolívar and reorganizing the forces, the Grancolombian army began a land offensive that culminated in the battle of Portete de Tarqui on February 27, 1829, with the Grancolombian victory of the troops commanded by Marshal Antonio José de Sucre over the Peruvians, on February 28 the Girón Convention was signed and on September 22, the Treaty of Guayaquil, in the interest of a diplomatic solution, maintaining the pre-war status. In that sense, Peru recognized Guayaquil within the territory of Gran Colombia and Gran Colombia recognized Tumbes, Jaén and Maynas as Peruvian territories.

The demarcation of the common border remained pending, a task that had to be done by a bipartite demarcation Commission that, according to articles 5 and 7 of the Treaty, had to begin work 40 days after its ratification. However, the Peruvian Commission did not attend so, after 64 days of waiting, the Gran Colombian Commission decided to withdraw. It should be noted that the Demarcation Commission planned to draw the line marked by the Tumbes, Catamayo, Macará, Huancamba and Marañón rivers.

After the dissolution of Gran Colombia, Peru ignored the Treaty, alleging that, once Gran Colombia was dissolved, Peru was relieved of its commitments, which in the years to come would lead to the La Pedrera conflict, in which Colombian-Peruvian War (1932-1934) and in the long conflict between Peru and Ecuador (XIX and XX). Ecuador and Peru achieved a definitive border agreement through the Brasilia Act in 1998.

Bolívar's government

Between June 24, 1828 and March 1830 Bolívar governed by decree, this did not prevent the separation of Venezuela on December 27, 1829. On January 20, 1830 Bolívar convened the Admirable Congress in order to solve the institutional crisis, considering a new constitution as a possible solution, but even so this could not prevent the separation of Venezuela and showed the lack of support that Bolívar had, whose health had been deteriorating noticeably. Bolívar resigned on May 8, 1830, leaving Domingo Caycedo as interim president.

Separation of Venezuela and Ecuador

The separation of Venezuela and Quito was accelerated by the discrepancy of opinions between federalists and centralists. Quito had not had real representation in the constitutional deliberations and it was only in 1822 when it joined Gran Colombia. Despite there being support for the Colombian constitution in Quito, more specifically in Guayaquil, Quito and Venezuelans longed for a federalist constitution, that is, one that would allow them to have regional control and freedom without strong central impositions; In particular, the Venezuelan military hoped to exercise more power in its region.

On April 30, 1826, a separatist movement known as La Cosiata took place in Venezuela, led by José Antonio Páez, which was presented as a reaction against the government of Bogotá, centralism and Simón Bolívar. On November 25, 1826, Bolívar left Peru, called by Páez to mediate in the conflict that he had with Santander, and arrived in Venezuela with a small escort, being well received by Páez (Peru took advantage of his absence to eliminate the Life Constitution, irregularly approved by Bolívar for that country and create a new Constitution that would allow more participation), Bolívar agrees with Páez and appoints him civil and military leader of Venezuela.

In 1827, Congress decided to reduce this right and made a constitutional change to exclude sergeants on down, since excluding the military leadership was a very daring move. Previously, members of the army had been allowed to vote in elections since the constitution of Cúcuta, especially as fair recognition of the efforts made in the liberation campaigns, and abuses by the military were occurring.

In April 1828, the representatives of the municipalities (parishes) met in Ocaña to elect the constituent congress that would consider reforms to the constitution of Cúcuta. Two very strong proposals were presented, the first by federalists was to reform the constitution to prevent absolutism and limit abuses by the military, the second was to replace the current constitution with a Lifetime Constitution that Bolívar had already imposed in Bolivia and Peru, However, this proposal was rejected, given that it gave a lot of power to the executive branch and the president would be ruler for the rest of his life. However, the discontent of the Bolivarians was such that on June 6, 1828 they decided to abandon the deliberations for which the quorum was not achieved, on June 10, 1828 the Ocaña Convention was terminated.

Bolívar, with his fervent desire to see a united Great Colombia, decides to impose his will in a dictatorial manner as a last resort and presents a Constitution that he had developed in which Peru and Bolivia were included (since Bolivia had already separated from Peru), with a strong central government and a lifetime presidency in which the president could have the power to name his successor. That was the final spark that set the Santanderistas on fire because they saw in that proposal a regression to a monarchy and went so far as to try to assassinate Bolívar on September 25. Additionally, the Venezuelan leaders viewed Bolívar's intentions with considerable suspicion; in November 1829 they decided to separate from Gran Colombia and communicated this at the January convention. Bolívar finally resigns his position during the January 1830 constitutional convention held in Bogotá (also called the Admirable Congress).

The Admirable Congress had approved on May 5, 1830 a new constitution that maintained the unity of Gran Colombia but it did not come into force, the Quiteños, upon learning that Venezuela had split and that Bolívar was withdrawing in form Ultimately, they made the decision to separate.

On May 13, 1830, the department of the South (Quito) declared its independence from Gran Colombia and the Republic of Ecuador was formed. Greater Colombia would thus be constituted by the Central Departments of Boyacá, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Istmo and Magdalena.

Temporary separations of Panama

On September 26, 1830, Panama separated from the Gran Colombian State, becoming the first of five separations of the territories of current Colombia. Its manager was the Panamanian general José Domingo Espinar, a mulatto of popular origin who did not share the preferences of the Panamanian oligarchy, he was a great supporter of Bolívar, of whom he had been secretary. Due to the crisis caused by Bolívar's resignation and the dismemberment of Gran Colombia, Espinar, supported by the masses of the capital's suburbs, rebelled against the prevailing government, waiting for Bolívar's return to power.

Article 2 of the act of such a singular emancipation said: «Panama wishes that His Excellency the liberator Simón Bolívar be in charge of the government of the Republic as an indispensable measure to return to the union the parts that have separated from it under different pretexts. "This department, of course, remains under its immediate protection."

Consequently with what was proclaimed, a Panamanian delegation went to Barranquilla, where Bolívar was, to invite him to come to the isthmus to resume power and rebuild the dismembered Gran Colombia. Bolívar refused such an offer and advised his former secretary to incorporate the isthmus into Colombia. This is how his loyal secretary proceeded, but shortly after another secessionist movement would take place the following year.

On July 9, 1831, the second separation of Panama from Colombia was carried out by the Venezuelan colonel Juan Eligio Alzuru, which initially had the approval of the Panamanian oligarchy of both the capital and the interior. It was a movement in reaction to the plans of José Domingo Espinar that sought the reestablishment of the Gran-Colombian State and the centralizing power of Bolívar, where a definitive secession was intended.

The methods of that soldier were so cruel and arbitrary that they endangered the interests of the Panamanian ruling class. Therefore, through the action of the other soldiers they controlled, they managed to defeat and shoot the tyrant. After this, the Panamanian leaders, seeing what a poorly run independence movement could unleash, decided to join the process carried out by the central departments to establish the Republic of New Granada.

Dissolution of Gran Colombia

Starting in 1830 in the midst of the separations of Ecuador (1830), Panama (1830 and 1831) and Venezuela (1830); The disintegration of Gran Colombia and its political structures was precipitated. As a consequence, the State of Ecuador and the State of Venezuela were born; Panama remained under dictatorial military governments that failed to organize the basic institutions of a State; while in the central departments of Gran Colombia, military discontent and liberal groups increased and led to the dictatorship of General Rafael Urdaneta (September 5, 1830 to May 3, 1831). Finally, in December 1830, Simón Bolívar died.

Through the Apulo Agreement (carried out on April 28, 1831), General Rafael Urdaneta handed over command of the dismembered Gran Colombia to Domingo Caicedo (May 3, 1831). He presided over it until November 21, 1831 when it was legally abolished.

On May 7, 1831, a convention was convened in the central departments of the deceased Gran Colombia, in which representatives from Cundinamarca, Cauca, Antioquia, Istmo (Panama), Magdalena and Boyacá were to gather. They were to meet in Bogotá on October 15. Panama joined the initiative after the fall of the dictatorial regime at the end of August 1831.

The objective of this convention was to agree on a new form of political organization for the central departments of the deceased Gran Colombia and to elect the magistrates who should govern it.

In the convention, finally held on October 20, 1831, the State of New Granada was created, which with the Constitution of 1832 would be officially called the Republic of New Granada, with Francisco de Paula Santander being its first president.

Reunification attempts

In 1863 New Granada changed its name to the United States of Colombia, announcing its intention to restore the union:

Article 90.- The Executive Power will begin negotiations with the Governments of Venezuela and Ecuador for the voluntary Union of the three sections of the former Colombia in common nationality, under a republican, democratic and federal form, analogous to that established in this Constitution, and specified, the case is, by a general constituent Convention.

Political Constitution of the United States of Colombia (1863)

However, this measure was protested by the governments of Venezuela and Ecuador, who saw in the name change an attempt to appropriate their common heritage and intervene in the internal affairs of their countries (even breaking out in a brief war between Colombia and Ecuador). Furthermore, the instability of that period prevented much attention from being paid to the project.

In 1898, Venezuelan president Cipriano Castro began to support the Colombian liberals in the Thousand Day War, his final intention was to overthrow the conservative government and rebuild Gran Colombia, also including his liberal allies from Ecuador (Eloy Alfaro) and Nicaragua (José Santos Zelaya).

However, the Colombian liberals were defeated, frustrating the reunification plans.

Government and politics

The political organization of Gran Colombia was definitively drawn up in the Congress of Cúcuta (1821). At this meeting, the city of Bogotá was designated as the capital, while Caracas and Quito served as the headquarters of the superior courts of justice of the judicial districts into which the republic was divided.

Constitutionally, the government was characterized by strong executive power in the person of the President of the Republic, and regional vice presidents who acted on behalf of the President in his absence. Both positions were appointed by an electoral college appointed by the provincial assemblies.

The legislative power resided in the National Congress, made up of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Said Congress had sessions once a year and its members, with a term of 8 years for the Senate and 4 for the Representatives, were elected by the three regional assemblies of the country. Each department sent a total of 4 senators to Congress.. The number of deputies to be sent by the provinces was in proportion to their respective population, in such a way that there was one representative per 30,000 inhabitants. For the departmental administration, there were mayors, appointed by the president, who in turn appointed the governors of each province. All these positions occupied a period of three years.

Meanwhile, the executive branch was divided into four sections: Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance and Customs, and War and Navy.

During the government of Simón Bolívar, the riches of the soil and subsoil were declared national heritage and the nationalization of the mines with his famous phrase: "Mines of any kind correspond to the Republic", thus laying the background for future nationalizations and expropriations in Latin America, he also ordered the creation of a mining directorate in each department of the republic, decreed free education for boys and girls; and due to the lack of schools, he ordered that the churches, in their hours of rest for homilies, be converted into classrooms, an agrarian reform was decreed against the large estates, with the distribution of the best lands to those who worked them, in other words, mostly field laborers, needy peasants and indigenous people, payment in kind was prohibited and monetary wages were ordered for employees and workers, he ordered the issuance of import licenses to protect the national industry from so many imports, he took care of regulate interest rates, prohibited indebtedness with International Banking, exchange control, price control, and strengthening of the monetary system were decreed, and the delivery of land to the officers and soldiers of the liberating army was decreed, this project It did not achieve the expected results, since the troops received vouchers instead of land and were forced to sell them (at a devalued price), which encouraged the expansion of the latifundium and the emergence of high-ranking latifundist officers and soldiers. In the same way, no progress was made in improving the situation of the large masses of indigenous and native peoples; The long Bolivarian government of 11 years did not inherit great material progress nor very significant successes and achievements for the native peoples of Greater Colombia.

Guidelines of the National Constitution

The Congress elected in Angostura met again, this time in Villa del Rosario, Cúcuta, at the beginning of 1821.

After the Battle of Carabobo, on June 24, 1821, Venezuela was officially independent, and after the liberation of Caracas, Cartagena, Popayán and Santa Marta, on July 18, constitutional work resumed with greater impetus. Cúcuta to include the newly emancipated regions.

On August 30, 1821, the Constitution of Cúcuta was decreed and issued on July 12. This has been considered the first Constitution of Colombia, which was in force during Gran Colombia until its dissolution in 1831. This document consisted of 10 chapters and 191 articles:

• It proclaimed the progressive liberation of slavery: the children of slave parents would be free upon reaching the age of 21, and created a fund to ensure that the slaves who were released had the means to survive. The fund collected percentages ranging from 0.15 % to 10% of inheritance. This was 42 years before the abolition of slavery in the United States. (See freedom of belly and abolitionism)
• It enacted the right to full freedom of expression.
• He ended the Inquisition and made reforms concerning the bishops, archbishops and some of the Church's assets.
• The Government of Colombia declared itself popular and representative.
• He ordered the Congress to divide the territory of the Republic into six or more Departments, for their easier and more comfortable administration.
• Each parish would have an assembly that would meet every four years, the last Sunday of the month of July. Members of these Assemblies would designate the voters of the cantons, who must be more than twenty-five years old, possess in real estate more than five hundred piasters or three hundred rents.
• These would be constituted in the Provincial Assembly of electors to meet every four years on the first day of October to elect the President and Vice-President of the Republic, the senator of the Department and the representative or representatives of the province. These departmental officials would serve for four years.
• They could vote for those over twenty-one years who know how to read and write and possess a hundred piasters.
• The Congress would consist of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Senators would be appointed for an eight-year period and representatives for a four-year period.
• To be a senator, it was required to be thirty years old, to be Creole by birth, to own real estate worth four thousand piastras or an annual rent of five hundred piastras, to exercise a liberal profession, and in case of being a foreigner, to carry twelve years established in the country and own real estate worth sixteen thousand piastras.
• Four senators would be elected by department: two for eight years and two for four. These differences would be misleading to fate, says the law, that the Senate will be renewed every four years.
• The House of Representatives would consist of the elected Deputies at the rate of one per 30,000 inhabitants. When representatives reached one hundred, a deputy would be elected for every 40,000 inhabitants and even for every 50,000, until the House is composed of one hundred and fifty deputies.
• To be a deputy, it was necessary to have twenty-five years and properties worth two thousand piastras or five hundred piastras of income, or to be a teacher. He had to have resided two years before the election, or eight years in case he had not been born in Colombia, and in this, in addition, had real estate worth ten thousand piastras.
• The House of Representatives would have the exclusive power to accuse the President, the Vice-President of the Republic and the Ministers of the High Court of Justice before the Senate.
• For both Chambers, the Constitution provides that the sessions shall be public; that the main public officials shall be excluded from the legislative functions; that their members shall enjoy immunity as long as their functions last, and that they shall be paid.
• The executive branch consists of a president and a vice president, elected for four years, who cannot be re-elected and who, in case of death, are replaced by the president of the Senate. The president would have a salary of thirty thousand piastras per year, and the vice president, of sixteen thousand.
• Each department was administered by an Intendent appointed by the president and a Governor who was under the orders of the mayor.
• It establishes the posts of ministers, council, supreme court and rules each of the charges.
• The Congress elected Simon Bolivar as President of the Republic and Vice President Francisco de Paula Santander, but as Bolivar was absent Santander took the presidency and Nariño the vice president.

On May 24, 1822, Quito sealed its independence in the battle of Pichincha; and on December 9, 1824, the battle of Peru (today Peru and Bolivia) was completed in the battle of Ayacucho. Peru and Bolivia never became part of Greater Colombia but share with Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela the title of Bolivarian countries for having been republics liberated by Simón Bolívar who earned the title of Liberator and was considered the first official president in most of these.

Presidents of the Republic

Photo	Chairman	Period	Type of Assumption	Occupation
	Simón Bolívar	7 December 1819 - 4 May 1830	Indirect elections	Military
	Francisco de Paula Santander	7 December 1819 - 20 February 1827	Chairman-in-Charge	Military Jurisconsultation
	Sunday Caycedo	4 May 1830 - 13 June 1830	Acting President	Military and Political
	Joaquín Mosquera	13 June 1830 - 5 September 1830	Indirect elections	Jurist, Military, Statist and Political
	Rafael Urdaneta	5 September 1830 - 3 May 1831	Acting President	Military and Political
	Sunday Caycedo	3 May 1831 - 21 November 1831	Indirect elections	Military and Political

Armed Forces

By the mid-1820s, Gran Colombia had an army of 25,000 to 30,000 men, of which around half were regular troops and the rest militias. The quality of Gran Colombian soldiers varied: from veterans with years in service in elite units such as the Voltígeros battalion, the Rifles battalion, the Bravos de Apure, the Albion battalion; to poorly equipped and poorly trained units that participated in tasks as militias and guerrillas.

The Navy of Gran Colombia had a variety of ships, including several ships of more than 60 guns, frigates of 44 guns, and many smaller units. The Navy concentrated in Cartagena Bay in 1825, conducting exercises in preparation for the planned invasion of Cuba and Puerto Rico that in the end did not take place. When the war with Peru broke out, the Navy was largely in the Caribbean Sea.

La Gran Colombia was largely a highly militarized country, its Armed Forces occupied a role of great importance both in the republic and in politics. Especially in his later years when Bolívar had returned from Peru, Bolivarian militarism grew in an attempt to curb the growing popularity of the Santanderista liberals and secessionist movements in Venezuela and Ecuador. These political discrepancies would escalate until Bolívar proclaimed his dictatorship.

Bolívar was in favor of a permanent Armed Forces on a war footing that could maintain internal peace through coercion, protect the sovereignty of the nation and allow Colombia to play an important role in American politics. On the other hand, Santander wanted a reduction in forces to reduce both its costs and its political participation.

Territorial organization

Territorial Organization of the Great Colombia
Overview	Description and corresponding division
	Republic of Colombia (1819—1822) The law issued on December 17, 1819 determined that the Republic of (the Great) Colombia was divided into three large departments: Venezuela, with capital in Caracas; Cundinamarca (or New Granada), with capital in Bogotá; and Quito, with capital in the city of the same name, although the latter was still in the power of the Spanish forces. This territorial division remained, until through the law of October 2, 1821, the territory of Great Colombia was subdivided into seven departments; segregating from the former department of Venezuela those of Orinoco and Zulia, and from Cundinamarca those of Boyacá, Cauca and Magdalena.
	Republic of Colombia (1822—1824) On November 28, 1821, the Istmo of Panama declared its independence from Spain and decided to voluntarily join the Great Colombia. On February 9, 1822, by executive decree of the Vice President of the Great Colombia Francisco de Paula Santander, the Department of the Istmo was provisionally established and until the meeting of the next congress, with the same rights granted to the original departments created by the law of October 2, 1821. In 1822 all that is now Ecuador and the Free Province of Guayaquil (which had been declared independent) were integrated into the country.
	Republic of Colombia (1824—1826) The law on the territorial division of the Republic of Colombia decreed on 25 June 1824 divided the territory as follows, with a greater to a lesser administrative hierarchy: 12 departments, 37 provinces and 193 cantons. The northern region of the country consisted of 4 departments: Apure, Orinoco, Venezuela and Zuliaand 12 provinces in total; the central region of 5 departments: Boyacá, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Istmo and Magdalenaand 17 provinces; and the southern region of 3 departments: Azuay, Guayaquil and Quito8 provinces. Also by the law of October 12, 1821, the republic was divided into three judicial and military districts: (Venezuela - or Norte-, New Granada - or Centro-, and Quito - or South-), these judicial districts were repealed by the Organic Law of the Judiciary of May 11, 1825.
	Republic of Colombia (1826—1830) On 18 April 1826 an additional law was decreed to that of 1824 which reorganised certain departments of the Republic in the northern region: the provinces of Apure, Barinas and Guayana were reorganized as the department of Orinoco, while the provinces of Cumaná, Barcelona and Margarita formed the department of Maturín. Regarding the central region, the province of Mompós was created with the southern cantons of Cartagena and added to the department of Magdalena.

Geography

The country was made up of a vast territory, which mostly occupied the northern region of South America. From east to west it ran from the Essequibo River and the Atlantic Ocean to the isthmus of Panama and the Pacific Ocean. From north to south, it comprised the extensive land located between the Caribbean Sea and the Amazon River. In total it covered an area of more than 2,500,000 square kilometers.

Relief

The most characteristic aspect of the country was undoubtedly the great Andes mountain range. This mountain range occupied the western half of the country, entering through the Southern District, then dividing into three branches at its entrance to the Center District and finally curving and then entering the territory of the Northern District.

The highest heights of Gran Colombia were close to the equator, with a large number of them located in the Southern District. The highest mountain was Chimborazo (6,310 m), followed by Cotopaxi (5,897 m), Cayambe (5,790 m), Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (5,775 m), Antisana (5,758 m), and Nevado del Huila (5,750 m).). It is notable that all of these heights are volcanoes (both extinct and active), with the exception of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Approximately one third of the country corresponded to the Orinoco plains, a vast savanna covered with grasslands suitable for livestock and agriculture, irrigated by numerous and powerful rivers. The remaining portion of the territory was occupied by the wide plain of the Amazon, little explored and full of enormous mighty rivers.

Hydrography

Three large rivers crossed the territory of Gran Colombia: the Magdalena, which with its main tributary the Cauca flows into the Caribbean; the Orinoco, a mighty river into which the Meta and Guaviare rivers flow; and the Amazon, into which the Napo, the Putumayo and the Caquetá flow. Other important rivers were the Atrato, the Guayas and the Guarapiche.

Of these, the Magdalena and Orinoco served as important waterways, through which imported products entered the country.

Likewise, due to its territorial extension and having coastlines on both oceans, Gran Colombia had countless bays, gulfs and estuaries suitable to serve as natural ports. The most important on the Pacific coast were Guayaquil, to the south; that of Chocó or Buenaventura, in the center; and that of Panama, to the north. On the Atlantic coast there were the gulfs of Darién, Maracaibo, Cariaco and Paria.

Among the country's lakes, two stood out: Lake Maracaibo, a huge body of water that communicated with the gulf of the same name and in which one of the most important battles for independence took place; and Lake Valencia, a body of water embedded in the Venezuelan coastal mountain range. Throughout the country there were also other important bodies of water such as the Santa Marta or Zapatosa swamps.

Climate

The climate of Gran Colombia was not affected by the country's latitude with respect to the equator, but by the topography and the rainy season, which gave rise to two seasons commonly called winter and summer. Of all the areas that made up the republic, the driest were the northern plain of New Granada and the Pacific coast near Guayaquil. The rainiest regions were those near the north of the Pacific coast and the Gulf of Panama, as well as as in the south and east of the country, where the main tributaries of the Amazon River originated.

The valleys located between the mountain ranges enjoyed a temperate and uniform climate for much of the year, while those areas near the coast enjoyed a fairly hot climate. In higher lands, snow and ice could even be found, although they were in the intertropical zone close to the equator, as was the case in the Southern District. The same geographical location of the mountain ranges meant that the vegetation was very varied and the fertility of the soil was immense, which is why all kinds of agricultural products were produced in the country.

Demography

The population of Gran Colombia was very multiethnic. There were Spaniards, Indians, mulattoes, blacks, mestizos and zambos. The population in general was distributed in a very heterogeneous way, so that while the north of the country was mostly inhabited by Spaniards and mestizos, the south of the country was mostly inhabited. a large number of indigenous people. This was because much of the native population in the northern region was exterminated during the first European incursions made during the time of the Spanish conquest, while in the southernmost regions, reservations and missions were created by religious orders that they preserved in much of their original number. The population itself was highly stratified, with the Spanish and whites in general at the top, followed by Indians, blacks and other mixtures of races.

According to estimates made in 1822, the population of Gran Colombia was distributed by departments as shown in the table on the right.

The slave population within the country barely exceeded 70,000 (1823). The indigenous population, meanwhile, was estimated between 400,000 and 500,000 distributed throughout the nation. The tribes of which there was a written record were the Chaimas, Pariagotos, Guaraones, Guayquerías, Guaguas, Cumanagotos, Caribes, Guajiros, Salivas, Guamos, Muiscas and Muzos.

The 1825 census showed the following demographic results by district:

	Judicial District	Free men	Slaves	Independent indigenous	Total population
	North (Venezuela)	609.545	50.088	26.579	686.212
	Centre (New Granada)	1,182,500	45.830	144.771	1.373.110
	South (Ecuador)	485.021	6.975	52.481	544.477
Totals	Great Colombia	2.227.066	102.	203.831	2.533.799

Main cities

Bogotá

Cali

Cartagena

Help

Medellín

Pamplona

Popayán

Mompox

Santa Marta

Tunja

Caracas

Angosture

Cumana

Maracaibo

Puerto Cabello

Quito

Guayaquil

Panama

Portobelo

Top cities of the Great Colombia

The main cities of Gran Colombia, approximately around 1821, were:

• Bogota: seat of the republican government, its population was estimated at some 65 000 inhabitants.
• Caracas: had in 1802 42 000 inhabitants, until the earthquake of 1812 cost 12 000 of them. By 1822 he had only 6,000 people.
• Quito: located practically in the equatorial line, it had 50 000 inhabitants.
• Angostura: located on the Orinoco, its population was estimated at about 7 000 inhabitants.
• Cali: located in the southern region of the province of Cauca, it had a population of 15 000 to 20 000.
• Cartagena de Indias: its population was estimated at 24 000 people.
• Cumaná: its population was estimated at 18 000 inhabitants, the majority dedicated to fishing and navigation.
• Guayaquil: located on the Pacific Ocean, had 15,000 inhabitants.
• Maracaibo: located at the exit of the lake of the same name, had 25 000 people.
• Medellin: located in the Aburra valley, had a population of 4 000 people.
• Mompox: it had 8,000 inhabitants.
• Pamplona: it had 7 000 inhabitants.
• Panama: port located in the Panama isthmus on the Pacific side, its population was estimated at 12 000 inhabitants.
• Popayán: a religious centre located in the Andes, had 25 000 people.
• Portobelo: located on the north coast of the isthmus of Panama, had just 300 people.
• Puerto Cabello: with 15 000 inhabitants, port dedicated to trade, navigation and smuggling.
• Santa Marta: in the Caribbean coast, it had 25 000 people.
• Tunja: capital of Boyacá, had a population of 14 000 people.

Economy

Products

The country's soils, due to their fertility, allowed a wide range of crops to be planted, from those with a temperate climate to those with a warmer climate. This is why the main economic activity of the inhabitants of Gran Colombia was agriculture.

The products that originated in the country were cocoa, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, corn, wheat, vanilla, dates, raisins, fruits, vegetables, dyes, wood, quinine and various plants. medicinal. As for animal products, meat and leather were produced, which were based on the plains of the Orinoco. As for minerals and precious stones, gold, silver, platinum, copper, emeralds, pearls, etc. were produced in the country.

Trade

The main export items were cocoa, indigo, tobacco, coffee and livestock, a large part of which was transported to Europe (mainly Great Britain and France), the United States and Peru. Imported goods, manufactures such as wines, silks, cloths, fabrics, or consumer products such as flour, bread, salt, meat, soap, whale tallow, candles, salts, furniture, etc.

The trade of these products was carried out through the Orinoco, Magdalena, Chagres and Atrato rivers, as well as through the sea ports of Cartagena de Indias, Portobelo, Guayaquil, La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo and Riohacha towards the Caribbean islands of Trinidad, Curacao, Jamaica and others from where they left for their final destinations in Europe and North America. Bolívar decreed the Port of Margarita, a "free trade port" for the economic benefit of the region, he also decreed the support and promotion of the State to agriculture, livestock and the implementation of new crops.

Finance and Public Treasury

Due to the war of independence the finances of the Republic were at their worst. The internal debt was estimated at around 12 or 14 million piastres, while the external debt was estimated at 16 million of the same currency, which included the loan of 10 million negotiated by Francisco Antonio Zea in London.

The income and expenses of the State were not very well defined, but the income was estimated at about 3 million piasters per year. They came both from the monopolies that the State had appropriated over salt, tobacco and partly over gold, as well as from customs and a tax called "free donation"; They also originated from forced loans, property taxes, confiscated assets, vacant profits, etc. Expenses, meanwhile, as presented in the official calculations, reached an amount of 17 million piasters, of which 10 million were assigned to the army and 4 to the navy.

Culture

Education

Through a decree of Congress, the emancipation of slaves in the country was declared. This legislative act proclaimed that every slave born after July 20, 1821 would become free by right at the age of 18, in what is called freedom of wombs.

The Gran Colombian Government was very committed to offering access to public education. To achieve this objective, several laws were passed (from July to August 1821) for primary schools, colleges and schools for young ladies, and in some of these mutual education was introduced following the methods of Lancaster. Some were not entirely freed from monastic rules. Among its many articles, the following was defined:

• Public education establishments should be constructed as follows: schools in populations with more than 100 neighbours, and schools in provincial capitals. Basic education was compulsory from 6 to 12 years.
• Some of the public income of the populations should be allocated to the establishments. The salaries of teachers should be assigned by the governor of the province, and paid by the respective head of the population.
• Basic education consisted of the teaching of reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, dogmas of the Christian religion and human rights and duties.
• Secondary education had the Spanish and Latin grammar, philosophy, notions of advanced calculation, civil, canonical and natural law, and dogmatic theology. Where possible schools should teach principles of agriculture, trade, mining, and military sciences.
• The education of girls and young people, for their part, should be given in convents and religious centres.

As for higher education, the idea of a public and state university began to be forged with the promulgation of Law 8 of 1826 “On the organization and arrangement of Public Instruction”, promoted by Francisco de Paula Santander. This law gave rise to the Central University of the Republic which had its headquarters in Bogotá, Caracas and Quito. The Central University is the predecessor of the National University of Colombia, and was founded on December 25, 1826 in the Church of San Ignacio in Bogotá.

Religion

The Catholic religion was the predominant one and the one recognized by the State. The clergy enjoyed their ancient privileges; However, the convents were reduced in 1821 and their profits allocated to public education, with the purpose of disseminating science and familiarizing the nation's inhabitants with the political knowledge of the time.