Glycinemax
Glycine max, popularly called soya or soja (in Spain, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay), It is a species of plant in the Fabaceae family, or legume family. It is grown for its seeds, with a medium oil content (see oil plant) and high protein. Soybeans and their by-products (soybean oil and meal) are used for human, livestock and poultry food. It is marketed all over the world due to its multiple uses.
Used in China for more than 5,000 years, today soy is present in many foods, both traditional and new, as well as an additive to prepared foods. Traditional soy preparations include soy milk and tofu among non-fermented preparations and soy sauce, miso, natto, or tempeh among fermented ones. On the other hand, soybeans are the basis for producing soybean oil, which accounts for almost half of the vegetable oils produced in the world. But soy is also used as an ingredient or additive in all kinds of food preparations such as sausages, pizzas, hamburgers, pastries and even chocolate.
Soybean cultivation, in addition to being a very valuable factor, helps human beings if it is carried out within the framework of a crop by seasonal rotation, since it fixes nitrogen in the soils, exhausted after having practiced other intensive crops. The American continent is the largest producer in the world: Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Brazil, the United States and Paraguay emit almost 90% of world production.
Etymology
The word "soy" originated as a corruption of the Chinese (Cantonese) or Japanese names for soy sauce (in Chinese, 豉油; jyutping, si6jau4; Cantonese Yale, sihyàuh) (醤油 , 'shōyu'?).
The etymology of the genus, Glycine, comes from Linnaeus. When naming the genus, Linnaeus noted that one of the species in the genus had a sweet root. Based on sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, glykós, was Latinized. The generic name is not related to the amino acid glycine.[citation needed]
Description
Soybeans vary in growth, habit, and height. It can grow from 20 cm to 1 meter tall and takes at least 1 day to germinate.
The pods, stems, and leaves are covered in fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are trifoliate, have 3-4 leaflets per leaf, and are 6-15 cm long and 2-7 cm wide. The leaves drop before the seeds are ripe. The large, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the leaf axil and are white, pink, or purple.
The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of 3-5, each pod is 3-8 cm long and usually contains 2-4 (rarely more) seeds 5-11 mm in diameter.
The seed shell is black, brown, blue, yellow, green, or variegated. The husk of the mature legume (bean in Argentina) is hard, waterproof, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is broken, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed, is called the hilum (black, brown, gray and yellow in color) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat that allows the absorption of water to to sprout.
The seeds, with very high levels of protein, can suffer desiccation, yet survive and revive after the absorption of water.
Germination
The first stage of growth is germination, which is first manifested when the radicle emerges from a seed. This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthesis structures, the cotyledons, develop from the hypocotyl, the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons act as leaves and as a nutrient source for the immature plant, providing the seedling with nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days.
Maturation
The first true leaves develop as a pair of simple leaves. Subsequent to this first pair, the mature nodes form compound leaves with three leaves. Mature trifoliate leaves, which have three to four leaflets per leaf, are usually 6–15 cm (2.4–5.9 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.79–2.76 in) wide. Under ideal conditions, stem growth is continuous, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, the roots can grow 1.9 cm (0.75 in) per day. If rhizobia are present, the root nodule begins when the third nodule appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes. The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, soil quality, and climate affecting its shape; however, fully mature soybean plants are typically 20 to 50 in (51 to 127 cm) tall and have rooting depths of 30 to 60 in (76 to 152 cm).
Flowering
Flowering is triggered by day length, often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours. This trait is highly variable, however, with different varieties reacting differently to change in day length. Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers borne on the leaf axil and are white, pink, or purple in color. Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Varieties that continue to develop nodules after flowering are called "indeterminate" and are better suited to climates with longer growing seasons. Soybeans often drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature.
Seed resistance
The shell of the mature bean is hard, waterproof, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat cracks, the seed will not be able to germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, beige, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the ovule., or small opening in the seed coat, whose main function is to allow the absorption of water for germination.
Some seeds, such as soybeans, which contain very high levels of protein, can desiccate, but survive and revive after absorbing water. A. Carl Leopold began studying this ability at Cornell University's Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research in the mid-1980s. He discovered that soybeans and corn have a number of soluble carbohydrates that protect seed cell viability. In the early 1990s he was granted patents on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state.
Nitrogen fixation capacity
Like many legumes, soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen, due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria of the rhizobia group.
Classification
The genus name Glycine was originally introduced by Linnaeus (1737) in the first edition of Genera Plantarum. The word glycine derives from the Greek - glykys (sweet) and probably refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped edible tubers (apios in Greek) produced by the climbing leguminous or herbaceous vine, Glycine apios, now known as Apios americana. Cultivated soybeans first appeared in Species Plantarum, Linnaeus, under the name Phaseolus max L. The combination, Glycine max (L.) Merr., was proposed by Merrill in 1917, has become the valid name for this plant.
Like other long-domesticated crops, the relationship of modern soybeans to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety with a large number of cultivars.
The genus Glycine Wild. is divided into two subgenera: Glycine and soya. The subgenus soybean Moench includes the cultivated soybean, G. max (L.) Merr., and wild soybeans: G. soy Siebold & Zucc. Both species are annuals. Soybean grows only under cultivation while G. soybean grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Russia. Glycine soya is the wild ancestor of soybeans: the wild parent. Currently, the subgenus Glycine consists of at least 16 wild perennial species: for example, Glycine canescens, and G. tomentella Hayata found in Australia and Papua New Guinea.
Chemical composition of the seed
Taken together, the oil and proteins present in soybeans represent approximately 60% of the weight of the dry seed; 40% protein and 20% oil. The rest is made up of 35% carbohydrates and about 5% ash. Cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat, 90% cotyledons, and 2% hypocotyl or germ axes.
It has a high content of good quality proteins. Some of its derivatives are consumed as a substitute for meat products. Adults need to eat 8 amino acids (children 9) of the 20 needed to make proteins. The most complete proteins, that is, with all the necessary amino acids, are usually found in foods of animal origin. However, soybeans provide the 8 essential amino acids in adulthood, although the methionine contribution is somewhat low; but this can be easily compensated by including sesame seeds (with a relatively high concentration of methionine), cereals (such as oats, corn or black rice), nuts (such as peanuts and almonds) or legumes in the daily diet.
The main carbohydrates in mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (2.5 to 8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1 to 1.0%), made up of a sucrose molecule attached to a of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (from 1.4 to 4.1%) composed of a molecule of sucrose joined to two molecules of galactose. The oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the seed from drying out, but they are indigestible sugars and contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by microorganisms producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane.
Since soluble carbohydrates in soybeans are found in whey and are broken down during fermentation, soybean concentrate, soy protein, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted beansprouts do not cause flatulence. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects for the intake of oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, in promoting the activity of colonic bifidobacteria against putrefactive bacteria.
Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This stability allows the preparation of foods that must be cooked at high temperatures, such as tofu, soy juice and textured vegetable proteins (soy flour) that must be cooked at very high temperatures to be made.
The insoluble carbohydrates of soybeans are the complex polysaccharides of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. Most of the carbohydrates present in soybeans can be classified within what is called dietary fiber.
The main components of soy are:
Isoflavones (phytoestrogens): dadzein, genistein. They are heterocyclic phenols with a structural formula similar to that of estradiol. Proteins: mainly glycine and casein. Carbohydrates: holosides, pentosans and galactogen. Others: lipids, phospholipids, sterols (sitosterol, stigmasterol), carotenoid and anthocyanin pigments, enzymes (amylase, protease, urease), vitamins (B, D, E), steroidal saponosides, inositol-hexaphosphate (IP6), fiber (the sprouts especially), etc.
Dissemination
Until the beginning of the XX century, the cultivation and human diet of soybean pods and their derivatives was limited to the territories of present-day China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Its diffusion in the West is largely due to the studies of the American George W. Carver, who not only valued its use for human consumption, but was one of the pioneers in proposing the use of soy derivatives to produce plastics and fuels. (especially biodiesel). However, massive cultivation in the West (particularly in the US Midwest and in various agricultural areas of Argentina, Brazil, eastern Bolivia, Uruguay and Paraguay) only began in the 1970s, to reach a extreme boom; substituting in many cases territories previously dedicated to authentic cereals (wheat, corn, etc.) or livestock, and even threatening forest areas. There is widespread confusion about the equivalence between “yellow soybeans” (Glycine max) and “green soybeans” (Vigna radiata).
Uses
It is used for many products that can replace others of animal origin.[citation needed]
Soy is used for its protein content also as animal feed, in the form of soybean meal, an area in which it competes internationally with fishmeal.
Although with a notably lower price differential, the international price of soybeans is parallel to that of fishmeal. When soybeans are in short supply, the price of fishmeal automatically rises, and vice versa.
The great protein value of the legume (it has all eight essential amino acids) makes it a great substitute for meat in vegan cultures. By-products such as soy milk or soy meat are extracted from soy.
It is commonly consumed in eastern countries such as China and Japan, both fresh (as cooked pods or edamame) and processed. Different derivatives are obtained from it, such as soybean oil, soy sauce, bean sprouts, tōfu, nattō or miso. Tausí is obtained from the grain, which is salty and fermented soybean, widely used in Chinese dishes. Some derivatives:
- Soybean milk: traditional Asian product obtained by ground seed, extracted in hot in water and cooked.
- Tofu or soy cheese: coagulated soy milk with magnesium salts, potato or vinegar; moisture is variable according to preparations and breeding;
- Tempeh: decortic seed, cooked in water and fermented for 24-48 hours of a mushroom; they have forms that are sliced and fried.
- Juba: It is the "nata" of soy milk. It is used in vegetarian and vegan cuisine to produce substitutes for animal products.
- Fermented products, sauces and drinks, typical of oriental cuisine.
Benefits and properties
- Hypoglycemia: reduces the blood sugar rate (diabetic treatment).
- Source of proteins in food
- Prevents cardiovascular disorders; reduces cholesterol.
- It relieves menopause and menstrual disorders by presenting:
- Isoflavonoids: with hypocholesterolizing action.
- Phytoestrogens: estrogens of plant origin.
- It prevents osteoporosis from reducing female estrogens.
- Of the soy are obtained various derivatives, such as soy drink or tofu, excellent food for people intolerant to the lactose or allergic to the dairy protein.
- Due to its lipid composition, derivatives such as lecithin are obtained, used as an ingredient by the agrifood industry. Soybean lecithin is highly caloric, about 763 kcal per 100 grams, basically because it is lipid, so its consumption should be moderate.
Relation to health
Although research from independent sources advises against its daily use in pregnant women, adolescents and children under 5 years of age and some researchers maintain that the high proportion of phytoestrogens in soy can cause hormonal problems when used in human nutrition, in Particularly in children, this effect would occur only when soy is not part of a balanced diet.
Some studies state that phytoestrogens, present in soybeans, can affect sperm quality, reducing the number of spermatozoa. In contrast, other studies indicate that there is scientific evidence that soy isoflavones do not have feminizing effects in men, nor do they cause hormonal imbalances, nor affect the total level of testosterone, nor affect sperm quality. Although isoflavone molecules are very similar to estrogens, their effects on the body are very different. Soybeans and processed foods are not the ones with the highest "total phytoestrogen" content in food. One study found that the food groups with the highest phytoestrogens per 100 grams were nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, various processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, and fruits..
Soy is a complete source of protein according to the PDCAAS index, with the first limiting factor being the amino acid (methionine).
Transgenic soybeans
Fertilization in crops
It is very important to fertilize soybean crops to obtain better agricultural yields. The main fertilizer used in soybean production is calcium superphosphate or simple superphosphate, which is applied at the time the seed is sown —for this reason it is called starter—, which provides the requirements of the culture in P phosphorus, S sulfur and Ca calcium. The amount to contribute varies between 50 and 100 kg/ha. As a legume, the plant associates symbiotically with bacteria of the genus Bradyrhizobium and forms nodules capable of fixing nitrogen from the air.[citation needed]
World production
Country code; ISO_3166-1, oth 86; other 86 countries.
The top 8 countries produced 94.82% in 2016.
| Main soy producers (2019) (millions of tons) | |
|---|---|
Brazil Brazil | 114.26 |
 United States | 96.79 |
 Argentina | 55.26 |
China China | 15,72 |
 India | 13,26 |
Paraguay Paraguay | 8,52 |
Canada Canada | 6.04 |
Russia Russia | 4.35 |
Ukraine Ukraine | 3,69 |
Bolivia Bolivia | 2.99 |
| Global total | 320.93 |
Source
Taxonomy
Glycine max was described by (L.) Merr. and published in An Interpretation of Rumphius's Herbarium Amboinense 274. 1917.
- Sinonimia
- Soybean dolls L.
- Glycine angustifolia Miq.
- Glycine gracilis Skvortsov
- Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim.
- Glycine soya sensu auct.
- Max phaseolus L.
- I am angustifolia Miq.
- I'm hysped. Moench
- I am japonica Savi
- max. (L.) Piper
- I am. H.Karst.
- I am viridis Savi
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