Galapagos Islands

The Galapagos Islands (also Galapagos Islands and officially known as the Colón Archipelago or Galápagos Archipelago) constitute an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean located 972 km off the coast of Ecuador. They were discovered in 1535 by the crew of Tomás de Berlanga's ship. It is made up of thirteen large islands with a surface area greater than 10 km², nine medium-sized islands with a surface area of between 1 km² and 10 km² and another 107 small islets, in addition to rocky promontories of a few square meters, distributed around the equator line, which together with the Malay Archipelago, are the only archipelagos on the planet that have territory in both the northern and southern hemispheres.

The Galapagos Islands are the second largest marine reserve on the planet and were declared a World Heritage Site in 1978 by Unesco. The archipelago's main source of income is tourism and receives 200,000 tourists a year. Eco-tourism has also been developed in order to preserve species. The region was the habitat of Lonesome George, the last specimen of the giant Pinta tortoise species, extinct on June 24, 2012. The islands are also habitat for species such as sea turtles, dolphins, sharks, hammerheads, whales, reefs reefs, frigate birds, iguanas, lizards, cormorants, albatrosses, sea lions, and penguins. Like the Ecuadorian landmass, the archipelago is crossed by the equator, mostly to the north of Isabela Island. Galapagos is the second most volcanically active archipelago on the planet, surpassed only by Hawaii. It falls into the category of hot spots; the most active volcanoes are Cerro Azul, Sierra Negra, Marchena and La Cumbre volcano on Fernandina Island, which is the most active in the archipelago and one of the most active in the world.

The Galapagos are known for its numerous endemic species and for the studies of Charles Darwin that led him to establish his theory of evolution by natural selection. They are called, touristically, the Enchanted Islands, a name that the archipelago earned in the XVI century for its peculiar biodiversity of flora and fauna.

It is estimated that the formation of the first island took place more than five million years ago, as a result of tectonic activity. The most recent islands, called Isabela and Fernandina, are still in the process of forming, with the most recent volcanic eruption having been recorded in 2020.

Administratively, Galapagos constitutes one of the provinces of Ecuador, made up of three cantons that bear the names of their most populated islands, namely: San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz and Isabela. On February 12, 1832, under the presidency of Juan José Flores, the Galapagos Islands were annexed to Ecuador. Since February 18, 1973 they constitute a province of this country.

History

The islands were formed 5 million years ago as a result of tectonic activity on the seabed. This island is very young.

The archipelago is one of the most active volcanic groups in the world. Many of the islands are only the tips of some volcanoes and show an advanced state of erosion. Islands like Baltra and North Seymour emerged from the ocean due to great tectonic activity.

Possible human colonization of the islands by indigenous South Americans was suspected before the arrival of the Spanish since archaeologists Thor Heyerdahl and Arne Skjolsvold found pottery fragments resembling ceramic styles from the South American continent in 1952, although studies Later studies showed that those fragments are much more recent, so this theory has been ruled out.

The Galapagos Islands were discovered by chance on March 10, 1535, when the ship of the Bishop of Panama Fray Tomás de Berlanga diverted from its destination to Peru, where he would fulfill a commission from the Spanish King Carlos V to arbitrate in a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and his subordinates after the conquest of the Inca empire.

The first maps to include the islands were made by cartographers Abraham Ortelius and Mercator around 1570. The islands were described as "Insulae de los Galopegos" (Islands of the Turtles).

The Galapagos were used by English pirates as a hideout on their voyages to pillage Spanish galleons carrying gold and silver from America to Spain. The first recorded pirate to visit the islands was the Englishman Richard Hawkins, in 1593. From then until 1816 many pirates came to the archipelago.

Newly discovered, the islands were uninhabited and the ships that passed by their location coincided when the archipelago was covered by fog. Various events led them to be known as the Enchanted Islands and even some Spanish navigators claimed that they did not exist and were only mirages.

The first scientific mission to visit the Galapagos Islands was the Malaspina expedition, a Spanish expedition led by Alejandro Malaspina that arrived in 1790. However, the records of the expedition were never published.

In the 17th century the area began to be populated when the navigator James Colnett described the place as islands rich in Flora and fauna. This attracted the first settlers, mostly English, with an interest in whales, sperm whales, sea lions and, mainly, Galapagos. The discovery of sperm blubber also attracted many whalers, leading to the creation of a makeshift post office, where ships dropped off and picked up letters. Colnett also drew the first navigational charts of the Galapagos.

In October 1831, José de Villamil sent an exploratory commission to the Galapagos archipelago in order to find out about the existence of orchilla, a plant used to dye fabrics and that was exported to Mexico. On November 14, the "Galápagos Archipelago Colonizing Society" and denounced Charles Island, later called Floreana, as vacant land.

On January 20, 1832, an expedition set out to the Galapagos under the command of Colonel Ignacio Hernández and Ecuador annexed them on February 12, 1832 under the government of General Juan José Flores, naming them the Colón Archipelago.

Charles Darwin Research

On board the Beagle ship, the British expedition under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy arrived in the Galapagos on September 15, 1835 to carry out survey and cartography work, within a list of isolated places in Europe, such as Valparaíso (Chile)., Callao, Galapagos Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, Cape Good Hope. The ship returned to Falmouth on October 2, 1836. The captain, crew, and young naturalist Charles Darwin made a scientific study of the geology and biology of four of the islands before continuing their round-the-world expedition. The ship cruised the archipelago for five weeks, but Darwin was ashore for only two weeks. He investigated the animals and plants typical of the region. The studies of this trip allowed Darwin to formulate the theory of the origin of species.

World Heritage Site

Unesco declared the Galapagos Islands as a World Heritage Site in 1979 and, six years later, as a Biosphere Reserve (1985). In 2007 UNESCO declared the Galapagos Islands as a World Heritage Site in environmental risk and was included in the List of World Heritage in Danger until 2010.

Geography and geology

Galapagos Islands - Map of 1684.

The archipelago is known by a variety of names; In Ecuador they are commonly known by their Spanish names, which are also the official ones, the old English names are only used for historical purposes. The official name of the islands is Archipiélago de Colón, while administratively the territory is known as "Galápagos Province". The most well-known and common denomination is Galapagos Islands. The first navigational chart of the islands, although rustic, was made by the buccaneer Ambrose Cowley in 1684, and in said chart he named the islands after some of his pirate friends and some English noblemen who supported the cause of the privateers..

Location and Topography

The Colón archipelago covers an area of 8,010 km² in the Pacific Ocean about 900 km west of Ecuador. The islands cover an approximate area of 59,500 km². The northwest corner of Darwin Island is 431 km southeast of Hispaniola Island.

The Galapagos Islands have 13 islands of more than 10 square kilometers and 19 islands of more than one square kilometer, likewise it is composed of several islets and reefs. The total number of islands is 234. The largest island o The largest is Isabela, with an area of 4,588 km². The five largest islands are Isabela, Santa Cruz, Fernandina, Santiago and San Cristóbal, which cover 93.2% of the total area of the archipelago. The Archipelago rises from the sea mainly along steep slopes, an example of which is the Sleeping Lion, a remarkably steep slope, which only covers 0.1 km² and reaches a height of 148 ms. no. m. The terrain of the islands is undulating, with numerous high volcanoes and craters. The highest point of the islands is the Wolf Volcano at about 1,710 m high, on Isabela Island. Only Fernandina and Santiago Islands reach heights higher than 884 meters.

The coastal strip of the archipelago has a varied topography, with cliffs and caves. On the lower shores they are rocky, jagged of various sizes; some beaches are made of sand, silt or coral remains. They are mostly sediments, the product of volcanic eruptions and ash or organic material such as shells, skeletons of sea urchins or other calcareous materials. The only permanent freshwater pool on the islands is El Junco. In addition, the islands they have many temporary pools 10 to 20 meters wide and several craters with permanent salt lakes inside.

Galapagos Islands

The following are islands larger than one square kilometer in area:

Main islets

The following are the islets with between one and one hundred hectares in area. There are many other even smaller islets, rocks and promontories

Islands

Solitary George, last specimen of the giant turtle of Pinta.

Pelicano pardo of the Galapagos (Pelecanus westernis urinator) on the island of Rábida.

Isabella Island

Named after Queen Isabella I of Castile who sponsored Columbus' voyage (its English name honors the Duke of Albemarle). It is the largest island in the archipelago, with an area of 4,588 km² and occupies 58% of the land area of the islands. The shape of the island is due to the fusion of five large volcanoes (Cerro Azul, Sierra Negra, Salcedo, Darwin and Wolf) into a single mass. It has a population of approximately 2200 inhabitants. The highest point is the Wolf Volcano, which reaches 1707 meters of altitude. On this island you can see penguins, marine iguanas, flightless cormorants, blue-footed boobies, pelicans, as well as abundant zayapas and blue sharks. On the slopes and calderas of the six volcanoes of Isabela, you can see giant tortoises and land iguanas, as well as finches, doves, hawks, bats (Lasiurus blossevillii and Aeorestes cinereus) and interesting vegetation. The third largest human settlement in the archipelago and its largest port, known as Puerto Villamil or Albemarle, is located at the southern tip of the island.

Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island.

Santa Cruz Island

Named after the Cross of Christ (its name in English is due to the military ship HMS Indefatigable). It has an area of 986 km² and a maximum altitude of 864 meters. The largest human settlement in the archipelago is located in Santa Cruz, in the town of Puerto Ayora. The Charles Darwin Research Station and the headquarters of the Galapagos National Park Service are located here. The SPNG operates a turtle breeding center where these turtles are prepared for their reintroduction into their natural habitat. The "upper part" de Santa Cruz has exuberant vegetation and is known for its lava tubes. A large population of tortoises inhabits this region. Black Turtle Cove is an area surrounded by mangroves where sea turtles, rays and small sharks use it as a mating ground. Cerro Dragón, known for its flamingo lagoon and its land iguanas, is also located on this island. It has areas for diving and surfing.

Bahía Tortuga is located on the island of Isla Santa Cruz. Puerto Ayora is about 20 minutes on foot. There is a small path 2500 meters long and you have to sign in and out at the Galapagos national park office.

Fernandina Island

Named after King Ferdinand the Catholic, who sponsored the voyage of Columbus (its name in English honors Sir John Narborough). Fernandina has an area of 642 km² and a maximum height of 1,494 meters. It is the most recent and westernmost of the islands of the archipelago. On April 11, 2009, a new eruptive process began that formed a cloud of ash and water vapor with pyroclastic flows that descended down the slopes of the volcano, until reaching the sea. Punta Espinoza is a narrow strip of land where hundreds of marine iguanas gather in large groups. The flightless cormorant inhabits this island, as well as penguins and fur seals. There are also mangrove areas. Various types of lava flows can be observed here.

Sullivan Bay on Santiago Island.

Santiago Island

Named after the patron saint of Spain, it is also known as San Salvador after the first Caribbean island discovered by Columbus. It has an area of 585 km² and a maximum height of 907 meters. Here are marine iguanas, fur seals, sea lions, land and sea turtles, dolphins and sharks. A large number of domestic animals, which were introduced with the arrival of settlers on the island, have caused great damage to the endemic flora and fauna. Darwin's finches and Galapagos hawks are frequently observed on this island. In Sullivan Bay there is a recent pahoehoe lava flow.

San Cristobal Island

Named after Christopher the martyr (his name in English is in memory of the Earl of Chatham). It is the capital of the province and has an area of 558 km² and a maximum height of 730 meters. In the southern half of the island, inside a crater in the Sierra de San Cristóbal, is the El Junco lagoon, which is the largest freshwater lake in the archipelago. It is home to a large population of birds and nearby is La Galapaguera, a refuge and breeding station for giant tortoises. Near the city of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, there is Cerro Tijeretas, a nesting colony for frigate birds, and about ten minutes by bus, is La Lobería, a colony of sea lions. In the upper part of the island is the San Cristóbal Biological Station, dedicated to the conservation of Ecuador's forests. There are also boat trips to nearby dive sites. "Sleeping Lion" represents the remains of a lava cone, now split in two. "Lobos Island" it is a nesting ground for blue-footed boobies.

View of Floreana Island.

Floreana Island

Named after the first president of Ecuador, Juan José Flores, in whose administration the archipelago was taken possession of (his name in English is that of King Charles II of England). It is also known as Santa María in honor of one of Columbus's caravels. It has an area of 173 km² and a maximum altitude of 640 meters. Between December and May, pink flamingos and sea turtles nest on this island. Here you can find a small population of Galapagos penguins and the endemic Floreana mockingbird. Interesting coral formations can be observed in the so-called "Devils Crown", which is a submerged volcanic cone.

South coast of the island Marchena.

Marchena Island

Named in honor of Fray Antonio de Marchena. It has an area of 130 km² and a maximum altitude of 343.5 meters. Although there are no sites to visit on this island, it is possible to dive in the surrounding waters. It has a great variety of flora and fauna such as flamingos and sea lions. Giant tortoises can also be observed. Marchena has an elliptical-shaped volcanic caldera approximately 7 km long by 6 km wide, classified as large within the range of caldera sizes.

Hispanic Island

Named for the first city in America (its English name honors Viscount Samuel Hood). With its 60 km², it is one of the smaller islands that make up the Galapagos archipelago, and it is the oldest of all, since it is around 3.5 million years old. Although uninhabited, several interesting animal species live here, such as the endemic Española mockingbird, blue-footed booby, Galapagos turtle dove, swallow-tailed gull, marine iguana, and lava lizard. Among the visitors, Gardner Bay, which has a beach recognized for its beauty, and Punta Suárez, of interest for bird watching, are especially popular.

Pinta Island

Named after one of Columbus's caravels (its English name is dedicated to the Count of Abingdon). It is the northernmost island of the Galapagos and the ninth largest in the archipelago. It has an area of 60 km² and a maximum altitude of 780 meters. Here you can observe swallow-tailed gulls, marine iguanas, fur seals and Galápagos hawks. The famous tortoise, "Lonesome George", the last known specimen of the species Chelonoidis abingdonii, originated from this island. One of the most active volcanoes is also located here.

Panoramic view of the Itabaca Canal, with Baltra on the right and Santa Cruz on the left.

Baltra Island

The origin of its name is unknown, in English it owes its name to the British sailor Lord Hugh Seymour. It has an area of 27 km² and a maximum altitude of 100 meters. It houses the main airport of the archipelago, which was built during World War II by the United States Navy to "patrol" the Panama Canal. Land iguanas were reintroduced to this island after this native species was completely eliminated by United States soldiers stationed here. Throughout the island there are still vestiges of the soldiers' barracks. Some of them after having retired return as tourists. On the island there is a lot of wild desert flora, mostly populated with cacti. Planes arrive from the airport from the continental part of the country, buses leave every 10 minutes at the cost of 5 dollars to the canal and the port. There are dozens of points to practice surfing, snorkeling or diving, with the prior permission of the Ecuadorian Navy. There is a second out-of-service airport that also dates from World War II. Between Baltra Island and Santa Cruz Island, is the Itabaca Channel, used by water taxis that take people between the islands. The boats operate offshore to take people to other islands in the Galapagos.

Santa Fe Island

Named in honor of the Capitulations of Santa Fe, in which Christopher Columbus was granted the titles of Major Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy and Governor General of the lands he discovered (his name in English is in honor of the Admiral Samuel Barrington). It has an area of 24 km² and a maximum altitude of 259 meters. Santa Fe has a forest of Opuntia cacti, which are the largest in the archipelago, and of palo santo. It has a colorful turquoise lagoon and calm waters where you can snorkel with sea lions. Its coastal cliffs are home to swallow-tailed gulls, storm petrels, and other tropical birds. The Santa Fe land iguana, endemic to the island, lives in large numbers as do the lava lizard and some surviving populations of shore mouse (one of the few land mammals on the Galapagos Islands).

Finch Island

Named after the Pinzón brothers, captains of the caravels La Pinta and La Niña in the first expedition of Christopher Columbus (their name in English reminds Viscount Duncan). It has an area of 18 km² and a maximum altitude of 458 meters. It has no sites to visit and a special permit from the authorities is required to enter. The main forest species are on the island, in the humid zone, there is a unique species of the so-called daisy tree. Pinzón is home to sea lions, giant tortoises, marine iguanas and dolphins, as well as other endemic species.

Genovesa Island

Named after the city of Genoa (Italy), the probable birthplace of Columbus. It has an area of 14 km² and a maximum altitude of 76 meters. The horseshoe-shaped island has a volcanic caldera whose wall has collapsed, resulting in the formation of Great Darwin Bay, surrounded by cliffs. Saltwater-filled Lake Arcturus sits in the center, and the sediments within this crater lake are less than 6,000 years old. Although no historical eruptions are known from Genovesa, there are very young lava flows on the flanks of the volcano. It is known as "Bird Island", because of the large and varied colonies of birds that nest here. There are an abundance of frigate birds, swallow-tailed gulls, lava gulls, petrels, tropical birds, Darwin's finches and Galapagos mockingbirds. The site called "El Barranco" It constitutes a magnificent plateau for observing these birds, especially masked and red-footed boobies. There is also a large forest of palo santo.

Rábida Island

Named after the Monastery of La Rábida where Columbus left his son during the voyage of discovery to America (his name in English is due to Admiral Jervis). It has an area of 4.9 km² and a maximum altitude of 367 meters. The high iron content of the Rábida lava causes the island to have a characteristic reddish color. The landscape is littered with small volcanic craters along the slopes and sharp cliffs. Occasionally flamingos and sea lions can be seen in a saltwater lagoon near the beach, where pelicans and boobies build their nests. Nine species of finches have been recorded on this island. The rich fauna attracts countless cruise ship tourists.

Rocky Coast Section of North Seymour Island.

North Seymour Island

Named after the English nobleman Lord Hugh Seymour. It has an area of 1.9 km² and a maximum altitude of 28 meters. The entire island is covered with low, dense vegetation, and has a visitor's track about 2 km long that crosses the island's road and allows you to explore the rocky coastline. A large population of blue-footed boobies and swallow-tailed gulls is found on this island. There are also countless land iguanas, which were introduced from Baltra Island, and which served to repopulate the island with this species. It is also possible to observe a large number of frigates and sea lions with their young.

Wolf Island

Named after the German geologist Theodor Wolf. It has an area of 1.3 km² and a maximum height of 100 meters. It is located away from the main group of islands and has no permanent population, so it is not accessible for visiting on land, however it is a popular place for diving. It was formerly known as Wenman Island. Fur seals, marine iguanas and green turtles inhabit here. Among the birds found on this island are the frigate bird, the red-footed booby, and the vampire finch. The island's marine life includes hammerhead sharks, Galapagos sharks, and the occasional whale shark, as well as dolphins, manta rays, and other pelagic fish.

Turtle Island

Tortuga Island is located 2 km south of Isabela Island. It has an area of 1.3 km² and a maximum height of 100 meters. This island is an ancient volcanic caldera, only half of which remains above water. The dive site is on the northeast side of the island, gradually descending out of sight into the depths of the Pacific. Between 20 and 30 meters, you can see hammerhead sharks, Galapagos sharks and eagle rays. Also blacktip reef sharks frequent the area. It is one of the main nesting sites for seabirds in the Galapagos. The possibility of sightings of sea turtles, manta rays and sea lions is also an incentive to do tourism on this island.

Twin bays, Bartolome Island.

The Arc de Darwin is less than 1 km from Darwin Island before it collapsed by erosion.

Bartolome Island

Named after Sir Bartholomew Sulivan of the British Navy. It has an area of 1.2 km² and a maximum altitude of 114 meters. This island offers some of the most beautiful landscapes in the archipelago. The island is made up of an extinct volcano and a variety of red, orange, green and glowing black volcanic formations. Galapagos lava cacti colonize the new lava fields. On this island is the famous Pinnacle, which is one of the most representative places in the archipelago. Here you can dive and snorkel with penguins, sea lions, white tip reef sharks and other tropical fish. Seasonally, Bartolomé is the mating and nesting site for the green turtle. The bay is also an excellent place to go swimming. The twin bays are separated by a narrow isthmus.

Darwin Island

Named after Charles Darwin, who made the islands world famous. It has an area of 1.1 km² and a maximum height of 168 meters. This island is not open for land visits, the only visitors are those who come to dive. Marine life in Darwin is diverse, with the island's waters attracting whale sharks from June to November, as well as hammerheads, Galapagos sharks, silky sharks, and blacktip sharks. You can also find fur seals, sea lions, dolphins and whales. The island is home to a large bird population, including frigate birds, red-footed boobies, swallow-tailed gulls, and the vampire finch.

Training

The Galapagos Islands are located in the northern part of the Nazca plate, moving slowly to the northeast, about 5 centimeters per year. When the islands formed, they were about 200 km from the mainland coast, at the current rate of Displacement The archipelago is predicted to sink into the Peru-Chile trench in about 20 million years.

The Galapagos have been defined as a <<hotspot>>, a place of great volcanic activity that cannot be explained by the mutual action of plate edges. The Galapagos hotspot is located to the west of the archipelago. It stays in place, so the archipelago moves away from it, allowing new islands to emerge in a hot spot.

The islands in the eastern part of the archipelago are furthest from the hot spot and are the oldest of the group of islands, but from a geological point of view they are relatively younger, estimated to have formed between 3 and 6 million years ago. years. The seamounts located west of San Cristóbal have been on the surface for 14 million years. The prehistory of the islands dates back to 80-90 million years ago when the hot spot was formed. The western part of the island was the last to form, and the youngest islands are less than a million years old. They still have active volcanic activity.

Satellite image of the Wolf volcano on Isabela Island. The last eruption of this volcano occurred in 2015.

Volcanic Activity

Lava tunnel on Santa Cruz Island.

The islands are individual volcanic peaks, but Isabela Island is made up of six peaks. The larger islands are the products of volcanic eruptions, although Baltra and Santa Fe islands are fault block uplift, with no central volcanoes.

The main characteristic of the volcanoes in the Galapagos is that they are shield-shaped that generally present basaltic eruptions, however, there are two types of volcanoes in the archipelago, and they differ from each other apparently by the thickness of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is older and thicker on the western side of the fault zone, which runs approximately along the 91st meridian of west longitude, than on its eastern side. In the western part of the archipelago, the Isabela and Fernandina volcanoes are shaped like an inverted bowl. This is a rather unusual volcanic shape. The mountain grows laterally from its roots and upwards from its top. The western peaks are also characterized by their calderas, which are large relative to the size of the mountain, the most prominent being on Isabela.

Earthquakes and eruptions are common on the islands. More than 50 volcanic eruptions have been recorded since the early 19th century. The islands present other signs of volcanic activity such as fumaroles, lava tubes, sulfur fields, and pumice. One of the most notable characteristics of the volcanoes in the Galapagos are their parasitic cones; there are about 2,000 of them on the slopes of the 20 largest mountains, and many of them still erupt.

The bedrock of the islands is of volcanic origin and is mostly made up of basalt, although there is also rhyolite to a lesser extent.

Surrounding Sea

These satellite maps show the concentration of chlorophyll (which corresponds to the abundance of phytoplankton) during El Niño (above) and La Niña (below). Blue represents low concentrations, yellow, orange and red indicate high concentrations. The currents that usually fertilize phytoplankton are invested during El Niño, which is the effect of which it leads to sterile oceans. These same currents are reinforced by La Niña, and produces an explosion of ocean life.

The islands are entirely maritime, with the Galapagos continental shelf averaging 914 meters below sea level and a surrounding sea averaging 3,048 meters deep.

The sea that surrounds the archipelago is influenced by three surface currents and a deeper marine one. The South Equatorial Current is one of the most important marine currents in the tropical Pacific Ocean and runs on both sides of the equator. This current runs to the west of the islands and collects surface water from the entire archipelago. This in turn receives warm waters from the Panama Current and cold waters from the Humboldt Current. The warm El Niño or Panama current mainly affects the northern islands, while the cold Humboldt or Peru current affects the central and southern islands of the archipelago.

The south equatorial current is balanced by the deeper Cromwell current, which flows to the east and which, when colliding with the islands, especially Isabela, causes upwelling, that is, the various nutrients that the Cold water leads to surface waters. This phytoplankton-rich water makes the sea remarkably productive. Trade winds from the Cromwell Current also cause the phenomenon. Westerly winds blow warm water away from the islands, so cold water rises to the surface.

Marine waters are constantly influenced by the climatic phenomena of El Niño and La Niña. During El Niño, the Cromwell current weakens, reduces or even eliminates upwelling. As a consequence, surface waters warm up, reducing the availability of macronutrients and therefore the abundance of fish.

The lower image shows the temperature of the surface of the sea, the cold flowering waters are coloured in purple. Floretent phytoplankton populations are indicated by the high concentrations of chlorophyll (high image), coloured in green and yellow.

Climate

The climate of the archipelago is strongly influenced by the complex system of ocean currents that surround it, which is divided into two seasons. The cold Humboldt Current influences the dry season from May to December. From June to November, the drizzles are practically continuous and cover the islands with fog. The warm current of Panama, on the other hand, brings the rainy season from December to May. During this period, more intense rains occur; in March, rainfall manages to reach 80 millimeters, while in August only about 5 millimeters.

The air becomes warm from January to April, when the average daily temperature is around 26-28 °C. In March, the temperature can rise to 30 °C. During the rainy season, the temperatures in the western part of the archipelago can drop to 14 °C, while temperatures in the group of islands remain below 24 °C.

The prevailing wind on the islands blows from the southeast all year round. This causes the southern and southeastern slopes of the islands to be more humid due to the formation of mist and drizzle. On the other hand, the northern slopes of the islands are dry almost all year round. The force of the wind is weaker in the months of February to May with speeds that can reach 8.4 knots quite regularly.

On the larger islands, the pattern of generally wet highlands and drier lowlands affects the flora. The vegetation of the highlands is usually green and lush, with tropical forests in some places. The lowlands tend to have arid and semi-arid vegetation, with many thorny shrubs and cacti, and almost bare volcanic rock elsewhere.

Administrative division

The archipelago forms the Province of Galapagos, whose capital is Puerto Baquerizo Moreno. It is made up of three cantons:

• San Cristobal
• Santa Cruz
• Isabela

Conservation

Galapagos National Park

The Galapagos were declared a national park in 1959, protecting 97.5% of the land surface of the archipelago. The remaining area is occupied by human settlements that already existed at the time of the declaration. By then, approximately 1,000 to 2,000 people lived on four islands. In 1972 a census determined that 3,488 people lived in the Galapagos, but by the 1980s this number had increased remarkably to more than 20,000 inhabitants.

In 1986 the sea surrounding the islands was declared a marine reserve. Unesco included Galapagos on the list of World Heritage Sites in 1978, and in December 2001 this declaration was extended to the marine reserve.

In 2007, they were included in the List of World Heritage Sites in danger, due to mass tourism and invasive species. On July 29, 2010, the Galapagos Islands were removed from the list of endangered heritage sites by the UNESCO Heritage Committee.

The archipelago has different international figures that have been applied to try to guarantee the conservation of Galapagos; Among them: Natural Heritage Reserve of Humanity, Ramsar Site, Whale Sanctuary, Biosphere Reserve, etc. The World Strategy for the Conservation of Nature identifies Galapagos as a priority Biogeographic province for the establishment of protected areas. At the national level, the figures of the national park and Marine Reserve reflect the commitment assumed by the Ecuadorian Government to preserve this important legacy for future generations of Galapagos, Ecuadorians and for humanity in general.

Flora and fauna

Singularly important endemic species that inhabit the islands include:

Flora

Giant cactus (Opuntia echiosSome kind of arid area, Santa Fe.

The vegetation of the Galapagos varies with altitude, because the highlands receive more humidity than the lower areas on the coast. Most of the islands are in the zone of dry or semi-arid vegetation, and only a small portion of the territory is covered by tropical vegetation towards the highlands, the flora includes some 500 species of native vascular plants and more than 180 of them they are native.

Forest Scalesia, transition zone, Santa Cruz.

Salt-tolerant species grow especially along the coastal strip and in the littoral zone. Among the most notable are four species of mangroves, which grow especially in calm lagoons. In the beach area the shrubs of Maytenus octagona and Cryptocarpus pyriformis are common, among the coastal herbaceous plants are Sesuvium edmonstonei and Ipomoea pes-caprae, an important plant for retention of sand dune expansion.

The arid zone is a semi-desert. It represents the largest vegetation zone in the Galapagos with an average altitude of 80-200 meters above sea level. The genera Jasminocereus and Brachycereus are endemic cacti, as well as species of the genus Opuntia (Opuntia echios and O. helleri). A typical species of the area is the palo santo (Bursera graveolens); but there is a smaller species, B. malacophylla which is distributed only on Seymour, Baltra and Daphne islands. Other trees in this area are the endemic guayabillo (Psidium galapageium) and the paga paga (Pisonia floribunda). The woody shrubs make up the lower levels of the vegetative strata of this area. The Castela galapageia, Lecocarpus pinnatifidus and other species of the genus Lecocarpus are endemic. Herbaceous plants include several endemic varieties of Galápagos tomatoes (Lycopersicon cheesmanii), passion flower (Passiflora foetida) and endemic species of the genus Tiquilia and Chamaesyce.

The humid zone begins at 300 meters, preceded by a transition zone or Scalesia and Miconia transition zone between the dry and humid zone, this transition zone presents a combination of vegetation types and species, including species such as Pisonis floribunda, Psidium galapageium and P. Galapageium with Scalesia trees. Drizzle mists keep this area moist during the dry season. Within this zone separate phases of vegetation have developed. These are very small strata within the humid zone, but they are exuberant and tropical as a result of the greater humidity received. From 300-500 m altitude, the stratum dominated by Scalesia spp. emerges from the transition zone, with trees that reach 5-15 m in height. Twenty different species have been documented within the genus Scalesia, called <<the plant kingdom's version of Darwin's finches>> They are scattered throughout the islands and vary in size. Cat's claw (Zanthoxylum fagara) is an abundant species, mainly above Scalesia but below Miconia, it partially acts as transition within the species of the humid zone. On the islands of San Cristóbal and Santa Cruz, the trees are replaced by shrubs, the dominant species between 600-700m above the zone is Miconia robinsoniana, but now this zone is almost completely altered by agriculture and cattle grazing.

The pampas area is the area with the highest and wettest vegetation. above 900m. Grasses, rushes, mosses of the genus Sphagnum and other plants adapted to swampy environments grow there. Pampa is also home to most of the ferns in the archipelago (90 different species), and endemic tree ferns such as the Cyathea weatherbyana that can reach a height of up to three meters, 11 species of orchids have been recorded native species including Purthieva maculata.

Wildlife

Reptiles

Iguana marina.

Galapagos giant caterpillar, Chelonoidis porteri on the island of Santa Cruz, a species in critical danger of extinction.

The Galapagos Islands have an especially high diversity of endemic reptiles, with 21 of the 23 unique species not found elsewhere. The giant Galapagos tortoises is a good example of the diversity of reptile species on the islands. There are still 11 subspecies that live in slightly different conditions on the islands. There are three species of snakes, five species of geckos, three land iguanas of the genus Conolophus, and one marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). In February 2019, it was found in the islands a species of Fernandina giant tortoises, Chelonoidis phantasticus, thought to be extinct, having been last recorded in 1906. The female found may be more than 100 years old.

Endemic reptiles

• Galapagos Tortugas (belonging to the genus Chelonoidis), 14 species of turtles of which three were extinguished in the centuryXIX and one was extinguished on June 24, 2012, his last copy was the Solitary individual George. There are still ten species of giant turtles (Galápago or turtle of the Galapagos).
• Iguanas terrestrial (Conolophus), three species of iguanas among which are the Conolophus subcristatus, the Conolophus pallidus and the Conolophus marthae.
• Iguana marina (Iguana marina)Amblyrhynchus cristatus), the only species of iguana that procures its food at sea.
• Lagartos de Lava (Lava)Microlophus albemarlensis), of these small lizards there are six different species, some only occupy specific islands.

Fish

The Galapagos Islands have 306 species of fish. All are marine fish, but six have also been found in the fresh waters of the islands. Shark species in the region include the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), hammerhead shark, blacktip shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), and whale shark (Rhincodon typus). There are several species of hammerhead shark, and a rare breeding area for the comb shark (Hexanchus griseus) has been found in the coastal waters of the Galapagos Islands. Among the species of rays are the giant manta (Mobula birostris), the eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) and the devil ray (Mobula munkiana). The most common bony fish are Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus and Abudefduf troschelii of the reef-dwelling group of fishes, the hornfish, Cirrhitus rivulatus from the group of hawkfish, and the wedgefish (Holacanthus passer). In addition, a variety of swordfish, lipped fish, and parrotfish are found in the waters of the islands.

Mammals

Marine lion of the Galapagos

The diversity of mammals on the islands is not very varied due to the isolation of the archipelago. Four of the seven endemic rat species have already gone extinct. The last three species live in Santa Fe and Fernandina. Whales thrive in the waters of the Galapagos Islands, especially in the area between Isabela and Fernandina, where spawning is abundant. The Bryde's Whale (Balaenoptera edeni) is the most common whale species in the Galapagos Islands. Other species found in the area are the sperm whale, the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), the orca (Orcinus orca) and the sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), which migrate to the warm waters of the Galápagos during the winter. There are two species of dolphins that are common and easy to see: the nose bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis).

Endemic mammals

• Galapagos sea lion or Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki), related to the California sea lion (also described as Zalophus californianus wollebaekia California sea lion subspecies.
• Balloon of the Galapagos or the fine wolf of Galapagos (Arctophoca galapagoensis), which is the smallest in the world (Salazar 2002).
• Coastal Rat of Galapagos (Aegialomys galapagoensis)
• Giant Raton of Galapagos (Megaoryzomys) an extinct species
• Dawin Island Rat (Nesoryzomys darwini)
• Rata de la island fernandina (Nesoryzomys fernandinae)
• Rat of the Holy Cross Island (Nesoryzomys indefessus)
• Racer Santiago Galapagos(Nesoryzomys swarthi)

Birds

Two Galapagos peacocks.

The islands are home to about 60 species of permanent birds and 81 regular migratory birds, a relatively small number in the tropics. However, almost half of these species are endemic. The archipelago has 19 species of permanent seabirds, five of them endemic. There are 29 species of land birds in the Galapagos Islands. Their common characteristic is their lack of fear towards humans.

Endemic birds

• Galapagos penguin or Galapagos bobo bird (Spheniscus mendiculus), the only species of penguin that has been registered in the northern hemisphere, in the northern portion of Isabela Island.
• Darwin's finches, 13 endemic species of finches, the best known, is a kind of vampire bird that nourishes itself from the blood of sick birds, which dwells on the island more north of the archipelago, Wolf.
• Synopsis of the Galapagos (Nesomimus), 4 endemic species of synthesis, of which stands out the Synsonte of Galapagos (Nesomimus parvulus) which is present in almost all the islands of the archipelago and which is also the only unprotected species.
• Cormorandum not flying or cormorant of the Galapagos (Phalacrocorax harrisi).
• Plump or dwarf claw of the Galapagos (Butorides sundevalli).
• Papamoscas or Copeton of the Galapagos (Myiarchus magnirostris).
• Cernícalo o gavilán de las Galápagos (Buteo galapagoensis).
• Zenaida or totola of the Galapagos (Zenaida galapagoensis).
• Chicken or dork of the Galapagos (Laterallus spilonotus).
• Brunette seagull or lava seagull (Larus fuliginosus).
• Golondrina of the Galapagos (Progne modesta).
• Wavy basils or albatross of the Galapagos (Phoebastria irrorata).
• Grey lighter brown or petrel of the Galapagos (Pterodroma phaeopygia).
• Seagull or seagull of the Galapagos (Creagrus furcatus).
• Pattern of the Galapagos (Puffinus subalaris).
• Buho campestre of the Galapagos (Asio flammeus galapagoensis)
• American Ostrero of the Galapagos (Haematopus palliatus galapagoensis).
• Pelicans of the Galapagos (Pelecanus westernis urinator).

Invertebrates

La carpenter bee of Galapagos (Xylocopa darwini) is the only species of native bee of the islands.

More than 2,000 terrestrial invertebrates have been identified in the Galapagos Islands. More than half of the invertebrate species are endemic. The number of invertebrate species is small, with more than a million in the Ecuadorian mainland. On the islands there are more than 400 species of beetles, some 80 species of arthropods and about 100 species of flies. Hymenoptera are underrepresented compared to other invertebrates. There are about 60 species. The most common butterflies are Phoebis sennae and Eumorpha labruscae. In addition to butterflies, there is a species of grasshopper Schistocerca melanocera.

The Galapagos Islands are home to more than 50 species of spiders and two species of scorpions. In addition to venomous spiders, the islands are home to a native venomous myriapod Scolopendra galapagoensis, while the snail genus Bulimulus has diversified from a single invasive species to more of 60 species.

Among the aquatic invertebrates, there are more than 100 species of crabs, Grapsus grapsus, hermit crabs, among other species that also inhabit the coasts of the islands. Other marine species are cod (Gadus morhua), sea urchins such as the pencil urchin (Eucidaris galapagensis), sea cucumbers (Isostichopus fuscus), starfish, molluscs and fungi.

Tourism

Hiking on Isabela Island.

Galapagos has become one of the most popular marine ecosystems in the world and thousands of tourists come year after year to enjoy a natural paradise. In 2019, Galapagos registered 271,238 visitors or tourists, 67% were foreigners. This represented a reduction of 1.7% compared to 2018, although data from recent years show a compound growth rate between 2010 and 2019 of 5.10%.

Diving trips have become one of the claims of the islands and many media classify it as the best place to dive in the world. Underwater tourism has grown in recent years and many divers choose the Ecuadorian islands to enjoy the dozens of marine species that are home to its waters.

Illegal fishing

During 2020, the Ecuadorian government denounced the presence of fishing boats of Chinese origin near the waters that bathe the islands. A fleet of 260 boats roam the border to capture all kinds of marine species, among which sharks stand out for their coveted fin.

In fiction

The Galapagos Islands have been the setting for several works in different literary genres, both by Ecuadorian and foreign writers. One of the most notorious examples is The Enchanted Ones, by the American Herman Melville, a book that was written based on Melville's travels in the Galapagos and that describes in a series of stories the historical figures, the flora and the fauna of the islands. Other works by foreign authors whose plots are located in the archipelago include the novels Thirst (1938), by the Belgian Georges Simenon, in which a family moves to Floreana Island but whose lives change with the construction of a hotel; and Galapagos (1985), by American Kurt Vonnegut, a science fiction work set a million years in the future in which a group of people who arrive on the islands become the only humans to escape a virus that causes infertility.

Among Ecuadorian authors, one of the most outstanding works is Más allá de las islas (1980), by Alicia Yánez Cossío from Quito. In the novel, which mixes fiction with real events through magical realism, eight people travel to the Galapagos Islands after escaping death. On the poetry side, the Sob for Pedro Jara, by Efraín Jara Idrovo, is notorious, while in children's literature, the Galapagos have been explored by Edna Iturralde in her work The islands where The Moon is Born. Another Ecuadorian novel set in the archipelago is Found in the Crack (2012), by Jorge Velasco Mackenzie from Guayaquil.

In the cinema it has been the setting for films such as Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World.