Goddess

A Goddess is a female deity or Godhead, as distinguished from the male deities known as "gods". Many ancient religions and cultures worshiped goddesses and, in part, this cult also continues to the present day. The idea or conceptual representation of these deities, as well as their area of action, have frequently been associated with fertility, motherhood or other common female figures. However, goddesses of war, wisdom, the sea or knowledge were also devised. They are frequently part of a large pantheon that includes deities of both sexes and, in some cases, even hermaphroditic deities (having both sexes).

Meaning

The generative or procreative capacity of goddesses (just like that of male gods) is related to the creation myths of the world. The feminine principle is associated with birth, that is, also with the birth or emergence of the cosmos. This is the origin of the ideas, probably arising at a very early time in the prehistory of humanity, about the existence of a Mother Goddess, as well as a Mother Earth, concepts supported by the findings of between 100 and 200 Venus figurines from the Upper Palaeolithic (from 40,000 years before the present, as the recent finding of the Venus of Hohle Fels seems to confirm historically), all small figurative representations of female bodies nudes in which the sexual characteristics stand out especially. This interpretation, however, has been largely rejected by archaeology.

The goddesses appear in many myths as figures that usually do not correspond to the current image of the feminine. Thus, they are related to apparently masculine attributes: with war, hunting, domination, violence and power, with the perfect spirit and autonomous sexuality, like the one that underlies the myth of the Amazons, which has not yet been explained. managed to clarify historically definitively. In addition, the goddess represents the beginning of death, which on the one hand is conceptually represented that the one who gives life also takes life, an issue that on the other hand is related to the belief that palingenesis would be possible through this.. Thus, in the role of goddess of life and death, the feminine is related to human destiny. Through the contradictory properties attributed to goddesses, many appear (as is also the case with male gods) as embodiments of the unity between contrary or complementary terms, such as creation/destruction, life/death, love/hate., good/evil, spirit/matter, light/dark.

Goddesses in the development of civilization

In the transition from small social organizations to civilizations, goddess cults were important all over the world, for example in India, Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Japan, Greece and Rome. In these complex agrarian societies, the goddesses were responsible, among other things, for the fertility of crops, for the monarchy, for the protection of religious centers and for victory in wars.

In different cultures, goddesses had many important functions, however a universal cult of a "Great Mother" cannot be established. In some cultures, goddesses were closely associated with the rise of larger cities, as well as the rise of the monarchy, and were seen as the origin of the most complex social organizations. They were often responsible for social institutions, such as tax collection or resource distribution, while in other cultures goddesses only represented the companions of the male gods or were incorporated into mystery religion from older shamanic cults.

The goddess concept is supported by modern matriarchs and pantheists as the female version, or analogous to God (for example, the Abrahamic god), who in feminist and other circles is perceived as a being rooted in the patriarchal concept dominated by the exclusion of feminine concepts.^{[citation required]}

The feminine-masculine relationship between deifications is sometimes originated in Monism ("one-ism") without a link to a defined and rigid concept of monotheism versus polytheism where goddess and god are seen as genders of a transcendental being.^{[citation needed]}

Historical religions

In the region of Mesopotamia, the goddesses are among the oldest deities and some researchers suppose a presence of female deities that would reach prehistoric times, due to the fact that a large part of the sculptures that have been found are female, while male sculptures are rather the exception.

There is controversy about whether or not the primacy of goddesses is related to social matriarchy. A comparison with present-day cultures that contemplate many goddesses or among which there is a prominent cult of female deities, shows that these "are not necessarily societies in which women are appreciated and offered opportunities"

With the exception of the Hittite Sun Goddess of Arinna, in most ancient religions there are no goddesses heading a hierarchy of deities. They often act as fertility goddesses, mother figures, earth goddesses, or merely "as a complement to their husband without a temple of his own".

The Akkadian goddess Ishtar – and correspondingly the Sumerian goddess Inanna and the East Semitic goddess Astarte – was a goddess of war, mother goddess, and goddess of love. Since she was the dominant goddess, her name could be used to name the goddesses in a general way.

Goddesses of the earth, fertility, and the like were worshiped everywhere farmers lived, from Egypt through Asia Minor to the Celts, Germans, and Slavs. Also in the cultures of the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas, this type of goddess was worshiped.

Ancient Middle East

Egypt

In ancient Egypt there were a lot of important goddesses. For example, the sky goddess Nut, who was also the wife of the earth god, Geb, the goddess of war, weaving, and victorious weapons Neith, and Hathor, who as a sky goddess appears in various guises. Other important goddesses in Egypt were for example Maat, Bastet and Mut.

One of the most well-known Egyptian goddesses is Isis. Pharaoh was considered a son of Isis and since her name is linguistically related to the Egyptian word for "throne", she was also considered the sacred seat of Pharaoh. Later Isis was the wife of Osiris and mother of Horus and eventually became a universal goddess, whose cult spread to Greece and Rome.

• Isis
• Bastet
• Sekhmet
• Hathor
• Neftis
• Wadjet
• Mut
• Nut
• Neit
• Tawret
• Maat

Mesopotamia

• Ninhursag
• Tiamat
• Ishtar

Arabia

In the pagan religion that prevailed in Arabia before Islam, various goddesses were worshiped, including three who are referred to as daughters of God: Al-lat, Uzza (Al-Uzza or also Al-Ozza) and Manah, the three main goddesses of Mecca.

Indo-European religion

Dharmic Religions

Hinduism

Hinduism is a complex of various belief systems that view various gods and goddesses as representative of or emanating from a single source, Brahman, interpreted as the all-forming, infinite, impersonal essence in the Advaita tradition or as a dual god such as Laksmí-Vishnú, Radhá-Krisná, Deví-Shivá according to the dvaita (duality) traditions. The śaktas, the worshipers of the goddesses, associate this God with Deví, the mother goddess.

Aspects such as a God who is a male God (Śaktiman) with female energy (Śakti) working as a couple are often imagined as male gods and their wives or consorts, providing many analogies between a male passive supporter and the dynamism of feminine energy.

For example, Brahmá is paired with Sáraswati, while Shivá is paired with Uma, who is represented through a number of avatars (incarnations): Párvati and the warriors Durgá and Kali. Sometimes the names of these Hindu goddesses are interchangeable.

The idea of śaktis introduces an additional element. His ideology, based mainly on the tantras, considers Śakti as the energy through which all divinities function, so that the masculine is dependent on the feminine.

Indeed, in a śakta scripture known as Devi-majatmia, all the goddesses are presented as expressions and aspects of a single feminine force, one in its truth, but expressed in the form of many goddesses., which gives the world and the cosmos the energy for its operation. Both philosophical treatises and metaphors convey the message that the potentiality of the masculine being is determined by the divine action of the feminine gender.

Local deities from different regions in India were often identified with the main Hindu deities, a process that has been called Sanskritization. Others attribute it to the influence of monism (aduaita: 'non-dual') which denies a polytheistic or monotheistic categorization.

Some goddesses have more than 100 names. While monistic forces have led to fusion among some goddesses, centrifugal forces have given rise to new goddesses and popular rituals in different parts of the Hindu world. Thus, the goddess Durgá, who is very popular, could have been a prevedic goddess, later fused with other goddesses such as Párvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as the Kalika-purana (10th century AD), the Durga-bhakti-taranguini (from Vidia Pati, 15th century), the Chandi-mangal (16th century), etc.

Greco-Roman religion

The pre -Olympic Greek goddesses were generally integrated to the rituals of vegetation, such as Mother Earth and the mother of the Cnotic gods, Gaia. Before Delphi's oracle dedicated himself to Apollo, he was in relation to Gaia. In the exercise of Gaia cult, animals, cereals and fruits were offered in sacrifice and trances of possession were practiced

In the Eleusian mysteries, the goddess of the Earth Demeter was worshiped. In this cult appears the issue of reincarnation in Demeter's daughter, Persephone, who was kidnapped from Hades in the underworld.

• Gaia
• Potnia Theron
• Deméter
• Athena
• Cibels
• Hera
• Thea
• Perséfone
• Artemisa
• Aphrodite
• Nyx

Celtic religion

• Danna
• Dea Matrona
• Sulis, Verbeia
• Brigit
• Agrona, Mórrígan

Germanic religion

of the information that has come to us about Germanic mythology can be seen that it contained numerous female deities, gigantas and goddesses.

• Freya
• Frigg
• Fulla
• Gná
• Gullveig
• Hel
• Hlin
• Iðunn
• Nanna
• Nerthus
• Nornas
• Nótt
• Skaði
• Sun

Pre-Hispanic Mexican religion

In the Valley of Mexico, since time immemorial, the worship of an extremely extensive pantheon of women was customary. some of them were transformed and their worship continues to this day.

• Coatlicue
• Acuecueyocihuatl
• Cihuacóatl
• Tonantzin
• Ixtocihuatl
• Coyolxauhqui

In South America, the Incas had several female deities.

• Mama Quilla
• Pacha Mama

Polynesian beliefs

Of the ancient and millenary cult located in the current islands of the Pacific. From the small ones belonging to Oceania, to the group of Hawaiian islands.

• Kane Milohai
• Pele

Abrahamic religions

Monotheistic cultures, which recognize only one principal deity, generally ascribe masculine characteristics to him, implicitly using the masculine grammatical gender and explicitly using terms like "Father" or "Sir". In all monotheistic religions, however, there are mystical currents that emphasize the feminine aspects of divinity; for example, the Collyridians at the birth of Christianity, who saw Mary as a goddess; the medieval visionary Juliana of Norwich; in Judaism the Shekinah or in Gnostic traditions the Sophia; and some Sufi texts of Islam.

Judaism

Old Hebrew, as well as New Hebrew, has no neuter gender, only masculine and feminine. Although Judaism uses masculine words to describe God, Judaism maintains that God is genderless. A balance is intended, where God could be referred to in the masculine gender on most objects related to worship in Judaism, just as the Torah is referred to in the feminine gender.

Christianity

Believing in a female deity under Christianity was usually considered heretical or a characteristic of heresy, although the veneration of Mary the Mother of Jesus, as a specially privileged human being although not a deity, has continued since the beginning of faith Christian

In some Christian aspects (such as Orthodox), Sofia is the personification of divine wisdom (or archangel) that takes a feminine form. She is mentioned in the first chapter of the book of proverbs.

Since 1980, feminist Christians have challenged this traditional point of view. Some, like Mary Daly, are no longer considered Christian, but others continue to look for a space within their traditions for the divine woman and for the female spiritual command (see theology).

However, it is important to note that while the explicit use of the term " goddess " It is rare in traditional Christianity, the belief that God transcends gender, possessing both, male and female, is quite common. The female pronouns have historically been used to refer to the Blessed Trinity. The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches that God is not male, but because of the role that the term " Father &#34 meets in our world; is more appropriate than " mother ".

According to recent investigations within anthropology on the Holy Spirit, some theories ensure that the God of the Jews Jehovah or Yahweh or God had a wife. Supp> According to the analysis of the Bible, it is said that at the beginning the Spirit of God waved on primordial waters. The Canaanite goddess of the primary waters was called Asherah and this was considered the wife of the God. An act of copulation in which the entire creation originated and occurred in the original Canaanite myth, on which the myth of the creation of the Jewish people is based. The identity between the Holy Spirit and Ashera for a very intriguing detail, has been considered as a sacred symbol of the ancient goddess of the Canaanites and the Phoenicians who was a dove. ]

When Christ receives the Spirit in his baptism, it is presented in the form of a white dove, which was a known sign for people in those lares in those times as a symbol of a goddess.

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In the Bible it is also mentioned that Jewish women disobeyed the prophets worshiping Ashera or Astarot. He was also called Astarte or Ishtar, although he was the same goddess, he also had identical attributes despite being worshiped in different cities. In Christianity since early in which one speaks of the Holy Spirit, a divine person who Jesus Christ called Ruach , mentioned in Hebrew or Aramaic. The Aramaic word Ruach implies breath and is a female word. The Latin translation of " Ruach " It occurred as " Spiritus ", which is a male word and the genre of the Holy Spirit changed, it became an asexual or male divine person, but not feminine, thanks to the Latin translation of Ruach . The original idea of Jesus Christ from a divine goddess/soul, grants in-supiration (in-supiRar, that is to receive breath, which also means receiving divine creative ideas in the mysticism associated with this divine person) [ required appointment ]

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The Holy Spirit is considered for some of the Christian goddess, required quote, feeding his faith to return to Zion. In the Old Testament, she calling herself wisdom, it is said that she inspires men to live in straight lives and that takes them to the God Father, that is, she is like a mediator between mortals and the divine paternal principle. Shekinah, Ruach and Sofia, is considered the same role with several names.

Islamism

In pre -yslamic mecca, the goddesses Uzza, Manah and Al-Lat were known as " the daughters of God ". Uzza was worshiped by the Nabateans, who associated her with the Greco -Roman goddesses Aphrodite, Urania, Venus and Caelastis. Each of these three goddesses had its own temple near Mecca. Uzza's protection was invoked by the pre -dance tribe of the priests. In 624, in the battle of Uhud, the war shout of the cure was: "Uzza worshipers, Hubal people!" (According to Tawil, 1993).

<p Muslim scholars have considered history as not feasible from a historical point of view, while among Western scholars the opinion is divided. Leone Caetani and John Burton are against, while William Muir and William Montgomery Watt believe it can be plausible.

In Islamism, Allah - despite being mentioned as ël - has no gender, masculine or female, following the Abrahamanic concept.

New religious movements

Goddess Nutnaked, with the arched body as a celestial vault, on her husband Geb (the Earth). Nut's father, Shu (the atmospheric air), tries to separate them.

Discordianism

In Discordianism (an American satirical religion, created in 1957 by two high school students), the Greco-Roman Eris (or Discordia) is generally revered as a goddess, as illustrated in the first clause of the Pentabarf:

There is no Goddess but Goddess and She is Your Goddess. There is no Movement but The Erisian Movement and it is The Erisian Movement. And every Golden Apple Corps is the beloved home of a Golden Worm.

There is no other Goddess than Goddess, and she is your goddess. There is no other movement than the Erisian movement, and this is the Erisian movement. And every golden apple is the dear home of a golden worm.

She is generally described as a wrathful woman who spreads chaos and discord, which are fundamental to life and creativity. However, due to the nature of the religion, this is open to individual interpretation. Many people compare Eris to a concept or idea, although this may be considered blasphemy by some.

Reconstructionism

Representation of the Pachamama or Mother Earth in the cosmology according to John of Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua (1613), according to an image in the Temple of the Sun Qurikancha in Cuzco. According to the Andean pre-Columbian cosmovision, it is a Totemic Goddess of the Incas representing Mother Earth, to which they were present.

Modern polytheistic reconstructionists are based on reconstructions of ancient polytheistic religions, including various goddesses and figures associated with indigenous cultures.

Wicca

Main article: Wicca

In Wicca "the goddess" or "the lady" she is one of the most important deities along with her consort, the horned god. She is described as a tribal goddess of the cult of witches, which seems inspired by Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana described in Charles Leland's Aradia. She was not considered to be omnipotent or universal and a 'Higher Power' was recognized to exist, even though witches did not care much for this being.

In many Wiccan manifestations, the goddess has been regarded as a universal deity, which is in keeping with her description in The Charge of the Goddess, a key Wiccan text. In this guise, she is the "Queen of Heaven" similar to Isis; she also encompasses and conceives of all life in a similar way to Gaia. Similar to Isis and certain late classical conceptions of Selene, she is interpreted as the sum of all the other goddesses, representing different names and aspects of her across different cultures.

The goddess is often represented with strong lunar symbolism, inspired by different cultures and ancient deities such as Diana, Hecate and Isis, and is often represented as the triad "Virgin", "Mother" and "Old Hag" popularized by Robert Graves (see Triple Goddess in section below). Many representations of her take elements from Celtic goddesses.

Some Wiccans believe there are too many Goddesses and in some manifestations of Wicca, particularly Dianic Wicca, only the Goddess is worshiped and the God plays virtually no role in the ritual.

Triple Goddess

Main article: Triple Diosa (neopaganism)

The symbol of the triple lunar goddess.

Goddesses or demigoddesses appear in groups of three in a number of pagan European mythologies; for example, the Greek Erinyes (Furies for the Romans) and Moiras (Fates for the Romans); the Norse Norns; Brigit and hers two sisters of hers, also called Brighid, in Irish or Celtic legends.

Robert Graves popularized the triad of "Virgin", "Mother" and "Old Witch" and despite the fact that this conception is not supported by solid academic evidence, his poetic inspiration has been widely received.

There is a wide variety in the precise conception of these figures, as is typically the case in neopaganism and pagan religions in general. Some interpret it as three stages in a woman's life, symbolized by menarche, motherhood and menopause. Others find this approach too rigid and based on science and biology and prefer a freer interpretation, in which the Virgin is the birth (independent, self-aware, explorer), the Mother who gives birth (connected with the world, welcoming and compassionate, creative) and the Old Witch is death and renewal (holistic, remote, inscrutable) — all three, erotic and wise.

In religions derived from Hellenism and later in New Age religions and Wicca, often three of the four phases of the moon (wasting, full, and waning) symbolize the three aspects of the Triple Goddess. They are represented together as a symbol that is made up of a circle between the waxing and waning phase. Some, however, find this triad incomplete and prefer to add a fourth aspect. This would be the "Black Goddess" or "Wise Woman", somewhat suggested by the absence of the new moon in the symbolism indicated above, or it could be an erotic goddess representing a phase of life between the Young (Virgin) and Mother, or a Warrior between the Mother and the Old Witch. There is a male counterpart to this in the English poem 'The Parliament of the Three Ages'.

In modern popular culture the Triple Goddess has been depicted as Virgin, Mother, and Old Hag, as for example in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman.

Religious Feminism

Since the beginning of the feminist movement in North America, there has been an interest in analyzing how religious doctrines, organizations, and practices treat women. The subject, for example, was analyzed in The Woman's Bible by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Again during the second wave of feminism in the 1970s, both in North America and in European countries, among others, religion was the focus of attention for feminist analysis in the context of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and other religions, and some women became they turned to goddess-centered religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions (Womanspirit rising 1979; Weaving the visions 1989). Today, both women and men continue to be engaged in goddess movements (Christ, 1997). The popularity of organizations like the Isis Sisterhood are signs of the continued growth of Goddess religions around the world.

While much of the effort in Judaism, Christianity and Islam focuses on achieving equality between the two genders, through a reinterpretation of scriptures and the use of asexual language to describe and refer to the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are certain groups that identify as Jewish, Christian, or Muslim who attempt to integrate concepts associated with goddesses into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996, "Goddess Christians Yahoogroup"). ^{[citation required]}

Sacred Feminine

The term "sacred feminine" it was first coined in the 1970s, in New Age popularizations of the Hindu Shakti. It was subsequently further disseminated in the 1990s by Andrew Harvey and others, and was enshrined in popular culture in 2003 with Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code. It emphasizes femininity, for being the matrix of creation and for the ability to reproduce.