Ethics
Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy that studies human behavior, what is right and wrong, good and bad, Morality, good living, virtue, happiness and duty. Contemporary ethics is usually divided into three branches or levels: metaethics studies the origin, nature and meaning of ethical concepts, normative ethics seeks norms or standards to regulate human conduct, and applied ethics examines specific ethical controversies.
Ethics and morality are closely related concepts that are sometimes used synonymously, but traditionally they differ in that ethics is the academic discipline that studies morality. Ethics does not invent moral problems, but rather reflects on them. The actions relevant to ethics are moral actions, which are those carried out freely, whether private, interpersonal, or political. Ethics is not limited to observing and describing those actions, but rather seeks to determine whether they are good or bad., pass judgment on them and thus help guide human behavior.
The study of ethics goes back to the very origins of philosophy in Ancient Greece, and its historical development has been wide and varied. Throughout history there have been different ways of understanding ethics and different moral proposals that guide human life.
Although ethics has always been a branch of philosophy, its broad scope connects it with many other disciplines, including anthropology, biology, economics, history, politics, sociology, and theology.
Definitions
The word ethics is derived from the ancient Greek ēthikós (ἠθικός), meaning "relating to one's character", which in turn comes from the root word êthos (ἦθος ) meaning "character, moral nature". This word was transferred to Latin as ethica and then to French as éthique, from which was transferred to Spanish.
Rushworth Kidder asserts that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty'". Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms others. sentient creatures". The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality'...and is sometimes used more narrowly to refer to the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual." Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with the social conventions, religious beliefs, the law, and do not treat ethics as a separate concept.
The word "ethics" in English it also refers to various things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy, a project that attempts to use reason to answer various types of ethical questions. As the English moral philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry philosophical is thoughtful generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive." Williams describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question, 'how one should live'. Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the ability to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity." Ethics it can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example: "Joe has weird ethics."
Branches
Metaethics
Metaethics is the branch of ethics that studies the origin and meaning of ethical concepts, as well as metaphysical questions about morality, in particular whether moral values exist independently of humans, and whether they are relative, conventional or absolute.
Unlike traditional ethics, metaetics does not respond to questions such as "what is "the good" but rather to "what does a person do when he talks about the "good" or "what are the characteristics of moral language?" In sum, it is an elucidatory discourse that deals in turn with another discourse, morals. An ethical doctrine elaborates and verifies certain affirmations or judgments. An ethical judgment, moral judgment or normative declaration is an affirmation that will contain such terms as "good", "bad", "correct", "incorrect", "obligatory", "permitted", etc., referring to an action, to a decision or will even contain the intentions of those who act or decide something. When ethical sentences are used, people, situations, or actions are being morally valued. Moral judgments are established when, for example, it is said: “that man is evil”, “not to be killed”, etc. In these statements, the terms “bad”, “not due”, etc., which imply moral assessments.
An ethical judgment implies the development of a moral judgment and a rule that points to how the members of a society should act.
In 1903, George Edward Moore published Ethica Principia, a work that is considered as the birth chart of the metaetics, although it does not mention the word "metatic". However, this work attaches particular importance to the analysis of the preached "good" and "bad" as defining properties of ethical judgments. The work introduces, for example, the problem of naturalistic fallacy. Since then metaethics have grown notoriously in their reach. It currently includes not only matters relating to the meaning and use of moral terms, concepts and propositions, but also issues related to the logic of moral enunciations, such as deontic logic.
Some problems of metaethics are the problem of being and duty to be, the problem of moral luck, and the question about the existence or not of free will. Perhaps the most important function of metaethics is of a gnoseological nature: to establish the way in which the normative or value judgements could be based, if possible. That is to say, although in the metaetics a pretension of normative neutrality and value of its analysis, its doing is closely related to the question of the validity of moral propositions.Normative Ethics
Policy ethics is the branch of ethics that studies possible criteria to determine when an action is correct and when it is not. It seeks general principles that justify policy systems and argues why certain rules should be adopted. A classic example of such a criterion is the golden rule.
Within normative ethics, there are three main positions: Consequentialism argues that actions should be judged only on the basis of whether their consequences are favorable or unfavourable. Different versions of consequentialism differ however about what consequences are relevant to determining morality or not an action. For example, moral selfishness considers that an action will be morally correct only when its consequences are favorable to the one that makes it. On the other hand, utilitarianism argues that an action will be morally correct only when its consequences are favorable to a majority. There is also discussion on what should be counted as a favourable consequence.
Dentistry maintains that there are duties that must be fulfilled, beyond the favorable or unfavourable consequences that they may bring, and that fulfilling those duties is to act morally. For example, caring for our children is a duty, and it is morally incorrect not to do so, even if this can result in great economic benefits. Different deontological theories differ in the method of determining duties, and consequently in the list of duties to be fulfilled.
The ethics of virtues focus on the importance of developing good behavioral habits or virtues, and of avoiding bad habits, i.e. vices.Applied ethics
Applied ethics is the branch of ethics that studies the application of ethical theories to concrete and controversial moral issues.
Some of these issues are studied by sub-discipline. For example, bioethics studies issues related to the advancement of biology and medicine, such as induced abortion, euthanasia and organ donation.
Professional deontology seeks to justify the moral values that should guide professionals, and study the values that in fact They guide the professionals. In the first sense, professional deontology is a normative and philosophical discipline. In the second sense, it is more of a descriptive and therefore scientific discipline. Professional deontology also has sub-disciplines such as medical ethics, military ethics, business ethics, computer ethics or engineering ethics.
Environmental ethics deals with the ethical relationship between humans and the environment. Perhaps the two fundamental questions of this discipline are: what duties do human beings have towards the environment, and why? In general, the answer to the first question is a consequence of the response to the second question. Different responses or approaches to responses have led to different environmental ethics.
Military ethics is a set of practices and discourses that guide the armed forces and their members to act in accordance with certain values and standards, and to show the whole of the citizenry those values of reference.
Economic ethics deals with ethical relations that should guide economic relations among human beings and the effect that such norms would have on the economy of our societies. In fact, much of the economists who developed the modern theory of the economy came from ethical bases. The closest example is utilitarianism developed first as a moral doctrine and then used for the theory of neoclassical value.
Organizational ethics is an ethics applied to a particular circumstance – organization – with its specific aspects. It is a scientific discipline that "researchs the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within organizations, in order to apply these knowledge to the improvement of the effectiveness of such organizations"
Other issues studied by applied ethics include the death penalty, nuclear war, racism and the recreational use of drugs.Concepts
Free will
The Will (from the vulgar deformation of the Latin word arbitriumIn turn, arbiter, ‘juez’), free will or free choice is the belief of those philosophical doctrines according to which people have the power to choose and make their own decisions. Many religious authorities have supported this belief, while it has been criticized as a form of individualist ideology by thinkers such as Baruch Spinoza, Arthur Schopenhauer, Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche.
The principle of free will has religious, ethical, psychological, legal and scientific implications. For example, ethics can assume that individuals are responsible for their own actions. In psychology, it implies that the mind controls some of the actions of the body, which are conscious.[chuckles]required]
The existence of free will has been a central theme throughout the history of philosophy and science. It differs from freedom in the sense that it carries the potentiality of working or not working.Virtue
The virtue (in Latin, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is considered morally good and therefore valued as the basis of principle and good moral being. A virtue is a willingness of the person to work according to certain ideal projects such as good, truth, justice and beauty. In other words, it is a behavior that shows a high moral level: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. The opposite of virtue is vice. Virtue is of great importance to ethical life.
Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions, as well as that of From (Chinese. The four brahmavihara ("divine states") of Buddhism can be considered virtues in the European sense.Responsibility
Responsibility is a value that is in the consciousness of the person who studies ethics on the basis of morality.
In practice, the magnitude of such actions is established and how to address them in the most positive and comprehensive way to help in the future.
A person is characterized by his or her responsibility because he or she has the virtue not only of consciously making a series of decisions, but also of assuming the consequences of the aforementioned decisions and of responding to the same for whom it corresponds at each time.Obligation
Moral obligation is the reason for the will, of a value. Therefore, it is to be one originated in authority, or in society, or in the unconscious, or in the fear of punishment. The obligation is not that of external pressure, not much less type of psychic action by the unconscious.
When a person captures a value with his intelligence, he is requested for such value, and then proposes to the will the realization of such value. But it presses it gently, without suppressing free will; it sees an objective necessity and as such it proposes it to the will for its realization. It is therefore a requirement of reason, based on an objective value, but born in the most intimate and elevated of each person: his own reason. Therefore the moral obligation is autonomous.Ethical issues
Ethical problems arise from applying ethical theory to real-life situations.
Specific questions
Ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy, it can also be used by people facing difficult decisions. The type of questions that applied ethics addresses, for example are: "Is it immoral to have an abortion?"; "Is euthanasia immoral?"; "Is affirmative action right or wrong?"; "What are human rights and how do we determine them?"; "Do animals have rights too?"; and "Do people have the right to self-determination?"[citation required]
A more specific question might be: "If someone else can make their life better than I can, is it moral to sacrifice myself for them if necessary?" Without these questions, there is no fulcrum on which to balance arbitration law, policy, and practice; in fact, there are no common assumptions of all the participants, so the ability to formulate the questions is prior to the balance of rights. But not all the issues studied in applied ethics refer to public policies. For example, making ethical judgments regarding questions such as "Is lying always wrong?" and, "If not, when is it allowed?" is prior to any label.
People are generally more comfortable with dichotomies (two opposites). However, in ethics, problems are often multifaceted and the best proposed actions address many different areas at the same time. Many buttons are pressed to improve the general condition and not for the benefit of any particular faction.
And not only have people been shown to consider the character of the moral agent (i.e., an implicit principle in virtue ethics), the fact of the action (i.e., an implicit principle in deontology), and the consequences of action (i.e., an implicit principle in utilitarianism) in making moral judgments, but also that the effect of each of these three components depends on the value of each component.
Ethical dilemma
Problem of being and should be
The problem of being and duty to be (also called Hume's law, Hume's guillotine and sometimes confused with naturalistic fallacy) is a metatic problem about the possibility of deducting normative prayers from descriptive prayers. Descriptive prayers are those that say what That's it. the case (e.g. “the emperors are cruel”) while the normative prayers are those who say what It must be the case (“the emperors must be cruel”).
Of course, just as you can ask for justification for normative prayers, you can ask for justification for descriptive prayers. But this is another problem, which can find other answers. Descriptive sentences can (perhaps) be justified from empirical research. Thus, for example, the true value of prayer "the emperors are cruel" can be determined by doing a historical research. However, the same does not happen with the prayer “the emperors must be cruel”. The truth or falseness of this prayer must be determined by other methods, and if the possibility of proving your truth through deduction from true premises is ruled out, then it is worth asking if there is any other way.
The abyss that separates the facts from duties has nothing to do with the content of the descriptive propositions to which it is part. The same is true of metaphysical, scientific or daily life propositions. The error is found in the procedure, not at the starting point. The inadvertent empirical-normative ambiguity of certain terms leads to logical fallacies such as: "The essence of sexuality is procreation. Therefore, contraception is not permitted, because it does not reflect the nature of sexuality."
Hume's deeds/values dichotomy relates to analytical/synthetic dichotomy: analytical (logic) propositions do not need verification (they are always true), while synthetic propositions must be verified with experience and can be true or false, and ethical propositions come from experience.Problem of moral luck
The problem of moral luck is the ethical problem that arises from that in many cases it seems correct to morally evaluate an agent despite the fact that an important part of that which is evaluated depends on factors beyond its control. Such situations are called of moral fateand conflict with an intuitive moral principle, called the control principle, according to which an agent is only morally evaluated to the extent that which is evaluated depends on factors under its control.
Proposals for a solution to the problem can be divided into three major groups: those that despite appearances deny that there is moral luck; those that accept the existence of moral luck, and prefer to deny or restrict the scope of the principle of control; and those who argue that it is simply incoherent to accept or denying the existence of some types of moral luck, so that the problem never comes to appear.
The problem had its classical formulation in the works of Thomas Nagel (1979) and Bernard Williams (1981).Ethics of eating meat
The ethics of eating meat refers to the question of whether it is ethical to eat nonhuman animals. It is one of the most important topics in food ethics. The consumption of meat takes into account ethical considerations rescued from other currents of thought; including posthumanism; that in its quest to mitigate a set of values created around an anthropocentric perspective, it seeks to revolutionize the power structures of the human among its own species, as with others. In the case of meat consumption, the position of superiority of the human with respect to species whose meat is consumed and processed in an industrial way is replanted. Within posthumanism, there is an ethical transformation from an anthropocentric perspective to a biocentric one; where it does not fail to take into account the well-being of the human being, but does not place it in a position of power compared to other animal species. However, while post-humanist currents of thought are disruptive with respect to other human processes, there are ethical subdivisions as to how meat consumption reduction should be understood: Zoocentrism (ampl or restricted as appropriate), Specism, Biocentrism and Ecocentrism
The most common moral objection to meat is that, for most people living in the developed world, it is not necessary for survival or health. Some argue that sacrificing animals only because people enjoy the taste of meat is incorrect and morally unjustifiable. However, there are thinkers like Donna Hararway, which does not see veganism as an alternative. Mostly, because she believes that thought is a false promise speech. According to her, the relationship that human beings have with animals also includes eating them. The reason for this is that culture is the way in which these symbiotic ties are created. However, there are thinkers like Dressler who oppose this vision because Haraway only focuses on how animals interconnect through work, as she sees it from a Marxist perspective. Another thing in which Dressler is opposed to Anne Hararway's vision is that she allows animal suffering and justifies it by saying that they have to share the pain to know what it means. Therefore, as there are ethical currents defending veganism, there is a broad debate about how the human relationship should be with other species. Vegetarians and ethical vegans can also oppose practices that underlie meat production, or cite their concerns about animal welfare, animal rights, environmental ethics and religious motives.
In response, some meat consumption advocates have presented several scientific, nutritional, cultural and religious arguments in support of practice. Some carnists only oppose the breeding of animals in certain ways, such as intensive livestock, or cruelly kill them; others avoid only certain flesh, such as veal or foie gras. Many of the views presented in this article could be extended not only to meat consumption but also to the use of animals in research, food (including eggs and dairy), clothing and entertainment industries (zoologics or tauromaquia).Abortion debate
| Allowed to order, without gestational limit. | |
| Allowed on request, with a gestational limit after the first 17 weeks. | |
| Allowed or without punishment on request, with gestational limit in the first 17 weeks. | |
| Allowed to order, with an unclear gestational limit. | |
| Legally restricted to cases of: | |
| Risk for the life of women, for their health*, rape*, fetus defects* or socio-economic factors | |
| Risk for the life of women, for their health*, rape or fetus defects | |
| Risk for women's life, for their health* or fetus defects | |
| Risk for the life of women*, for their health* or rape | |
| Risk for the life of women or their health | |
| Risk for the Life of Women | |
| Illegal without exception | |
| No information | |
| ♪ This category does not apply to some countries (See § Legal status of abortion in the world) | |
In relation to induced abortion or voluntary interruption of pregnancy, it refers to the discussion, controversy and controversy about its practice, social and economic context in which it occurs. The parties involved in the debate are the "pro-choice" and "pro-life" movements. The first emphasize the right of women to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy, the second emphasize the right of embryo or fetus to end their pregnancy and to be born.
For several people, abortion is a moral problem related to the beginning of the human person, the rights of the fetus and the rights of women over their own bodies. The debate has become a political and legal problem in some countries with anti-abortion activists seeking to enact, maintain and expand anti-abortion laws, while abortion rights activists seek to revoke or relax those laws while expanding access to abortion. Abortion laws vary considerably between jurisdictions, from the total prohibition of procedure to the public funding of abortion. The availability of safe abortion also varies worldwide.
About 56 million abortions are performed every year in the world, with approximately 45% done unsafely. The moral, ethical and legal problems of abortion have been discussed.History
Ancient Age
Since the beginning of philosophical reflection, consideration of ethics has been present. Plato confronts the ethical issue in various places and from different contexts. Thus, for example, in Gorgias he seeks to overcome hedonism and the law of the strongest. In Phaedo he shows the importance of what exists after death to regulate one's own behavior. In The Republic he addresses individual ethics (from the perspective of justice within the soul) and public ethics together, with a complex theory of the State, which finds complements and different points of view in two other works, the Political and the Laws. In the second half of the play Phaedrus, one of the main themes is ethics.
The Nicomachean Ethics, surely Aristotle's most important treatise on ethics, is based on the premise that every human being seeks happiness (eudemonic ethics). For Aristotle, all natural beings tend to fulfill their own function and are oriented to fully realize their potential. The good, which is the same as the perfection of a being or the realization of capacities, is to fulfill its own function, that which only it can perform. Human beings are also oriented towards the full realization of the function that is proper to them. The problem that arises, then, is what is the proper function of man. And if perhaps there is more than one good proper to man, what is the highest and most perfect good that the human being can achieve?
As in other of his works, Aristotle reveals the opinions of his contemporaries in this regard and verifies that they all seem to agree that the supreme objective of man is to live well and be happy, although there are many disagreements regarding what it consists of. happiness and good living. For Aristotle, a happy (full) life is the one that allows one to carry out the higher activity (contemplation), with sufficient autonomy (material goods, health), and in the company of a sufficient number of friends (cf. Nicomachean Ethics I).
Only actions in which you can choose and decide what to do are moral. On the other hand, compulsive or forced actions are not moral or immoral. What is moral is the action that depends on the will, if it is acted correctly. When is it correct? The correct way to act depends on the field of action (dianoethical or intellectual, ethical or moral) and is partly governed by the customs of the community to which one belongs (if the community is ethically healthy, something that Aristotle supposes for the world Greek perhaps uncritically) and is learned through education. When you act in accordance with these guidelines, you live well and you are virtuous.
On the other hand, Stoic and Epicurean philosophers proposed moral theories based on opposite principles: virtue and life in moderation (Stoicism), and the pursuit of pleasure (Epicureanism).
Middle Ages
It is a moment in which ethics assumes elements of the classical doctrines of happiness (the purpose of human action is to obtain the good that makes us happy) and unites them with Christian doctrine (seen as divine Revelation), especially according to the regulations contained in the commandments. The ultimate goal of human action is charity, which is achieved by living from the Gospel, and which allows man to access the vision of God (in heaven), where the human being reaches the maximum fullness and his supreme good..
Diverse authors speak of ethics and from different perspectives. It is appropriate to remember two great names, Saint Augustine of Hippo and Saint Thomas Aquinas (especially in the second part of the Summa of Theology, which includes numerous elements of Aristotle's ethics).
Later, and in the footsteps of the ideas of Thomas Aquinas, what would later be known as the principle of double effect developed in the Catholic sphere.
Modern Age
Modern ethical philosophers work with an eye, above all, on the ancient world (Stoics, Epicureans, Plato, Aristotle), although with some elements inherited from medieval Scholasticism. Descartes has some ethical elements in his famous Discourse on Method. Within rationalism, it is Baruch Spinoza who elaborated an ethical proposal in a more comprehensive and systematic way. In the field of empiricism, David Hume worked at various times to understand the deep motives of human actions.
The great modern ethical revolution is carried out through Immanuel Kant, who rejects a foundation of ethics in anything other than the moral imperative itself (formal deontologism), because if morality is oriented to seek happiness it could not give no categorical or universal norm. Idealist philosophers developed this categorical imperative morality. Thus, they face utilitarianism, by affirming that the principle of utility is not the only criterion for the correctness of actions.
Contemporary Age
The ethics of the XX century has seen very important contributions from numerous authors: vitalists and existentialists develop the meaning of choice and responsibility, Max Scheler elaborates a phenomenology of values. Authors such as Alain Badiou have tried to show that this main trend (in opinions and in institutions), the question of «ethics» in the XX, is actually a "true nihilism" and "a threatening denial of all thought".
Recently, and developing an in-depth analysis of the origins and foundations of ethics, various studies have appeared on the role of emotions in the development of an anti-foundationalist ethical thought, as indicated by Richard Rorty. In the last two decades, the Scottish philosopher MacIntyre establishes new tools for the historical-philosophical analysis of different rival versions of ethics.
David Couzens Hoy asserts that Emmanuel Levinas's writings on the face of the Other and Derrida's meditations on the relevance of death for ethics are signs of the "ethical turn" in continental philosophy that occurred in the 1980s and 1990s. Today he describes post-critical ethics as "obligations that are presented as necessarily to be fulfilled but that are not imposed or enforceable".
Hoy's post-criticism model uses the term "ethical resistance". Examples of this would be an individual's resistance to consumerism in retirement to a simpler but perhaps harsher lifestyle, or an individual's resistance to terminal illness. Hoy describes Levinas' account as "not an attempt to use power against itself or to mobilize sectors of the population to exercise their political power; ethical resistance is instead the resistance of the powerless".
Today he concludes that
The ethical resistance of others impotent to our ability to exercise power over them is, therefore, what imposes unenforceable obligations on us. Obligations are inapplicable precisely because of the lack of power of the other. That actions are both mandatory and at the same time inapplicable is what places them in the category of ethics. The obligations to be fulfilled, by virtue of the force behind them, would not be freely assumed and would not be in the field of ethics.
Moral psychology
Moral psychology is a field of study that began as a subject in philosophy and is now properly considered a part of the discipline of psychology. Some use the term "moral psychology" relatively narrowly to refer to the study of moral development. However, others tend to use the term more broadly to include any topic at the intersection of ethics and psychology (and philosophy of mind). These topics they are those that involve the mind and are relevant to moral questions. Some of the major themes in the field are moral responsibility, moral development, moral character (especially as it relates to virtue ethics), altruism, psychological egoism, moral luck, and moral disagreement.
Evolutionary Ethics
Evolutionary ethics refers to approaches to ethics (morality) based on the role of evolution in shaping human psychology and behavior. Such approaches may be based on scientific fields such as evolutionary psychology or sociobiology, with a focus on understanding and explaining observed ethical preferences and choices.
Descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics is on the less philosophical end of the spectrum, as it seeks to gather particular information about how people live and draw general conclusions based on observed patterns. Abstract, theoretical questions that are more clearly philosophical, such as "Is ethical knowledge possible?", are not fundamental to descriptive ethics. Descriptive ethics offers a value-free approach to ethics, defining it as a social science rather than a humanity. His examination of ethics does not start from a preconceived theory, but rather investigates observations of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. Some philosophers rely on descriptive ethics and the choices made and unquestioned by a society or culture to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This can lead to situational ethics and situated ethics. These philosophers often see aesthetics, etiquette, and arbitrage as more fundamental, filtering "from the bottom up" to imply the existence, rather than explicitly prescribe, theories of value or behavior. The study of descriptive ethics may include examinations of the following:
- Code of ethics is applied by several groups. Some consider that aesthetic itself is the basis of ethics, and a personal moral core developed through art and storytelling is very influential in subsequent ethical choices.
- Informal label theories that tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider the label as a simple negative ethic, that is, where can an uncomfortable truth be evaded without doing anything wrong? A prominent defender of this view is Judith Martin ("Miss Manners"). According to this point of view, ethics is more a summary of common sense social decisions.
- Practices in arbitration and law, for example, the assertion that ethics itself is a question of balancing "the right against the right", that is, prioritizing two things that are correct, but that they must be carefully exchanged in each situation.
- Options observed by ordinary people, with no help or advice from experts, who vote, buy and decide what is worth valuing. This is one of the main concerns of sociology, political science and economy.
Etymology
The word «ethics» comes from the Latin ethĭcus, and this one from the ancient Greek ἠθικός transliterated as ēthikós. The feminine form comes from the late Latin ethĭca, and this from the Greek ēthikḗ. », from ethos, which means «custom», since «ethics» follows from that sense and is not this one.
Etymologically, "ethics" and "moral" have the same meaning, since the word "moral" comes from the Latin mos, which means "habit" or "custom".
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