Fashion
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Fashion (from the French mode and from the Latin modus 'mode, measure') is a set of clothing items, ornaments and accessories based on tastes, uses and customs that are used by a majority during a certain period of time and that will set a trend depending on the duration of it.
General considerations
Theories on vertical transmission
Thorstein Veblen and Bourdieu
In his work The Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen relates how fashion is a tool that the upper class uses to differentiate itself from the rest of the classes, fundamentally from the lower classes. The beauty and symbolism of leisure; related to being wealthy, sobriety and the effectiveness of the garments of the lower and industrial classes, they are confronted. Bourdieu calls this distinctive practices: the manifestation of the class struggle, in this case symbolic, whose objective is to perpetuate the inequality between them.
The vertical diffusion of tastes is the mechanism by which, Veblen argues, fashion is transmitted from one class to another, since every class imitates the one immediately above it. The members belonging to a certain class can identify with each other by being on the same level and differ from others by having a barrier that separates them.
Theories on horizontal transmission
Simmel believes that fashion is simply. A tool that individuals use to free themselves from the anguish of choice, by being able to easily consider themselves a member of a group. Individuality demands a series of responsibilities that are diluted in the group and forces the subjects to defend themselves by their own forces (from symbolic attacks, that is). Fashion would be, in this case, a mechanism that responds to a social need and, therefore, an ultimate purpose cannot be sought.
The greater the difficulty of individuals in differentiating, the more feverish is the symbolic combat of distinction-imitation that takes place between different classes, demanding this, in turn, more changes that happen at a greater speed to satisfy this demand. And here, the productive system responds with greater obsolescence.
Keynes and the Beauty Pageant
Keynes devised the metaphor of the beauty pageant to explain the functioning of the stock markets, but it also serves to explain the functioning of fashion from the perspective of horizontal transmission.
Let's imagine a contest in which we must choose among six faces the one that we consider will be the most voted. If we are perceptive, we will realize that we should not choose based on our particular taste, nor on the taste of the majority. Assuming that the rest of the contestants are just as perceptive as we are, we must choose the face based on what we think others will think. It is a game of I think that he thinks that I think without end. The problem it raises is that it's impossible to guess the result with certainty. Will others choose based on their individual taste? From the average of particular tastes? Or will they choose thinking about the strategies of other participants? In short, all people, even if they don't know it, participate in a beauty contest.
Criticism
The intention of certain individuals to separate themselves from the dominant fashion trends generally creates a new trend due to its differentiating character. (Simmel).
The propagation of a fashion trend necessarily leads to its failure. All widely accepted fashion loses its appeal by ceasing to be a differentiating element.
History of fashion in the clothing industry
16th century
During the Italian Renaissance it was customary for the male gender to wear a short cape without a hood, a mortarboard, a hat with feathers, and blunt-toed and wide-toed shoes. The women, on the other hand, wore puffs and slashes on the sleeves, and a ruffled ruff; in addition to skirts and overskirts, doublets and bodices, capes or rosy cloaks and a cap for the head.
From the second half of the century, the growing importance of the Spanish monarchy imposed in Europe the style of the court of Emperor Carlos I of Spain, a style of great sobriety, characterized by the use of dark colors and tight-fitting garments, without wrinkles or folds and rigid appearance, especially in women, in which the use of the verdugado is imposed. A cord was placed on the upper edge of the shirt that would give rise to the ruff or lechuguilla.
17th century
During this period, French fashion dominated both men and women. Short breeches were used with silk stockings, a jacket and a jacket that, in the middle of the century, became smaller and with side pleats at the back and narrow sleeves.
With the fall of the French dynasty, the simple suit returned and they wore tight breeches up to the knee, a vest, tie and jacket, high-necked skirts with flares, powdered wigs finished off with a bow, and even three-cornered hats or two spikes.
After the revolution, their hair is left long and straight, they wear hats with high conical or tube crowns, with short brims and later shoes with colored heels to which bows or buckles are added and high boots with cuffs. The woman dresses in wide and flattened bainners or verdugados on both fronts, a corseted bodice and neckline with gauze or lace, polonaise, gowns with a lace collar and long sleeves. The French costume consists of a pointed bodice, dented sleeves, straight and open skirts, which are draped with a stowaway and long train, a folded collar, and elbow-length sleeves with frills. Along with the revolution, the flare of the skirt disappeared and classic garments were imitated: high waist, short jacket with long sleeves, skirt with pleats, deep necklines, shawls and long gloves. As for the hairstyle, this is backwards with curls that later become taller and more voluminous with ringlets, bows and feathers, bonnets and wide-brimmed hats. The type of footwear is normally high-heeled shoes with a pointed toe, although later low ones began to be worn.
18th century
In the 18th century, the French jackets and jackets stand out as masculine garments, that is, lower-class and somewhat narrow jackets, jackets, tight-fitting knee breeches, ties instead of ruffs, wigs and the big hats Meanwhile, women's clothing continues the same style as in the last century and the use of mantillas for the head is adopted. They also wore long dresses, large hats and, above all, in high society, women were characterized by wearing a corset, which was a way of demonstrating their height. They also wore rings, and sometimes long gloves or necklaces, among others.
19th century
During this century, the tailcoat, frock coat, and trousers were typical for gentlemen, and the silk mantilla and combs for ladies in Spain.
Once the Napoleonic era ended, from 1800 to 1820, in which the female silhouette was slender and with an always high waist, tight just below the chest, leaving the rest of the garment to fall straight over the body; there was a drastic change in Romanticism, giving way to the corset, which gave the waist the shape of an hourglass, and the crinoline, which puffed out the full skirts and which reached its apogee in the 1860s, causing ladies to be unable to walk on the street. arm of her husband or fiancé. In 1870, it was replaced by the bustle, which only hollowed out the skirt at the back and which fell out of fashion in 1890, the garment then falling to the floor without any frame, although until 1900 the skirts were somewhat flared.
Between 1820 and 1914, there was a clear distinction in western women's clothing between day dresses, always with long sleeves, although they could be up to the elbow in summer, and closed up to the neck; and evening dresses, always short-sleeved and very low-cut.
20th century
1900s
20th century fashion begins in the year 1900 with the so-called S silhouette, known in this way due to the corset that pushed the breasts up, narrowed the waist, and the skirts fitted at the hips, which flared out in the shape of a bell. upon reaching the ground. In the world of work, tailored suits and cuts with a masculine influence for women began to be incorporated. The dresses were still long, even covering the shoes. Feathers and lace were all the rage; The big hats stood out, with an infinity of decorations and ornaments. This fashion was followed mostly by the upper and middle classes. In 1908, the silhouette became much more straight, without marking as much the waist, and a wave of orientalism took place thanks to the designs of Paul Poiret and the Russian ballets.
1910s
In this decade there are two periods. The first, from 1905 until the beginning of the First World War, characterized for being the appendage of the ornate fashion typical of the Belle Époque, as well as for the appearance of a silhouette that tends towards verticality in women and Orientalism. Straight and long corsets and low-flying skirts accompanied by an overskirt become fashionable, in addition, daytime skirts are shortened to the ankles, exposing the shoes. The second, throughout the entire conflict, is characterized by the appearance of much more comfortable fashions for women: the skirts continue to shorten to almost mid-calf and the bodies follow the natural line of the body, without a corset. This was due to the need for women to make up for the lack of labor in the jobs previously held by men. Because of this comfort in clothing, the androgynous fashion of the twenties will be born later.
1920s
In the 1920s, clothing began to serve a much more practical purpose. The silhouette changes again, lowering the waist until it is marked on the hips. The jacket suit became popular as street clothes and dresses with deep necklines on the back as well as long fur coats were chosen for parties. The short skirts up to the knee and the sober and closed hats -cloché- stand out, in addition, the women leave their hair short for the first time.
During this decade, ladies traded in their white looks for the natural look of pink face powder, created by Polish cosmetologist Helena Rubinstein. The 1920s were one of the most revolutionary periods of the 20th century in this sense, as women adopted the custom of putting on makeup, keeping compacts and lipstick in their bags for touch-ups. Until then, the only ones who wore makeup were artists and prostitutes. Young women came out in the open and began drinking and smoking in public as a way to challenge the rigid status that reigned at the turn of the century.
The most fashionable girls painted their lips red, wore short hair and dark shadows on their eyes, and used to dance jazz until dawn. This was probably the most daring and transgressive decade. It was a time of change that affected all aspects of culture and had a strong impact on fashion.
1930s
Optimism ended with the stock market crash in October 1929, which caused a serious global economic crisis for the next few years. In 1930, the waist was once again marked in its natural place and the skirts were lengthened to below the knee. He returned femininity, ornaments on clothes, hats and hair abandons the garçon style for slightly longer and wavy hairstyles. From 1935 the shoulders are usually marked, giving the silhouette an inverted triangle appearance.
From 1940 to 1945
During World War II, fashion was defined as austere and simple: the look became militarized and the fabrics became poor due to the scarcity of materials. Therefore, women dressed in city uniform, that is, jacket suits. The length of the skirts continued below the knees, but the scarcity of materials was so great that laws were imposed that regulated this length. Given their cost, not all women could afford stockings. Tights became popular, cork topolino shoes and very simple hats or simply headscarves were used.
1945s and 1950s
The early post-war years brought women back to the home, to housework and to thinking about themselves again. After years of anguish, worries and a lot of work, the woman was able to live in the tranquility of her home, indulge herself and be flirtatious. The world left a stage behind and fashion did too. Since then, the woman returned to worry about her beauty, her aesthetics and her clothing. That is why the fashion of the 50s stands out for the return of splendor.
In 1947, after the triumph of Christian Dior's New Look, the hourglass silhouette became popular: a narrow waist with voluminous curves. To exaggerate this silhouette, cone-shaped bras and form-fitting corsets were worn. The flight of the skirts was increased, whose length continued below the knees. The woman wanted frivolity, and she craved feminine clothing that didn't look like a civilian version of military uniforms. She wanted to be sensual again, but without being too provocative; The curves thus became the new symbol of feminine beauty. She always had to wear makeup correctly, and the use of accessories such as stiletto-heeled shoes, gloves, headdresses, hats, elbow bags... The most used fabrics were different types of silk and tulle. The main objective was to give a greater volume to the woman's hips and achieve a wasp waist.
The most notable designers of this era were Christian Dior, Coco Chanel, Cristóbal Balenciaga, Justin Carrillo Herrera, Elsa Chiaparelli, Hubert de Givenchy, Jacques Fath, Nina Ricci and Pierre Cardin.
1960s
This decade is notable for revolution. Comfortable and youthful clothing was once again used, following the natural line of the body and leaving bourgeois luxury behind. The habitual use of hats and dress gloves is abandoned. From 1966, extravagant clothing became fashionable, with a print of butterflies, flowers, pop-art or ethnic. The silhouettes became smoother again and the revolutionary miniskirts, short to the thigh, which were born in London in 1965 by the designer Mary Quant, began to be rapidly imposed among young women all over the world.
1970s
In the 1970s, teens had the ability to express themselves freely. This is how the concept of different, original, fun and extravagant clothing arose. Hair was worn short, long, or in geometric cuts. Both men and women began to wear flared pants and cotton blouses, among others, became the norm.
It was a very diverse decade, in which there was a rage towards retro. Flowers were one of the main symbols, not only in their clothes but also in their hair, and they represented the illusory ideology that led them to the so-called flower revolution. The suits and dresses stood out, which were worn with tight pants. Cotton was replaced by lycra, and they wore boots or high-heeled shoes, Swedish type.
1980s
Fashion brought with it considerable changes during these years. The new style was characterized by the use of visible undergarments, either over a T-shirt, under a sheer T-shirt, or visible lace suspenders. This new fashion was highly controversial, becoming a synonym of liberation for women, since in the past wearing underwear in this way gave them the appearance of being a messy woman. Thanks to this trend, women can now wear comfortable tops without having to worry about see-through or strappy bras.
1990s
This era was based on variety and not on a specific, enduring trend. There was a preference for dressing with what made them feel more comfortable, without giving much importance to the opinion of others or trends, because it had been concluded that there was no true freedom. Music band T-shirts became popular, as did loose hair. One of the great innovations of this period was the appearance of piercings, tattoos, and hair dyes.
21st century
At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, the possibility of ordering and sending clothes to any part of the world was born thanks to the media or the Internet. Consequently, the current fashion seems to be moving towards a universal uniformity.
2000s
Throughout the 2000s, the concept of urban tribes gained strength. These directly influenced the ways of dressing, mainly due to the growing exposure to mass media such as the Internet. Although subcultures have existed since the 1960s and 1970s, such as Beatnik and Hippies, some do not adopt the countercultural sentiment that gave rise to them, being only identifiable by their way of dressing, for example, emo culture. Tracksuits are adopted by both men and women for almost every type of occasion. The women wear shorts, skirts, miniskirts and low-waisted pants, and some 1980s garments are reincorporated, returning the flowery print. As for footwear, women wear strong boots, clogs or sandals.
2010s
Men introduce the V-neck along with skinny pants and designer sneakers into their wardrobe. The light pants, although on the other hand, the dark pants provide great elegance, as well as the open shirts with t-shirts underneath and rolled up. Women prefer fresh fashion but with a modern twist, little makeup and natural hair with structured hairstyles, incorporating details of 1960s fashion. Vintage has a strong presence in the women's wardrobe. On the other hand, in men's clothing an alternative fashion that seeks identity begins to grow, influenced by one's own trends and tastes, giving rise to a slightly more risky and fun style.
The impact of the media
The mass consumption society began to play a central role at the moment in which fashion began to be understood as the need to mark a distinction between each individual, about which Pierre Bourdieu and Jean Baudrillard spoke. Fashion is part of our context as people, it influences different aspects of our lives, from what we eat and drink to the places we have to go. Currently, the simple fact of dressing brings with it factors as diverse as self-esteem, security, the aesthetic experience, consumption practices and imitation or the desire for inclusion. It must never be forgotten that all fashions are dangerous from the outset. at which point they become extreme.
The mass media are and have been an important tool in the field of information and its dissemination, since they can reach any part of the world in a very short time due to the globalization process. They are creators of a new culture and global reorganization of the market, generating millions of revenues worldwide and having such an influence in contemporary society that few equal the power that has been vested in them. Fashion is strongly linked to these media and is controlled by them, since they contribute to the socialization processes.
We live in the age of communication: the media make us accomplices of information of all kinds and are in charge of teaching us to model the perceptions we have of reality. These media bombard the entire population, although their target is mainly adolescents and young adults, with series, television commercials, programs, reality shows, social networks such as Instagram and Facebook, magazines or music, among others.. All this leads us to a new multicultural individualism. The impact of social networks and technology among young people, based on the sociological concepts of group and primary relationships, generate a need for identity among young people.
The influence of brands
Fashion and dress have a complex relationship with identity: the clothes we choose to wear can be a way of expressing who we are, giving details about our gender, class or position, for example.
The new generation of consumers do not passively receive the brand stories that companies tell, but rather co-create their meaning. For marketers, this means that the old trick of shouting how great the brand is or using it no longer works. Today it is crucial to listen to young consumers and understand how they fit brands into their lifestyle.
In their Talk Track surveys of more than 2,000 U.S. teens ages 13 to 17, the Keller Fay group found that teens have an average of 145 conversations a week about of brands.
Of course, each country or region has its preferred local brands. Top shop dominates the industry in the United Kingdom, Zara triumphs in Spain and G-Star in the Netherlands; but, in general, it is H&M that achieves the most success internationally in the Gen Y market.
Color as an important part
It is known that there is a strong compatibility between emotions, fashion consumption and colour, regardless of the cultural roots or the different types of population analysed; that is, the color shows correspondence in terms of its meaning and is associated with emotions. In addition, from the analysis of the surveys carried out in a single region, a strong tendency to obey color preferences is demonstrated both in the decision-making of entering consumer establishments and in the purchase event itself; with conclusive and definitive results for the most part, which allows us to infer that consumption is affected by color and that the consumer can be influenced to such an extent that he desists from consuming an object because he cannot find his favorite hue.
The link between color and fashion consumption is not consistent and generates conflicts regarding the meanings of color, but it is concluded that due to the effects of color on the emotions of individuals, the object must contemplate trends and color gamuts from a design perspective in order to cover as many individuals as possible.
Search for identity
Fashion and brands not only embrace the desire to imitate other people or a certain community, but to express individuality; That is, while clothing indicates our affiliation with particular communities and expresses shared values, ideas, and lifestyles, we do not want to be "clones" dressed identically to members of that community. The clothes we choose to wear represent a compromise between the demands of the social world, the environment to which we belong and our individual desires.
A successful fad captures the "mood" or "taste" that is emerging. Fashion, as a discourse and as a practice, embodies the body, making it social and identifiable and explains how this construction of the body through clothing is of considerable importance for the development of modern society.
Throughout history, different cultures, cities and social groups have used clothing belonging to fashion as a support to make a public manifestation of their particular symbolic universe, that is, their ideologies, creeds, emotional culture, traditions, etc.; as well as as a communicative element to inform about the group that creates it. «Individuals, taken in terms of personal identity, also perceive that "the dress speaks" and fulfills a socializing function in that what we wear contributes to the process of creating our image, understood in terms, not of what we really we are, but how others perceive us."
Thus, fashion has become the cultural expression of tastes, lifestyles or personal identity, in other words, a metaculture capable of expanding with the help of social media, which through advertising and marketing, segment the market and address the masses in a personalized way; Exploiting the role of acquisition and construction of personality expressed through consumer objects that become an extension of who we are, due to the meaning given to them in the media, be it inherited, traditional or emerging. «Fashion would serve as an effective counterweight to stimulate personal identity and with it our condition as persons» Glover, 2017.
New fashion challenges
Today, the fashion industry is being questioned about its production process and its consumption.
- Some fashion brands have been denounced for not offering decent working conditions to their workers.
- Many productive processes are not environmentally friendly and only take into consideration the changing demand of consumers. In this area there is a great task to do; it must be considered that new generations are increasingly fluctuating with their tastes. Social networks provide a lot of information from all corners of the world, which also causes new trends to spread, chew and become obsolete faster.
- Currently some brands and fashion lovers have highlighted the value of the clothing used and have preferred to modify their own garments or those of others according to the styles they wear, contributing to the recycling of the garments.
- Throughout the history of fashion, a distorted image of beauty, body and woman has been spread. Little by little great fashion brands have emerged that through their campaigns have shown that there is no perfect shape of body or size, nor a race, skin color, or a perfect weight.
- Cultural appropriation is an emerging problem, due to the fact that large brands take complete techniques, patterns or induments as their own without taking into account the importance and cultural context of them, subtracting the clothing and incorporating it into the market without adequate moral and economic retribution.
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