Geert Hofstede

Gerard Hendrik Hofstede (Haarlem, October 3, 1928-Velp, February 12, 2020) was an influential social psychologist, professor of organizational anthropology and international management in the Department of Economics and Business Administration, at the University of Limburg, in the Netherlands. He held the title of Director of the Research Institute for Intercultural Cooperation at the aforementioned university.He was also a mechanical engineer and Dutch writer in the field of relations between national cultures and between cultures within organizations. Through his academic and cultural activities in different countries, Hofstede was considered one of the representative leaders of intercultural studies and research. Thanks to this, his theories have been used worldwide both in psychology and in the management of studies.

He is the author of numerous books, including Culture's Consequences and Cultures and Organizations: The Software of the Mind, co-written with his son Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov.

Hofstede's work aims to justify that there are cultural groupings at the regional and national level that affect the behavior of societies and organizations, and that are very persistent over time. He developed the so-called Six Dimensions Model to identify the cultural behaviors of each group. These dimensions are: Hierarchical Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Control of Uncertainty, Long-Term Orientation, Indulgence versus Containment.

He died at the age of ninety-one on February 12, 2020.

Hofstede's six dimensions

Hierarchical distance

The term "hierarchical distance" refers to how a society accepts the distribution of power in different institutions and organizations. Countries with low power distance favor decentralized organizations, while countries with high power distance are more accepting of centralized authority in society. It can also be defined as the degree to which 'less powerful' of a society accept the existence of different levels of authority, that is, the individuals of a culture conform and accept that power is distributed unequally. Furthermore, this dimension does not necessarily measure the distribution of power in a society but rather measures how citizens feel about it. A high score suggests that there will be individuals with much more power than others. In countries with high hierarchical distance, individuals accept inequality and the place they occupy within society, and they also know and agree with formal hierarchies. A low score reflects the view that people should have equal rights and obligations. Latin American and Arab nations are generally ranked as those that score highest in this dimension; Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian and Germanic cultures score the lowest, which means that there is equality between individuals in the community.

Individualism

Hofstede in 1980 conducted a study through surveys of employees of the multinational IBM in forty different countries. Through this study, the five dimensions were revealed, among which one of them is individualism and, in its low score, it is called collectivism. Individualism is contrasted with collectivism, and refers to the degree to which people expect to fend for themselves or, alternatively, to act primarily as a member of a group or organization; for example, the United States is one of the most individualistic societies. Furthermore, these terms indicate how human beings are willing to take care of themselves and their respective families. It must be taken into account that in a strict social framework the members of a group expect to be cared for. It is reflected with the words "I" and "we." This dimension also serves to understand how viable human behavior is in different cultures in the world. Finally, individualism and collectivism are the degree to which citizens value autonomy and commitment to the rules of society and loyalty to a group to which the individual belongs. Individualists look after their needs, value personal success and their personal interests prevail. On the other hand, collectivists share the sense of belonging within a group, collective interests are more important than personal interests, hierarchy is important and relationships with other individuals.

Masculinity

The masculine side of this dimension represents society's preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material reward for success. Society in general is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, refers to a preference for cooperation, modesty, concern for the weak, and quality of life. Society in general is more oriented towards reaching consensus. The terms “masculine” and “feminine” as social scientific concepts, as opposed to the biological terms “man” and “woman,” were however in use only on a personal level. The labels “masculine” and “feminine” have been considered politically incorrect but only in masculine cultures like the United States and the United Kingdom, not in feminine cultures like Sweden and the Netherlands. Hofstede defines the dimension as follows:

This dimension focuses on the degree to which a society emphasizes achievement or nutrition. Masculinity is the trait that emphasizes ambition, the acquisition of wealth, and distinguishes gender roles. Femininity is the trait that emphasizes caring and nurturing behaviors, equality, environmental awareness, and more fluid gender roles.

According to Hofstede, the term '"Masculinity'" is created for a society in which social gender roles are clearly different: men must be assertive and tough and focused on material success; Women should be modest and sensitive and concerned about the quality of life. The term "Femininity" is created for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Men and women should be modest, tender, and concerned about the quality of life.

Uncertainty control

When Hosftede talks about the “control of uncertainty” he does so to highlight how society manages its tolerance towards what is not certain and towards what is ambiguous, such as the future; and that is why society tries to avoid it. It reflects the degree to which a society accepts uncertainty and risks. This study also indicates to what extent men and women feel comfortable or not doing some structured activities. Hosftede created the uncertainty control index, which measures the levels of uncertainty in different countries, so that they can be compare one with the other. For example, a low score on this index shows that the population of that country is entrepreneurial, more likely to take risks and less independent; Contrary to cultures that have a high index of uncertainty control, which like stability, rules and social norms, and are not comfortable taking risks.

Long-term orientation

It refers to the importance given in a culture to the long- or short-term orientation of life in relation to any activity. It should be noted that the concepts of long-term orientation and short-term orientation address the different ways in which cultures view time and the importance of the past, present and future.

Long-term orientation focuses on virtues oriented toward future rewards. Be willing to delay short-term social success or even short-term emotional gratification to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, persistence, perseverance, savings and the ability to adapt are valued.

Short-term orientation focuses on the present or the past and considers them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy, and the fulfillment of social obligations. Immediate gratification matters more than long-term satisfaction. Cultures that demonstrate this orientation will focus their efforts and beliefs on issues related to the short term, such as preserving 'face' and the fulfillment of social obligations.

Indulgence vs. containment

This is the sixth and most recent dimension formulated by Geert Hofstede. This dimension is configured to the extent that societies and cultures value a holistic lifestyle. This impacts the extent to which people attempt to control impulses based on how they were generated, which in turn impacts the level to which they allow enjoyment or self-control. Countries such as Australia are strongly holistic, while others such as Russia or China do not agree with this formulation.

Publications

Hofstede, Geert (July 1978). "The Poverty of Management Control Philosophy". The Academy of Management Review (Academy of Management) 3 (3): 450–461. doi:10.2307/257536. JSTOR 257536.

Hofstede, Geert (July 1967). "The Game of Budget Control: How to Live with Budgetary Standards and Yet be Motivated by Them". OR (Operational Research Society) 20 (3): 388–390. JSTOR 3008751.

Hofstede, Geert (December 1983). "Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values". Administrative Science Quarterly (Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University) 28 (4): 625–629. JSTOR 2393017.

Hofstede, Geert (March 1993). "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind". Administrative Science Quarterly (Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University) 38 (1): 132–134. JSTOR 2393257.

Hofstede, Geert (March 2002). "Dimensions Do Not Exist: A reply to Brendan McSweeney". Human Relations (Sage Publications) 55 (11).

Hofstede, Geert (2010). "The GLOBE debate: Back to relevance". Journal of International Business Studies (Sage Publications) 41 (8): 1339–46. SSRN 1697436.